Feminism

Feminism comprises various theories and movements, aiming to address gender inequality and promote
women's rights. It delves into social constructions of gender and sexuality, examining power dynamics
and themes like patriarchy and oppression. Despite criticism for its Western academia association,
feminism tackles culturally relevant issues worldwide, from female circumcision in Sudan to universal
concerns like rape. Feminist activism targets reproductive rights, domestic violence prevention, and
workplace equality. Campaigns advocate for family medical leave, equal pay, and combatting sexual
harassment and discrimination, striving for social justice and fairness for all genders. The word
FEMINISM was first coined in 1837 by French philosopher, Charles Fourier.

Introduction:
Feminism, the belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes. Although largely originating
in the West, feminism is manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to
activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests. Throughout most of Western history, women were
confined to the domestic sphere, while public life was reserved for men. In medieval Europe, women
were denied the right to own property, to study, or to participate in public life. At the end of the 19th
century in France, they were still compelled to cover their heads in public, and, in parts of Germany, a
husband still had the right to sell his wife. Even as late as the early 20th century, women could neither
vote nor hold elective office in Europe and in most of the United States. Women were prevented from
conducting business without a male representative, be it father, brother, husband, legal agent, oreven
son. Married women could not exercise control over their own children without the permission of their
husbands. Moreover, women had little or no access to education and were barred from most
professions. In some parts of the world, such restrictions on women continue today.

Background:
In the 3rd century BCE, Roman women filled the Capitoline Hill and blocked every entrance to the
Forum. They did this because a powerful man, Consul Marcus Porcius Cato was trying to stop changes
to laws that restricted women's use of expensive goods. Cato was worried that if women gained more
rights they would eventually become more powerful than men. He states: “If they are victorious now,
what will they not attempt?” Cato cried. “As soon as they begin to be your equals, they will have
become your superiors.”
During the Renaissance, women's voices advocating for their rights didn't come together to form a clear
and organized movement. This didn't happen until the Enlightenment period, when women started
demanding that the new ideas about freedom, equality, and natural rights apply to both men and
women. At first, Enlightenment thinkers focused on addressing unfair social classes and castes, but
ignored gender inequality. For example, philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau portrayed women as silly
and frivolous, meant to be subordinate to men. Furthermore, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen, which defined French citizenship after the 1789 revolution, deliberately excluded
women's legal rights from its scope. Think of the Declaration of Independence: "We hold these truths to
be self-evident: that all men are created equal." Of course, that whole "all men are created equal"
thing didn't apply to women or people of color at the time. Women thinkers of the Enlightenment era
noticed that the new ideas about freedom and equality didn't include them. They spoke out against this
limitation. Olympe de Gouges, a playwright, wrote a declaration in 1791 saying women are equal to
men and should be treated as partners, not just inferior companions. The next year, Mary
Wollstonecraft published a book in England called "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), a
foundational work of feminism. She argued that women should have the same opportunities as men in
education, work, and politics. Wollstonecraft challenged the idea that women exist solely to please men.
She believed women are just as capable of rational thinking as men. If women seem silly, it's because
society has taught them to be irrelevant and unimportant.
A German woman named Louise Otto wrote an article about feminism, building on the ideas of Charles
Fourier, a French thinker. She quoted his statement: “by the position which women hold in a land, you
can see whether the air of a state is thick with dirty fog or free and clear.”

First Wave of Feminism:

The discussions and debates about women's rights led to the first women's rights convention, held in
Seneca Falls, New York in July 1848. Stanton wrote in the "Declaration of Sentiments", "all men and
women [have been] created equal" - a phrase inspired by the Declaration of Independence. She
proposed 11 resolutions, including the most radical demand: "the right to the vote". With the help of
Frederick Douglass, a former slave and powerful speaker, all 11 resolutions passed. The convention also
approved a final declaration calling for women to have equal participation in various areas, including
"the overthrowing of the monopoly of the pulpit, and for the securing to woman equal participation
with men in the various trades, professions and commerce". The early feminist movement focused on
education and political rights, which were mostly relevant to upper-class women. This meant that
ordinary women, like those cleaning houses in Liverpool or picking cotton in Georgia, didn't feel
connected to the movement. One exception was Sojourner Truth, a former slave who spoke out at the
1851 Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. Her famous speech, "Ain't I a Woman?", highlighted
the gap between the experiences of ordinary women and the elite. She said, "That man over there says
that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place
everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place!
And ain't I a woman?" "After the American Civil War, feminists thought that women would be allowed
to vote because of the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This amendment stopped people
from being denied the right to vote because of their race. But the main people fighting against slavery,
called abolitionists, didn't want women's suffrage to be part of it. This made Elizabeth Cady Stanton and
Susan B. Anthony create the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869. At first, they argued for
women's voting rights using the idea of natural law from the Enlightenment. They often talked about the
rights that everyone has according to the Declaration of Independence. But by 1900, things changed.
Many immigrants from Eastern Europe came to America, and there were a lot of poor areas in cities.
This made people care less about ideas like equality. So, the leaders of the suffragist movement changed
their approach. Instead of talking about justice and equal rights for all, they started using racist and anti-
immigrant ideas to push for women's suffrage. As early as 1894, Carrie Chapman Catt said that if
educated, American-born, middle-class women could vote, it would cancel out the votes of immigrants
from poor areas: 'Stop the poor from voting and let women vote instead.'" In 1920, American feminism
achieved its first major triumph with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution,
granting women the right to vote. After women gained the right to vote, the feminist movement split
into various groups, each with different goals. Some groups focused on education, healthcare, and labor
laws, but none specifically addressed feminist issues. The National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul,
proposed an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to end sex-based discrimination. However, many feminists
disagreed, seeking laws that benefited women rather than strict equality. Paul argued that protective
legislation, like limiting women's work hours, actually harmed women by making them less employable.
Questions arose: Could women achieve equality without losing necessary protections? What was the
feminist movement's goal - equality or addressing women's needs? And would women really want
equality if it meant no protection? Many people in the US and Europe thought women had already
achieved equality, as they had gained the right to vote (although not many exercised this right). Even
radical feminists like Suzanne LaFollette believed that women's struggles were mostly won by 1926.
However, the Great Depression and World War II soon overshadowed feminist activism worldwide.
During the war, women found new job opportunities, but these were largely taken away when men
returned from military service. This led to anger among women, but there was little organized protest.
In the US, the post-war period saw a rise in domesticity, with women marrying younger and having more
children. TV shows like "Father Knows Best" and "Ozzie and Harriet" portrayed an idealized suburban
life. By 1960, the percentage of employed female professionals had actually decreased compared to
1930.

