THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

CHAPPTER 1: BASIC STEAM PRINICIPLES

Steam :

When we provide continuous heat to water then at 100 temperature and 1 atm pressure, it boils
and changes its phase from liquid to vapour. This vapour is known as steam.
Steam contains more energy as it has both sensible heat and latent heat of vaporization. Steam
has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution. Steam isused for
generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar, paper, fertilizer, refineries,
petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fibre and textiles The following characteristics of steam
make it so popular and useful to the industry:

•Highest specific heat and latent heat

• Highest heat transfer coefficient

• Easy to control and distribute

• Cheap and inert

Types : Wet steam, Dry steam, Superheated steam

Wet Steam: When steam contains water particles then it is known as Wet steam

Dry Steam: When wet steam is further heated then all water particles get converted into vapour
and resulted steam is called dry steam.

Superheated Steam: When dry saturated steam is heated to higher temperatures then steam
obtained is in superheated state. This steam is mostly used in Power generation.

Use :

(1) Power generation

(2) Heat engines (i.e. steam engines train)

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Formation of steam at constant pressure:

Before going into formation of steam let we understand why steam is being formed/produced at
constant pressure.

The boiling temperature is 100 at one particular pressure that is 1 atm. Now if we change the
pressure then the boiling temperature also changes. Since both are directly proportional then if
we decrease pressure, boiling temperature decreases and vice versa.

T-h diagram of formation of steam at constant pressure :

After having understood the temperature and pressure fundamentals, let we discuss how we are
going to produce steam from 1 kg piece of ice.

Suppose the initial temperature of ice is a solid phase of water is -10 .Now, keeping pressure
constant which is again assumed as 1 atm, we provide continuous heat to the ice.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Let us understand what is happening in the above graph.

The graph is plotted between T and h. Let’s start with point A at which ice is at temperature -10 .
Now, as we provide heat to the piece of ice, its temperature as well as enthalpy increases
simultaneously upto point ‘B’.

Point B is at 0 at which the phase transformation of solid ice into liquid takes place. This point is
called melting point and temperature will remain constant until the whole transformation
process is completed i.e all ice will convert in liquid at 0 . This is so because of latent heat of
fusion. All the heat we are providing is actually increasing the energy of the molecules of the
water not its temperature, that’s why enthalpy increases but the temperature remains
constant upto point C. Heat provided from point ‘B’ to point ‘C’ is hidden and cannot be
measured using thermometer.

Since we are providing continuous heat the temperature and the enthalpy both increases
(sensible heating). At ‘D’ which is boiling point of water. The next phase transformation i.e. liquid
to vapour (steam) takes place. Since, the temperature again remains constant
and enthalpy keep increasing, the heat absorbed during this is latent heat of vaporization. This
process goes upto ‘E’. At ‘E’ we have converted all liquid into steam. If we keep providing heat
then ultimately at ‘F’ superheated steam is obtained.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Thermodynamic properties of steam :

It is necessary to understand the properties of steam so that we can make proper use of it.
Equipment size can be decided, pipe systems can be perfectly designed. It also allows us to make
informed decisions affecting the energy usage of the system.

The properties are:

(1) Quality of steam (Dryness fraction)

Dryness fraction in simple words denotes the mass of dry steam in given steam. Or how much
steam is dry or in other words how much water vapour is present in steam. It is denoted by ‘x’.

Where M=mass of the dry steam

m=mass of water vapour

The use of dryness fraction allow us to know both the mass of dry steam and mass of water
vapour.

Now, see

If that means dry steam is 0.9 kg and water vapour is 0.1 kg in 1 kg of given steam.

Obviously for dry steam,

Quality is represented in percentage but meaning is same as ‘x’.

If quality of steam is 80%, then it has 80% of dry steam and 20 % water vapour by mass.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

(2) Specific volume :

Gases (steam is a gas) occupy less space under higher pressure than under lower pressure. This
means 1 kilogram of steam occupies different volumes, depending upon its pressure. The term
specific volume refers to the volume that one kg of steam occupies at a given pressure and
temperature.