Second Wave of Feminism:

The women's movement of the 1960s and 1970s was a time of big change. It might have seemed
sudden, but it was actually inspired by the frustrations of mothers who wanted more for their
daughters. These women were influenced by the civil rights movement and the protests against the
Vietnam War. They began to think about equality and justice in new ways. In 1961, President John F.
Kennedy created a commission to look at the status of women. The commission's report in 1963 said
that women should be supported in their roles as mothers, but it also highlighted some big problems,
like:

- Women not getting paid equally for the same work

- Women facing discrimination in the workplace
- Lack of support services for working women

The report suggested some solutions, like equal pay for equal work and more child-care services. Some
laws were passed, like the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited sex
discrimination. However, many women felt that these measures didn't go far enough. They were still
facing problems like segregated job ads, restrictions on contraception, and unreported incidents of rape
and domestic violence. Women's studies departments were established, and protective labor laws were
overturned. Employers who discriminated against women were required to pay back wages. Women
began entering male-dominated jobs like pilots, construction workers, soldiers, bankers, and bus drivers.
Second-wave feminism sparked extensive discussions about:

- The origins of women's oppression

- The nature of gender
- The role of the family

The second wave of feminism, like the first, was led by educated middle-class white women who
focused on their own concerns. This created tension with women from other classes and races. White
feminists saw gender as the main reason they were excluded from full participation in American life. But
Black women faced both racism and sexism, and had to figure out how to get Black men to think about
gender and white women to think about race. Black feminists like Michele Wallace, bell hooks, and Alice
Walker addressed these issues. White feminists called for unity, assuming women were united by
common oppression. But many Black women saw white women as oppressors, just like white men. Toni
Cade asked in 1970, "How relevant are the truths, experiences, and findings of White women to Black
women?" She questioned whether white feminists understood Black women's concerns. Black
feminists, including Sojourner Truth, saw white feminists as incapable of understanding their issues. But
some Black women, especially middle-class Black women, also emphasized the unique challenges of
being Black and female. In 1973, the National Black Feminist Organization held a conference in New York
City, where Black women activists acknowledged that mainstream feminist goals like day care, abortion,
and maternity leave were also critical for African American women.

Third Wave of Feminism:

Leaders of the third wave feminist movement were daughters of the second wave--often literally. They
were born in the 1960s and 1970s and came of age in the 1980s and 1990s. They came of age after the
Civil Rights movement and benefited from that in many ways--growing up in diverse neighborhoods,
attending integrated schools, and seeing representations and contributions of people of color in media
and society. Furthermore, these leaders were often the daughters of those who saw society transform
because of Second Wave actions and expected their daughters to take advantage of those
opportunities. Third Wave Feminism differed from the first two waves not just goals, but in substance.
While the first two waves generally accepted traditional gender identities and norms, the third wave
challenged ideas about what was traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine. Not only did Third
Wave feminists reject this strict separation and polarity between male and female, but they embraced a
more complex and nuanced understanding of opportunities for gender and sexual expression, including
identity. Third Wave feminists took Second Wave feminism's "sexual liberation" one step further by also
calling for the exploration and acceptance of a variety of sexual identities. Furthermore, Third Wave
Feminists believe it is in their right to seek sexual pleasure on their own terms as well as a sex-positive
movement. Feminism in the Third Wave appropriated previously-insulting and derogatory terms. Third
Wave Feminists unapologetically reclaimed words like "bitch" and spoke openly about themselves, their
bodies, and their experiences. Third Wave Feminists, whose lives have been saturated with popular
culture, are quick to challenge portrayals of women in beauty and in art. Third Wave Feminists see men
as their equals and challenge institutions and conventions that dictate otherwise. Some have argued
that Third Wave Feminism is--in part--a rejection of Second Wave Feminism or at least a strong critique
against it. If Second Wave Feminism bolstered heterosexual privilege, Third Wave Feminism combats
that by supporting the extension of civil rights to LGBT individuals. If Second Wave Feminism was
empowering by rejecting conventional beauty ideals, Third Wave Feminism calls for an inclusive
definition of beauty that includes a more diverse set of criteria. At its core, Third Wave Feminism argues
that it is more inclusive and accepting of a variety of identities. Third Wave Feminism attempts to
wrestle more fully with intersectionality, that is: that race and gender are not "mutually exclusive
categories of experience and analysis... Those who are multiply-burdened... cannot be understood"
through a single lens or source of discrimination. Third Wave Feminism does try to check its privilege at
the door, it, like its predecessors, still does tend to have a white-middle class leaning. While this has
been more openly discussed, it still also remains a point of contention for some feminists in the Third
Wave with some feminists calling for toleration and others for more ardent antiracism. Third Wave
Feminism, like its predecessors, embodies a variety of opinions and beliefs and is not limited to just
"women's issues;" nevertheless, these issues remained at the core of Third Wave Feminism's
discussions.