Unit is

(3) Enthalpy

The total heat content of a substance is called enthalpy. Actually it has much broad definition in
thermodynamics but for 1st year BME students this definition works just fine. So, total heat
content by steam is termed as its enthalpy. It is denoted by ‘H’. SI unit is KJ

‘h‘ is generally used term which represents specific enthalpy, unit for which is KJ/Kg.

In steam tables you will see enthalpy written as

is the enthalpy of liquid that is water at boiling point that’s why subscript ‘l’ is used, point ‘D’ in
h-T diagram. Similarly is enthalpy of dry saturated steam, point ‘E’ in h-T diagram and is
the latent heat, Process D to E in h-T diagram.

Use of steam tables

Till now we had studied that it is very important to study and understand the properties of steam
for proper utilization. Steam tables enable us to know these properties directly i.e. without doing
any calculation or other thing. These properties can be found out at a given pressure or
temperature.

Before obtaining these values let us understand few more things

Saturated steam :
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Saturated steam is pure steam at the temperature that corresponds to the boiling temperature of
water at the existing pressure.

For example : Saturated steam is obtained at point ‘E’. where all the liquid water has converted
into steam.

Coming back to steam table use, we can use either temperature tables or pressure tables.

If we have to find properties of steam at given temperature, use temperature scale and vice-versa.

For super-heated steam, different table is given. Keep units in mind while using steam tables and
use scale for current measurement

Example on steam table usage

Suppose you have to find all properties of steam at 150 . Then first of all use temperature
scale.

Find out in the temperature where 150 is. Then mark it and put a scale across it covering
the entire row. This entire row will give you all the properties corresponding to this
temperature.

Fig. in this way, we can get all the properties, .

So from above table at 150 values of properties of steam are

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Throttling Calorimeter

Before explaining how the throttling calorimeter works we first explain the process of
throttling in some detail.

Throttling
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

A throttling process is one in which the fluid is made to flow through a restriction, e.g. a
partially opened valve or an orifice plate, causing a considerable loss in the pressure of
the fluid. Diagrams for these two examples are shown below.

Calculations for the process are based on a formulation derived from the steady flow
energy equation (SFEE),

In this process there is no change in elevation so z2=z1, so the potential energy term is
zero. The velocity C2 is similar to C1, so the change in the kinetic energy is neglected. If
the system is suitably insulated then there is no heat transfer so Q= 0. Finally, the
system does no external work, i.e. W =0. So we are left with simply

In other words, during a throttling process the enthalpy remains constant.

A diagram of the Throttling Calorimeter is shown below. The throttling calorimeter

makes use of the fact that the enthalpy before throttling is the same as that after
throttling, in order to determine the dryness fraction, x, of the steam passing through the
calorimeter. The wet steam passes through a small orifice where it must undergo a
sufficiently large pressure drop to become superheated. In other words it is allowed to
expand sufficiently so that all of the liquid part becomes vapour.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The dryness fraction is determined as follows. If we know the pressure within the main
steam supply pipe of the calorimeter then we can find the dry and wet saturation values
of the enthalpy from the steam tables, hg1 and hf1, respectively. If we know the
temperature and the pressure in the expansion chamber then we can tell if all of the
steam has changed to vapour. For at a certain temperature, the saturated vapour will
have a certain pressure (look at the values in the left hand column of the saturation
tables). So the enthalpy of this dry steam will be hg2. We can then find the dryness
fraction from

Throttling Calorimeter

The limitation of the throttling calorimeter is that it relies on the steam being totally
vapour in the expansion chamber. In practice it may not be and one solution is a
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

combination “Separation and Throttling Calorimeter”. This also solves the problem of
some of the water droplets going out of the steam pipe in the Separating Calorimeter.

For dryness fraction, we have to do calculations but that’s beyond the syllabus of BME. You
will do it in thermodynamics in 3rdsem.

Definition of terms

Saturated steam is steam that is in equilibrium with heated water at the same
pressure, i.e., it has not been heated more than the boiling point for that pressure.

This is in contrast to superheated steam, in which the steam (vapor) has been
separated from the water droplets then additional heat has been added.

Wet steam – steam with water droplets

Latent Heat: Latent heat is the amount of energy that is either

absorbed or released during a phase transition at a constant
temperature. Sensible Heat: Sensible heat is the energy required to
change the temperature of a substance with no phase change.

Steam Cycle
The figure shows a simplified version of the major components of a typical steam plant cycle.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

This is a simplified version and does not contain the exact detail that may be found at most power
plants. However, for the purpose of understanding the basic operation of a power cycle, further detail is
not necessary. The following are the processes that comprise the cycle:

1-2: Saturated steam from the steam generator is expanded in the high pressure (HP) turbine to provide
shaft work out put at a constant entropy.

2-3: The moist steam from the exit of the HP turbine is dried and superheated in the moisture separator
reheater(MSR).

3-4: Super heated steam from the MSR is expanded in the low pressure (LP) turbine to provide shaft
work output at a constant entropy.

4-5: Steam exhaust from the turbine is condensed in the condenser in which heat is transferred to the
cooling water under a constant vacuum condition.

The previous cycle can also be represented on a T-s diagram as was done with the ideal Carnot and
Rankine cycles. This is shown in Figure below. The numbered points on the cycle correspond to the
numbered points on Figure2. It must be pointed out that the cycle we have just shown is an ideal cycle
and does not exactly represent the actual processes in the plant. The turbine and pumps in an ideal
cycle are ideal pumps and turbines and therefore do not exhibit an increase in entropy across them. Real
pumps and turbines would exhibit an entropy increase across them.

CHAPTER 2: APPLICATIONS OF STEAM IN HOSPITALS

A. HEATING BUILDING
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The most obvious use of boilers in any building, including hospitals, is typically heating for the

facility. A reliable steam boiler is one of the most economical ways to provide heat across a large

space, especially one with multiple floors. The steam produced by boilers gets pumped

throughout the hospital and is responsible for keeping both patients and staff warm throughout

the day and night. Even in warmer climates, most hospitals need their boiler working hard early

in the morning to make sure every room in the hospital reaches a comfortable temperature.

B. HUMIDIFICATION

In hospitals, keeping a comfortable temperature is important, but maintaining the right level of

humidity can be just as important. For the most part, the relative humidity inside a hospital needs

to be somewhere between 30% and 60%, depending on the specific hospital. Certain viruses,

most notably the flu, are more likely to survive in environments that have particularly high or

particularly low humidity. The same is true for the growth of certain types of mold and bacteria.

Obviously, a hospital needs to limit the presence of these pathogens as much as possible. This is

where a good boiler system comes in handy, as the steam produced helps keep the relative

humidity inside the hospital at an appropriate level. After all, people inside hospitals are usually

the most vulnerable to diseases and harmful substances. The boiler system can effectively serve

as an area-wide humidifier, and healthcare professionals can adjust settings to make sure the air

in the room has the proper amount of moisture.

C. STERILIZATION

Hospitals use a wide array of medical equipment, tools, and instruments, especially those used to

perform surgeries. Of course, those utensils need to be sterilized before they are used on a sick

patient. This is another important use of boilers in hospitals. A portion of the steam produced by

boilers gets pumped into an autoclave sterilizer, which is usually located in a lab or surgical area.

The hot steam helps to kill any germs and bacteria on medical tools, making sure they are free of

any harmful microorganisms. Steam heat is also a safer way to sterilize than using potentially

harmful chemical agents.

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

D. LAUNDRY

Most people who visit hospitals never see the laundry room, but if they did, they’d understand

the massive amounts of laundry hospitals do on a daily basis. After all, patients need all of the

gowns, sheets, and towels they use to be completely clean and free of germs. Hospital boiler

systems thus need to be robust enough to produce all the steam necessary to heat the water used

in the laundry room. In fact, it’s common for the laundry room of a hospital to have its own

boiler separate from the main steam plant, which tells you how much hospital laundry rooms rely

on steam from boilers.