Virginia Woolf as a Feminist writer:

Virginia Woolf is considered one of the most famous and remarkable mod- ernist literary writers of the
20th century and symbolic figure of the feminist movement. This entry is going to reflect upon her
development as a feminist writer, her contribution to gender equality and her concern with the role of
female in society, thereby referring to her essay "A room of one's own". Virginia was born in a Victorian
environment. She grew up along with sev- en siblings in a well situated and intellectual family. Her
father was one of the most famous essayist and intellectual thinker of this time. Thus, she was
privileged and stood at the center of Victorian culture" (Rosenman 4). Nevertheless, she was not
comfortable with the role society forced her into. During that time it was still common that men and
women had separate spheres, with distinct roles and associated behavior. Whereas men were seen as
the active and productive part of the family, who dominated the public world of commerce", women
mastered the private world of the home" (4). Therefore, their function in society was limited to be
passive, unselfish" and decorative", to take the load of the man and provide a comfortable home (4).
Even though being intellectual and free-minded, her family reassembled in many ways a typical
Victorian family. Though, Virginia had the possibil- ity of getting a good education; but also had to
remain in the proper place designed for women in her day. Therefore, she for example had to sit though
long "tea-table-meetings" and was forced to keep her intellectual potential to herself. Virginia is a tragic
figure, because already at the age of six she got raped by her older brother. At this young age she was
vulnerable and de- fenseless against the superior male social power (5). She wasn't able to talk to
anyone about her difficult situation, because sex was considered a taboo theme at that time and men
could not be accepted to control their sexual desires" (5). Through these dramatic events and
environment Virginia shaped her personality as a feminist and developed a counter-theory of Victorian
sex roles" (5). This strife against the traditional views and her wish to be independent were given
complete expression in the intellectual circle "Bloombury Group". Within this group Virginia found a
new home, were her opinion and thoughts were taken seriously and were she didn't have to be
concerned with anticipated womanly behavior. The group strongly differed from com- mon nineteenth
century society, because a lot of members experienced ho- mosexual love (6). Virginia had a relationship
with a woman, the writer Vita Sackville-West, as well. This homosexual relationship accounts for her af-
fection to gender relations and is reflected in her novel Orlando (Habib 45). In the following time,
Virginia discovered and entered the world of lit- erary modernism. Along with James Joyce, D.H.
Lawrence, T.S. Eliot she majorly influenced the literature of the 1920th. The focus at this time shifted
from character and plot to a "stream of consciousness", in which states of mind, rendered in a fluid,
associative mode". Not only do Virginia's novels have to be seen in the light of modern- ism, but also in
the one of feminist movements. Thus, an incident of high importance for her was the fight for women's
vote. Between 1903 and the beginning of the first world war the Women's Social and Political Union
made the suffrage issue to their key project. Parts of that group even partici- pated in a hunger strike in
order to obtain their goal. In 1910 an occurrence, which is referred to as "Black Friday" spread their
concern throughout the media, aroused public attention and thrilled a lot of former political women. At
this day, women, who were demonstrating on Parliament, were sexually attacked by the police. These
disabuse of power undetermined the role of women as second class and therefore created a public
outrage. Virginia was stirred by this incident as well. Therefore, she joined the "Adult Suffrage"; a
moderate wing of the movement. She never felt com- fortable with direct political action, but
nevertheless wanted to contribute her personal opinion to the public discourse. Woolf, on the one hand
wrote in favor of the movement, but on the other was concerned about the chang- ing roles of sexes in
society and therefore focused on a more generalized sense of cultural crisis" (Rosenman 8). Virginia's
first priority and main goal was that woman should obtain access to professions.