E. KITCHEN

Much like the laundry room, most people don’t realize how much hospital kitchens rely on the

boiler system. The kitchen staff must prepare meals for every patient in the hospital, as well as

most of the staff and visitors. Cooking all of those meals requires a lot of hot water, not to

mention all the dishes that need to be cleaned and sterilized before they can be used again.

Keeping that in mind, it should be easy to see why the hospital boiler system plays an important

role in the kitchen.

CHAPTER 3: STEAM GENERATION

Boilers

A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then
usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring
heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times,
producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be
extremely dangerous equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

In steam heating systems, a boiler furnace heats water by means of a gas or oil-fired burner and
turns it into steam. The steam travels through pipes to radiators or convectors, which give off
heat and warm the room. As the steam cools, it condenses back into water, and returns to the
boiler to be heated again.

14.3 Principles of Operation of Boilers

Boilers use a combination of radiation, convection, and conduction to convert heat energy into
steam energy. Proper boiler operation depends on controlling many variables, including boiler
feedwater quality, water flow and level in the boiler, furnace temperatures and pressures, burner
efficiency, and air flow.

To illustrate how boilers work, consider the simple boiler shown in Figure 14.8. Simple boilers
consist of a heat source, a water drum, a water inlet, and a steam outlet. In this type of boiler, the
water drum is partially filled with water and then heat is applied. Steam forms after the water is
heated sufficiently. As the steam leaves the vessel, it is captured and sent to other parts of the
process (e.g., used to turn a steam turbine, or sent to a heat exchanger to heat a process fluid).
Makeup water is then added to the drum to compensate for the liquid lost as steam. Boilers use
the principle of differential density when it comes to fluid circulation. For boilers to work
properly, they must have adequate amounts of heat and water flow. Factors that affect boiler
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

operation include pressure, temperature, water level, and differences in water density. As fluid is
heated, the molecules expand and the fluid becomes less dense. When cooler, denser water is
added to hot water, convective currents are created that facilitate water circulation and mixing

Water Circulation

The circulation of boiler water (shown in Figure 14.9) is based on the principle of convection. A
fluid that is heated expands and becomes less dense, moving upward through heavier, denser
fluid. Convection and conduction transfer heat through pipe walls and water currents, resulting in
unequal densities. Cold water flows through the downcomer to the bottom of the mud drum and
then flows upward through the riser (water wall tubes) as it is heated. In a water tube boiler,
circulation occurs because the temperature of the fluid in the downcomer is always lower than
the temperature in the boiler and generating (riser) tubes. Steam bubbles are formed as the liquid
temperature continues to increase. These bubbles increase

the circulation as they move up the riser tubes. The pressure builds as the water vapor collects in
the upper drum. Each time the water passes through the tubes, it picks up more heat energy. As
the pressure increases, the boiling point of the water increases. When the target pressure is
achieved, steam is delivered to the steam header. To maintain this pressure, makeup water must
be added, heat must be continually applied, and circulation must be controlled. In a fire tube
boiler, the water level in the boiler shell must be maintained above the tubes to prevent
overheating of the tubes. Superheated Steam Saturated steam is steam in equilibrium with water
(e.g., steam that holds all of the moisture it can hold and still remain a vapor). Saturated steam
can be used to purge process equipment or perform other functions, or it can be superheated. As
long as the steam and water are in contact with each other, the steam is in a saturated condition.
Saturated steam cannot absorb additional water vapor, but the boiler can continue to add heat
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

energy to it. Steam that continues to take on heat energy or get hotter is known as superheated
steam. Superheated steam, which is produced downstream of the steam drum (typically in the
firebox), is steam that has been heated to a temperature above its saturated temperature.
Superheated steam is typically 200 to 300 degrees F (93 to 149 degrees C) hotter than saturated
steam.

Desuperheated steam

The process of cooling the superheated steam is called desuperheating. Desuperheated steam is
superheated steam from which some heat has been removed by the reintroduction of boiler
feedwater. Typically, desuperheating does not occur at the boiler but at specific points in the
process where boiler feedwater is injected into superheated steam.