In her essay "A Room of One's Own", she therefore demands that "a woman must have money and
a room of her own if she is to write fiction" (Woolf 4). She thereby claims women's right for basis condi-
tions, like leisure time, privacy and financial independence, which would al- low them to unfold their
intellectual potential. To stress that women do not have the same possibilities to live out their
intellectual freedom and create art, she implies a metaphor of Shakespeare's fictional sister Judith;
stating that if Shakespeare would have had a sister with the same genius, she "would certainly have
gone crazed, shot herself, or ended her days in some lonely cottage" (Woolf 46-48). Furthermore, she
aims at establishing a female tradition of writing, his- tory and literature, because she is convinced that
literature "ought to have a mother as well as a father" (Woolf 103). Another main point in her essay is
that women possess a particular richness of language, which is more indi- rect, unconscious and softer
than men's (Habib 49). However, Virginia ironically dissociates herself from the word "femi- nist" in her
essay Three Guineas, but in the face of war considers herself as steadily more feminist, owing to the
Times" (Rosenman 9). Along with A Room of One's Own, the Three Guineas is considered Virgin- ia's
most influential work concerning feminism. Both essays were presented at women's colleges at
Cambridge University (Habib 45).

In Three Guineas she stresses the fact that women even if they have the possibility to get a good
education and thus an "entry into the professions". still had to face obstacles in their own sphere,
because they had to fight against the powerful "atmosphere" in society (Wheare 30). Nevertheless, in
her works she tries to ignore and forget about her sex, in order to write indecently, "freely and
'unconsciously" (Wheare 30). She disassociates herself from women, who, especially in the nineteenth
century, used literature as a mean to express their anger towards men and society, because she claims
that the quality of their work is suffering throughout this process (Wheare 31). In conclusion Virginia
Woolf can be considered a pioneer of feminist literary criticism, because she was concerned with many
issues like "the so- cial and economic context of women's writing, the gendered nature of lan- guage,
the need to go back through literary history and establish a female literary tradition, and the societal
construction of woman" (Habib 45). She was truly committed to women rights and concerned with their
position in society throughout her whole life and therefore had a major impact on the feminist
movement.

Simone De Beauvoir as a Feminist writer:

Simone de Beauvoir was a French writer, feminist, social theorist, and existential philosopher. She was a
leader in the feminist movement. Although she never wished to be called a philosopher, her mix of
existentialist philosophy with feminism was revolutionary in explaining the story of women in society
and how their equality and sense of self were affected by oppression. Her work is still the basis for
modern gender and women’s studies, feminist theory, and queer studies. She is best known for her
groundbreaking ideas surrounding feminism; her book, The Second Sex, is said to mark the beginning
of second wave feminism across the globe. In her book, Beauvoir argues that throughout history,
women have become classified as the Other, which has allowed women to remain oppressed. She
advocates for their liberation. De Beauvoir’s ideas fiercely challenged the societal norms and
expectations of her time. "The point is not for women simply to take power out of men’s hands, since
that wouldn’t change anything about the world. It’s a question precisely of destroying that notion of
power." (The Second Sex). In The Second Sex, de Beauvoir analyzed women’s oppression and outlined
the foundation for contemporary feminism. The Second Sex is a 1000-page critique of the patriarchal
society, and the idea that women were considered to be lesser beings than men. De Beauvoir famously
writes, “One is not born a woman, but becomes one,” suggesting that gender is a societal construct,
not a biological identifier. Throughout The Second Sex, de Beauvoir references ancient creation myths
and the Bible, arguing that women are labeled as the Other, and thought to be secondary to men. In
these biblical myths, women are frequently portrayed as the sinful or weak side of a being. Using
evidence from the literature, de Beauvoir writes a compelling argument as to the connection between
myth and history. Through this connection, she argues, men defined women as the Other, the darker,
inferior side of humanity, unworthy of responsibility. In The Second Sex, de Beauvoir also outlines
women’s difficulty women to liberate themselves, economically, politically and sexually. The ideas and
arguments de Beauvoir outlined in her writing were revolutionary at the time, and sparked an
awakening of a second wave of feminism. Simone de Beauvoir argues that women are seen as "the
Other" in society, meaning they are considered inferior and secondary to men. "When women act like
women, they are accused of being inferior. When act like human beings, they are accused of behaving
like men." Men are seen as the essential, dominant group, while women are seen as less important and
subordinate. This way of thinking forces women into submission and denies them individuality,
autonomy, and self-expression. Women are taught to focus on their bodies and use them to serve men,
rather than developing their own identities and capabilities. "Society, being codified by man, decrees
that woman is inferior; she can do away with this inferiority only by destroying the male's
superiority." Beauvoir believes that women are held to strict and oppressive standards of beauty and
morality, which reinforces their submission and lack of identity. She also suggests that some women
turn to homosexuality as a way to seek equal and fulfilling relationships, free from male oppression.
Beauvoir argues that women must come together and support each other to challenge the social
construct of gendered inferiority. By banding together, women can resist the dominant male culture and
create a sense of camaraderie and solidarity, rather than letting men define their relationships and roles
in society. "To be free is not to have the power to do anything you like; it is to be able to surpass the
given toward an open future."

Her second contribution to the feminist movement was a petition, entitled Manifesto of the 343,
which she authored and signed in 1971; this act of gathering 343 women to come forward with their
experiences paved the way for the legalization of birth conrtol and abortion in France. Manifesto of the
343, published on April 5th, 1971, in which she encouraged 342 other women who experienced issues
with access to birth control or reproductive rights to sign as well. In this petition, de Beauvoir demanded
access to contraception and the freedom to abortion. She writes, “I will have a child if I want one, and
no moral pressure, institution or economic imperative will compel me to do so.” The Manifesto paved
the way for legal and save birth control and abortions in France. Together, de Beauvoir’s book, petition,
and will to fight for gender equality changed the face of feminism, and society, at the time.

Kate Millett as a Feminist writer:

Millett was born in the United States in 1934. Throughout her lifetime, Millett was civically active, taking
part in various civil rights, human rights, political and feminist movements. These movements would
eventually inspire her to write books about them. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Millet actively
supported feminist politics. In 1966, she became a member of the committee in charge of the National
Organisation for Women. In 1970 she obtained her Ph.D. in politics, and the following year she began
forming a non-profit organisation called the Women's Art Colony/Tree Farm.

She wrote the book Sexual Politics which helped trigger the second-wave feminist movement, which
was seeking to abolish sexism wherever found. In Sexual Politics book, Millett criticises the patriarchal
structures and the heteronormativity of society, which she says is reflected in the works of western
literature. She argues that men have established power over women, but that this power is based on a
social construct rather than it having any innate or biological foundation. In the book, Millett also
criticises the works of Norman Mailer, Henry Miller, and in particular, D.H. Lawrence, whose writings
about sex, she argues, are both sexist and rooted in patriarchal views. Millet's Sexual Politics became an
overnight sensation and is considered a formative piece in shaping the aims and motives of the second-
wave feminist movement. Millett opens Sexual Politics by providing a deep dive into the distribution of
power within sexual relationships. Millett argues that the imbalanced distribution of power between the
sexes stems from the patriarchal structures which afford men greater freedom, authority and power
over their female partners. Therefore, Millett argues, that the oppression of women is culturally
constructed and should be considered to be a political issue, rather than the result of "natural"
biological male dominance. "The term “politics” shall refer to power-structured relationships,
arrangements whereby one group of persons is controlled by another." Gender roles and norms are
examples of how power is socially constructed and distributed within sexual relationships. For instance,
within patriarchal societies, reproductive roles, such as child care, are typically considered an innately
"female role". Despite requiring arduous work, these reproductive roles are widely socially undervalued
and economically unpaid, therefore representing a power imbalance. Millett also provides an analysis of
a period described as the "sexual revolution" and how the advancements made link directly to the
feminist movement. Millett argues that radical change took place between the 1830s and 1930s which
empowered and created more sexual choices for women. For instance, the increase in widespread
female education allowed women to gain greater power, by ensuring individuals could make informed
choices regarding their sexual health, identities and experiences. "If knowledge is power, power is also
knowledge, and a large factor in their subordinate position is the fairly systematic ignorance
patriarchy imposes upon women". Millett also highlighted specific injustices such as an imbalance in
sexual power in heterosexual relationships. This was known as the popularisation of Patriarchy. Millett
reached the conclusion that in order to create equal relationships and put an end to patriarchy, it was
essential for women to support and empower each other. This might be through either friendship,
romantic or sexual relationships, as indicated in the slogan below: "Feminism is the theory, lesbianism
is the practice.”

Elaine Showalter as a Feminist writer:

Elaine Showalter is an American literary critic, feminist, and writer on cultural and social issues. She
influenced feminist literary criticism in the United States academia, developing the concept and practice
of gynocritics, a term describing the study of "women as writers". Showalter is a specialist in Victorian
literature and the Fin-de-Siecle (turn of the 19th century). Her most innovative work in this field is in
madness and hysteria in literature, specifically in women's writing and in the portrayal of female
characters.

In the essay, ‘Towards a Feminist Poetics’, Elaine Showalter advocates a new way of reading. The
author traces the history of women’s literature and divides it into three phases—-‘Feminine’(1840 -
1880), “Feminist’ (1880-1920), and ‘Female” (1920 to the present)Women should turn to female
experience as the source of an autonomous art. The feminist criticism, free from the divided
consciousness of ‘daughters’ and ‘sisters’ is to be made a permanent home. Feminist criticism can be
divided into two varieties. The first one is concerned with women as reader of male produced literature.
Showalter calls this kind of analysis as ‘the feminist critique’. It is a historical grounded enquiry. Its
subjects include the images and the stereotypes of women in literature, the omissions and
misconceptions about women in criticism, and the exploitation and manipulation of the female audience
in popular culture and film. The second type is concerned with woman as writer, i.e with woman as the
producer of literature; its subjects include the psychodynamics of female creativity, linguistics and the
problems of female language. Showalter calls this type of analysis as ‘gynocritics’. It is a type of criticism
designed by feminists to evaluate works by women as feminist works. It takes into consideration the
circumstances in which a work of art is produced, the point of view of the author, and the motivation
and attitudes of the characters. One of the problems of feminist critique is that it is male-oriented. If we
study the stereotypes of women, and the limited roles women play in literary history, we are trying to
learn not what women have felt and experienced, but only what men have thought women should be.
Showalter traces different phases in the evolution of a female tradition. She calls these phases as
follows: the Feminine, the Feminist and the Female stages. During the Feminine phase, (1840 – 1880)
women wrote in an effort to equalise the intellectual achievements of the male culture and internalized
its assumptions of female nature. The distinguishing sign of this period is the male pseudonym. The
feminist content of feminine is typically oblique, displaced, ironic and subversive; one has to read it
between the lines, in the missed possibilities. In the feminist phase (1880 – 1920) women reject the
accommodation postures of femininity and to use literature to dramatize the ordeals of wronged
womanhood. In the female phase (1920 onwards) women rejected both imitation and protest. They
considered these two as forms of dependence. Instead, they turn to female experiences as the source of
autonomous art. For example, Dorothy Richardson and Virginia Woolf begin to think in terms of male
and female sentences and divide their work into ‘masculine’ journalism and ‘feminine’ fiction. The
feminist criticism revised and even subverted related ideologies especially Marxist aesthetics and
structuralism. It altered their vocabularies and methods to include the variable of gender. The current
theoretical impasse in feminist criticism comes from the divided consciousness of women, the split in
each of them. Women are both the daughters of the male tradition, or their teachers, and professors, or
publishers, a tradition which asks them to be rational, marginal and grateful. Women are also the sisters
in a new women’s movement, which demands them to renounce the pseudo-success of token
womanhood. The task of feminist critics is to find a new language; a new way of reading that can
integrate women’s intelligence and experience their reason and their suffering. This enterprise should
not be confined to women. Critics, poets and philosophers should share it with them. Showalter
concludes saying that feminist criticism is not visiting. It is here to stay.