Boiler Feedwater

Boiler feedwater levels and flows are critical to proper boiler operation. If feedwater flow is
reduced and the water level decreases to the point where the boiler runs dry, the tubes will
overheat and fail. If the boiler water level becomes too high, excess water will be carried over
into the steam distribution system. This negatively affects process facility steam consumers and
can damage turbines and other equipment. During the boiling process, most suspended solids
stay in the water section of the drum while steam is sent to the distribution system. Suspended
solids are removed from the steam drum by sending a small amount of the feedwater, called
continuous blowdown, to a blowdown tank. This continuous blowdown is usually released to a
waste water treatment processing unit. Boilers utilize both continuous and intermittent blowdown
systems to remove suspended solids from the steam drum and solids that have settled from the
mud drum. Blowdowns limit the scale buildup that can negatively affect turbine blades and
superheater tubes

Water treatment techniques include reverse osmosis, ion exchange, deaeration, membrane
contactors, and electrode ionization or demineralization.

Water Treatment Methods

Raw water can come from a variety of sources, such as lakes, rivers, or wells. Each water source
has its own components and treatment requirements. In general, however, the water chemistry
required for steam production must meet standards. The water needs to be filtered and have
minerals and oxygen removed.

Raw water goes through the following steps to become boiler feedwater.

1. Clean the water. This step removes suspended solids. Depending on water source this could
include: a. Coagulation/sedimentation b. Filtration
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

2. Remove minerals. This step is done to the clean water (from step 1) to remove minerals that
could build up on steam turbines or other process equipment. Depending on the water source,
this step could be one or more of these processes: a. Softening b. Demineralization (ion
exchange) c. Reverse osmosis (membrane)

3. Remove the oxygen. Dissolved oxygen and other gases (primarily CO2) in boiler feedwater
are major causes of boiler system corrosion. While oxygen results in localized corrosion
(pitting), CO2 forms carbonic acid and damages condensate piping.

This step could include:

a. Deaeration

b. Oxygen scavenging

Coagulation adds chemicals to reduce coarse suspended solids, silt, turbidity, and colloids
through the use of a clarifier. The impurities gather together into larger particles and settle out of
the chemical/water solution (sedimentation).

Filtration removes coarse suspended matter and sludge from coagulation or from water softening
systems. Gravel beds and anthracite coal are common materials used for filter beds. Softening is
the treatment of water to remove dissolved mineral salts such as calcium and magnesium, known
as hardness, in boiler feedwater. Softening methods include the addition of calcium carbonate
(lime soda), phosphate, and/or zeolites (crystalline mineral compounds).

Demineralization is the removal of ionized mineral salts by ion exchange. The process is also
called deionization, and the water produced is called deionized water. Reverse osmosis uses
pressure to remove dissolved solids from boiler feedwater by forcing the water from a more
concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane to a less concentrated solution.
Deaeration removes oxygen or other gases from boiler feedwater by increasing the temperature,
using steam, to strip out the dissolved gases.

Coagulation a method for concentrating and removing suspended solids in boiler feedwater by
adding chemicals to the water, which causes the impurities to cling together. Filtration the
process of removing particles from water or some other fluid by passing it through porous media.
Softening the treatment of water that removes dissolved mineral salts such as calcium and
magnesium, known as hardness in boiler feedwater.

Demineralization a process that uses ion exchange to remove mineral salts; also known as
deionization. The water produced is referred to as deionized water. Reverse osmosis method for
processing water by forcing it through a membrane through which salts and impurities cannot
pass (purified bottled water is produced this way). Deaeration removal of air or other gases from
boiler feedwater by increasing the temperature and stripping out the gases.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

pecific terms describe the water as it moves through these steps. Water starts as raw water and
becomes demineralized water, then deaerated water, and finally boiler feedwater. Steam that has
been condensed (condensate) is already clean and can be fed back into the system at the
deaerator. This saves the cost of treating more raw water, making it practical to recycle any used
steam condensate. Burner Fuel Boilers use a single fuel or a combination of fuels, including
refinery gas, natural gas, fuel oil, and powdered coal. In some complexes, scrubbed off-gases are
collected from process units and combined with natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas in a
fuelgas balance drum. The balance drum establishes a constant system pressure and fairly stable
BTU (British thermal unit) content. It also provides for separation of suspended liquids in the gas
vapors to prevent large slugs of liquid from being carried over into the fuel distribution system.
As the scrubbed gases enter the balance drum, heavier liquids fall to the bottom along with any
gases that have condensed into liquid. The lighter gas leaves the top of the balance drum and
goes to the fuel distribution system. The fuel oil system delivers fuel to the boiler at the required
temperatures and pressures. The fuel oil is heated to pumping temperature, sent through a coarse
suction strainer, pumped to a temperature-control heater, and then pumped through a fine mesh
strainer before being burned.

Feedwater must be free of contaminants that could affect boiler operation. As a general rule, the
higher the steam pressure, the stricter the feedwater quality requirements will be. Important
feedwater parameters include pH (alkalinity or acidity of the water), hardness (amount of mineral
content in the water), oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration, presence of silicates, dissolved
or suspended solids, and concentration of organics.

Boiler and steam generation

The process of heating a liquid until it reaches its gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat is
transferred from one body to another by means of: (1) Radiation, which is the transfer of heat
from a hot body to a cold body without a conveying medium, (2) Convection, the transfer of heat
by a conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) Conduction, transfer of heat by actual
physical contact, molecule to molecule.

Boiler system

The boiler system comprises of: feed water system, steam system and fuel system.

The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the
steam demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed
through a piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated
using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges.

The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The
equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system. A typical
boiler room schematic is shown in last Figure.

Parts of a boiler and functions

An economizer is a mechanical device used to reduce energy consumption. Economizers

recycle energy produced within a system or leverage environmental temperature differences to
achieve efficiency improvements.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The flue is simply a piece of pipework or duct that moves gases and hot air from
the combustion chamber of the boiler to outside. With condensing boilers, the flue is effectively
part of the heating system, as it is the heat from the burned gases that starts warming the
returning water from the system.

A commercial boiler is a pressurised system that burns combustible fuel to heat water. Some
types of boiler distribute the hot water itself, whilst others use water that has been turned into
steam. The hot water or steam is circulated via pipes and enters the radiators or other types of
heater you have throughout your commercial property, keeping the spaces warm and comfortable
for staff, clients or customers.

Natural gas is the fuel most commonly used within commercial boilers, though other types of
boilers that burn fuel oil or bio-fuel, or produce heat using electric coils are available. In this
article we’ll take a closer look at the main components that make up a commercial boiler.

Functions of components of a Boiler

i) Burner

The burner is the component of boiler that provides the heat that heats the water of system. The
fuels used can be natural gas or oil.

The burner is the part of the boiler where air mixes with the fuel source and combusts. The hot
combustion gases then enter the boiler, which serves as a heat exchanger. The right amount of
combustion air is important for a clean and efficient combustion, so this is a component of your
boiler that needs to be kept in good working order. Too little air won’t allow for complete
combustion, whereas too much will allow for excess loss of exhaust gases.

ii) Combustion Chamber

The combustion chamber is the component of the boiler where the fuel is burned to heat the
water. The chamber contains the burners and is designed to provide a very safe area for high-
temperature combustion of volatile fuel. It is usually made of steel or cast iron, or another heavy
duty metal that can cope with temperatures reaching several hundred degrees. This is another
part of the boiler that needs to be serviced on a regular basis, as older units can become corroded
or cracked, which makes them unsafe.

iii) Heat Exchanger

The heat exchanger of boiler allows the heat from the burner to heat the water in system. The job
of the heat exchanger is to carry the heat from the burner to the water without having direct
contact with the water. It’s a similar idea to boiling water in a pot.