Feminist Themes in Classic Literature:

Feminist literature is a significant channel through which authors can express their frustrations with
established ideas about women, womanhood, and femininity in patriarchal societies (where men are the
key holders of power). Furthermore, since the feminist movement was established, many women have
also used feminist literature to express their thoughts about the movement itself.

 Gender Roles:

Jane Austen’s Novel Pride and Prejudice challenges the rigid gender roles prevalent in the early 19th
century. Austen, often regarded as a keen observer of society, employed her wit and literary prowess to
subvert the expectations placed on women, providing readers with characters who defied convention
and questioned societal norms. At the heart of Pride and Prejudice is Elizabeth Bennet, a character who
defies the stereotypical image of a meek and submissive woman expected in the early 19th century.
Elizabeth is intelligent, quick-witted, and possesses a sharp tongue that she uses to challenge the
societal expectations placed upon her. Her refusal to conform to the conventional path of marriage for
financial stability is a clear departure from the norms of the time. Elizabeth’s rejection of the insipid Mr.
Collins and her determination to marry for love, rather than social standing, challenges the prevailing
notion that a woman’s worth is solely determined by her ability to secure a prosperous match. In doing
so, Austen imbues Elizabeth with agency, portraying her as a woman who values her own happiness and
autonomy above societal expectations. While Pride and Prejudice is celebrated for Elizabeth’s feminist
undertones, it also subtly challenges traditional masculinity through the character of Mr. Darcy. Unlike
the domineering and patriarchal figures commonly depicted in literature of the time, Darcy evolves
throughout the novel. His character arc involves self-reflection, personal growth, and a willingness to
discard the societal norms that demand he marries for wealth and status. Darcy’s eventual recognition
of Elizabeth’s intelligence and spirit, rather than just her social standing, represents a departure from
the prevailing belief that men should prioritize material considerations over emotional compatibility.
Austen challenges the notion that a man’s strength lies solely in his financial success and aristocratic
lineage, presenting Darcy as a more complex and emotionally intelligent character. Austen’s exploration
of marriage as a central theme in Pride and Prejudice serves as a broader commentary on the limitations
placed on women in the early 19th century. The novel presents various couples, each offering a distinct
perspective on marriage. The contrast between the Bennet sisters highlights the consequences of
adhering to or deviating from societal expectations. The characters of Charlotte Lucas and Lydia Bennet
serve as cautionary tales. Charlotte’s pragmatic decision to marry the obsequious Mr. Collins for
financial security underscores the limited options available to women. Lydia’s impulsive elopement with
Wickham reinforces the vulnerability of women in a society that places their value on marriage and
reputation. Pride and Prejudice endures not only as a captivating love story but also as a subtle
challenge to the gender roles of its time. Jane Austen, through her characters and social commentary,
crafted a narrative that questioned the expectations placed on women and men alike. Elizabeth Bennet
and Mr. Darcy stand as enduring symbols of independence and personal agency, challenging the norms
of their society and inspiring readers to reconsider their own preconceptions about gender roles.
Austen’s legacy lies not just in her ability to weave a compelling tale but also in her contribution to the
ongoing conversation about societal expectations and the pursuit of individual happiness and
fulfillment.

 Independence:

Published in 1847, Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre is a groundbreaking work that defied the societal norms
of its era. Often heralded as a classic Gothic romance, the novel is equally celebrated for its feminist
undertones, challenging the restrictive gender roles of the Victorian period. Through the character of
Jane Eyre, Brontë crafted a narrative that transcended its time, offering readers a protagonist who
questioned societal expectations and championed the cause of women’s autonomy and independence.
"I am no bird; and no net ensnares me: I am a free human being with an independent
will." (Chapter 23) At the heart of Jane Eyre is its eponymous protagonist, a character who defies the
conventions of Victorian womanhood. Unlike the passive and submissive heroines typical of the time,
Jane is portrayed as strong-willed, intelligent, and fiercely independent. From her early days at Lowood
School to her tenure as a governess at Thornfield, Jane resists societal expectations that seek to confine
her to a predetermined role. Jane’s refusal to compromise her principles for the sake of social
conformity is a testament to her proto-feminist nature. Her quest for self-respect and personal
fulfillment, regardless of societal judgment, positions her as a feminist icon ahead of the feminist
movements that would emerge later in the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the most striking aspects of
Jane Eyre is the emphasis on Jane’s desire for financial independence. In an era where women were
largely dependent on male relatives or husbands for economic support, Jane’s determination to earn
her own living and reject financial reliance on men was a radical notion. Her employment as a governess
and later as a teacher at Lowood School reflects Brontë’s progressive stance on women’s economic
agency. Jane’s commitment to self-sufficiency challenges the prevailing notion that a woman’s worth
was determined by her marital prospects. Her refusal to marry Rochester without maintaining her
independence and dignity reinforces the idea that women can, and should, have a say in their financial
and emotional well-being. Jane Eyre also challenges traditional notions of love and marriage prevalent in
Victorian society. Jane’s relationship with Mr. Rochester is marked by equality and mutual respect rather
than the usual power imbalances seen in many literary marriages of the time. When faced with the
choice of compromising her integrity for the sake of marriage, Jane takes a stand, demonstrating that
love should be built on mutual understanding and equality. Moreover, Brontë’s decision to have Jane
inherit wealth from her uncle challenges the patriarchal norms governing inheritance. This unexpected
twist not only secures Jane’s financial independence but also subverts the societal expectation that
women should be passive recipients of inherited wealth rather than active participants in their financial
affairs. Jane Eyre stands as a beacon of feminist themes in the Victorian era, offering readers a
protagonist who embodied the spirit of independence and resilience. Charlotte Brontë’s creation of Jane
Eyre challenged the norms of her time, presenting a character who demanded agency, equality, and the
right to pursue her own path in life. In doing so, Brontë laid the groundwork for future feminist
literature and contributed to the ongoing dialogue surrounding women’s rights and autonomy. The
enduring relevance of “Jane Eyre” as a feminist classic underscores its status as a novel truly ahead of its
time.

 Female Empowerment:

Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women, first published in 1868, has remained a beloved classic, cherished for
its timeless exploration of family, friendship, and the pursuit of one’s dreams. At the heart of the novel
is a narrative that transcends its 19th-century origins, offering readers a profound portrayal of female
empowerment. Through the March sisters, Alcott weaves a tale that challenges societal expectations
and celebrates the strength, resilience, and individuality of women. Little Women centers around the
lives of the four March sisters—Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy. Each sister possesses a distinct personality,
dreams, and aspirations, and together they form a tight-knit bond that serves as a powerful symbol of
female solidarity. Despite their differences, the sisters support each other’s endeavors, fostering an
environment where each can pursue her unique path in life. The emphasis on sisterhood in the novel
challenges the notion that women are inherently competitive or must conform to a singular mold.
Alcott’s portrayal of the March sisters highlights the strength that comes from women supporting one
another, a theme that resonates across generations as a testament to the enduring power of female
relationships. Jo March, the second eldest sister, emerges as a literary heroine who defies traditional
gender roles. Jo aspires to become a successful writer, a pursuit that sets her apart in a society that
often limited women’s ambitions to marriage and domesticity. Jo’s determination, independence, and
refusal to conform to societal expectations make her a trailblazer and a role model for generations of
readers. Alcott’s decision to portray Jo as a fiercely independent young woman challenges the prevailing
norms of her time, pushing against the idea that a woman’s success should be confined to the domestic
sphere. Jo’s journey from aspiring writer to a published author serves as an inspiration for women
seeking to carve out their own paths and pursue their passions. While Jo is the focal point of female
empowerment in Little Women, the novel also explores the diverse paths to empowerment taken by
each sister. Meg’s choice to prioritize love and family, Beth’s gentle strength in the face of illness, and
Amy’s pursuit of artistic and cultural refinement all contribute to a rich tapestry of women’s
experiences. By presenting a range of aspirations and choices, Alcott challenges the idea that there is a
one-size-fits-all approach to female empowerment. The March sisters collectively embody the notion
that women can find strength and fulfillment in various ways, reinforcing the importance of individual
agency and choice. Little Women endures as a timeless classic not only for its heartwarming portrayal of
family and love but also for its progressive exploration of female empowerment. Through the March
sisters, Louisa May Alcott crafted a narrative that defied societal expectations and celebrated the diverse
paths women could take in the pursuit of their dreams. The novel’s enduring appeal lies in its ability to
resonate with readers of all ages, inspiring them to embrace their individuality, support one another,
and continue the legacy of empowerment that Little Women so beautifully encapsulates.

 Gender Inequality:

Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, published in 1857, is a seminal work of literature that not only
explores the consequences of romantic idealism but also delves into the pervasive gender inequalities of
19th-century French society. Through the tragic tale of Emma Bovary, Flaubert reveals a world where
women are confined by societal expectations, limited in their pursuits, and ultimately face dire
consequences for attempting to break free from the constraints imposed upon them. Flaubert paints a
vivid picture of the limited roles available to women in the 19th century, as Emma Bovary grapples with
the stifling expectations of a society that consigns women primarily to domesticity and marriage.
Emma’s early aspirations for a life filled with passion and excitement are thwarted by the societal norms
that dictate a woman’s worth lies in her ability to conform to the roles of wife and mother. Emma’s
struggle for autonomy and individuality mirrors the broader issues of gender inequality during the time.
The lack of opportunities for women outside the domestic sphere confines them to a narrow range of
acceptable behaviors, perpetuating a cycle of frustration and discontent. One of the central themes in
Madame Bovary is the portrayal of marriage as an institution that can perpetuate gender inequality.
Emma’s marriage to Charles Bovary is marked by her disappointment and disillusionment. The stark
contrast between her romantic fantasies and the mundane reality of her married life emphasizes the
societal expectations placed on women to find fulfillment within the confines of marriage. Flaubert’s
narrative critiques the societal pressure on women to derive their entire identity and happiness from
their roles as wives and mothers. Emma’s yearning for passion and excitement beyond the confines of
her marriage exposes the inherent inequality in a system that denies women the agency to pursue their
desires. As Emma seeks to break free from the limitations of her role, she faces harsh social judgment
and double standards. The same society that confines her to a predetermined mold harshly criticizes her
attempts to escape it. Emma’s pursuit of romantic fulfillment outside her marriage is met with
condemnation, highlighting the hypocritical nature of a society that enforces strict gender roles and
punishes those who deviate from them. The consequences of Emma’s actions serve as a cautionary tale,
underscoring the severe penalties women faced for challenging societal expectations. Flaubert exposes
the harsh realities of a society that not only limited women’s choices but also condemned them for
seeking fulfillment and independence. Madame Bovary serves as a poignant critique of the gender
inequalities entrenched in 19th-century French society. Through the tragic story of Emma Bovary,
Gustave Flaubert illuminates the confining nature of societal expectations placed on women, revealing
the limitations on their autonomy, aspirations, and individuality. The novel stands as a powerful
testament to the enduring struggle for gender equality and remains relevant in its exploration of the
societal norms that have historically constrained women and their pursuit of fulfillment and self-
realization.

 The Awakening of Self:

Published in 1899, Kate Chopin’s The Awakening is a powerful exploration of a woman’s journey
towards self-discovery and liberation in the stifling societal norms of late 19th-century America. The
novel, which was initially met with controversy, has since been recognized as a seminal work that
challenges the limitations imposed on women and delves into the complexities of identity, societal
expectations, and the pursuit of individuality. At the heart of The Awakening is Edna Pontellier, a woman
who awakens to a newfound sense of self amid the societal constraints of her time. Married to Léonce
Pontellier, Edna initially conforms to the expectations of her role as a wife and mother. However, as the
narrative unfolds, Edna experiences a profound internal awakening that propels her to question and
challenge the predetermined roles imposed upon women in 19th-century society. Edna’s realization that
she is more than a wife and mother, and her desire for personal fulfillment beyond societal
expectations, marks the beginning of her journey toward self-discovery. Chopin subverts the
conventional narrative of women finding fulfillment solely through their familial roles, challenging the
notion that a woman’s identity should be confined to her domestic duties. Throughout The Awakening,
Chopin employs art and sensuality as symbolic vehicles of Edna’s liberation. Edna’s involvement in
painting and her growing fascination with sensuality represent her desire to break free from the
prescribed roles of wife and mother. Art becomes a medium through which Edna expresses her
innermost desires and emotions, providing a cathartic outlet for her evolving sense of self. Chopin’s
exploration of sensuality in Edna’s awakening challenges the prevailing Victorian ideals that associated
female sexuality with shame and repression. Through Edna’s sensual experiences and desires, Chopin
not only subverts societal expectations but also highlights the human need for personal fulfillment and
self-exploration. The recurring motif of the sea in The Awakening serves as a powerful metaphor for
Edna’s yearning for freedom and self-discovery. The sea, with its vastness and unpredictable nature,
represents the uncharted territory of Edna’s own identity. Her fascination with the sea reflects her
desire to break free from societal constraints and venture into the unknown, embracing the uncertainty
that comes with self-discovery. The ultimate culmination of Edna’s journey is her tragic decision to swim
into the sea, a symbolic act of liberation and defiance against the suffocating expectations placed upon
her. Chopin’s use of the sea as a symbol underscores the transformative power of self-discovery and the
pursuit of individual identity. Kate Chopin’s The Awakening remains a timeless exploration of the
awakening of self in the face of societal expectations. Through the character of Edna Pontellier, Chopin
challenges the norms of her time, providing readers with a nuanced portrayal of a woman’s journey
toward liberation and self-discovery. The novel’s enduring relevance lies in its exploration of identity,
the pursuit of personal fulfillment, and the complexities of breaking free from societal expectations—a
narrative that continues to resonate with readers grappling with questions of selfhood and societal
conformity.