The heat exchanger is the component that transfers the heat produced by the burners within the
combustion chamber to the water in the boiler. Heat exchangers can be made up of a variety of
elements, including bundles of steel tubes, cast iron or copper lines. The elements need to be
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

made of very sturdy material that is able to withstand high temperatures, last a long time and
transfer heat efficiently.

iv) Controls

The system controls allow the user to set water temperature, air and fuel supply mixtures,
internal pressure and ignition. The controls regulate how often the burner fires, the quality of the
mixture of fuel and oxygen, the rate at which the fuel is used, and how hot the water gets. The
controls are also an important part of the safety system of your boiler.

Uncontrolled, high-pressure steam can be incredibly dangerous, and well-maintained system

controls help to keep your boiler completely safe by making sure that the internal pressures
within it don’t go too high, the water stays within a safe temperature range and the system
continues to operate properly.

v.) Supply Lines and Return Lines

 Supply lines – Hydronic heating systems use piping to deliver the heated water or steam
to the distribution points, and the supply lines are the pipes that distribute the hot water or
steam to distributor.
 Return lines – When the water cools, or the steam cools and changes states back to
water, the return lines bring this water back to the boiler for re-heating.
Supply lines lead from the boiler and deliver the heated water or steam to distribution points
around your building, such as radiators or heaters. When the water out at these points cools, or
the steam cools and changes back to water, the return lines bring the water back to the boiler
where it is reheated before being sent out again.

vi) Circulator Pump

The circulator pump is the component that pushes the hot water out through the supply lines to
the radiators or other distribution lines. It is also responsible for bringing it back through the
return lines. The circulation pump plays a crucial role in the functioning of your boiler and must
be well maintained to ensure the system is working as efficiently as possible.

vii) Exhaust Stack

The exhaust stack – sometimes known as the chimney or flue – is designed to safely expel spent
fuel away from the building’s exterior. An exhaust stack may look like a traditional brick built
chimney, or it might be a series of metal pipes. The exhaust stack must be safely constructed so
that dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide are diverted away from the interior of your
property, as well as making sure it isn’t expelled near windows and doors. It’s also important that
they are not constructed in such a way that could allow downdrafts of powerful winds to re-enter
your commercial property.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 Firebox – The firebox is where the fuel of system meets the air, creating a flame.
 Refractory – Refractory actually refers to refractory materials that are used for filling
any gaps and/or openings that may be around the fire box – this helps ensure the fire
stays in the fire box.
 Viii) Deaerators/Condenser – Deaerator and condenser tanks are only used in steam
boiler systems and not in hot water and hot oil boil because here the fluid always is on
liquid form. The construction of these two types of tanks is almost identical, but as their
names suggest, they are used for different purposes.

Two primary principles are used with this form of tank design: thermal and vacuum. This
depends on which type of boiler being used. Each principle also has different pump
construction requirements.

ix) Thermo principle

A tank using the thermal principle is connected to the atmosphere. This design is
normally used in smaller plants. Here, steam is used to maintain tank water temperature
at around 105°C, which removes air from the water.

Vacuum principle

Here, an ejector pump is used to create a vacuum in the tank. This causes the tank water
to start boiling because of the low temperature, which in turn removes air from the water.
This principle is normally used for steam turbine applications.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 Economizer

Historically, economizers have only been used in large-scale power plants. However, the
demand for more efficient boilers within industry and marine means that economizers are
now far more commonplace. An economizer is a heat exchanger that is placed in the
exhaust from a boiler or in the exhaust funnel of the main engine of a ship. Pump
requirements differ greatly, depending on where the economizer is installed.

 Superheater

It is integral part of boiler and is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace.
The heat recovered from the flue gases is used in superheating the steam before entering
into the turbine (i.e. prime mover).Its main purpose is to increase the temperature of
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

saturated steam without raising its pressure.

Natural gas boilers employ one of two types of burners, atmospheric burners, also called
natural draft burners and forced draft burners, also called power burners. Due to more
stringent air quality regulations, low NOx burners and pre-mix burners are becoming
more commonly used and even required in some areas. By ensuring efficient mixing of
air and fuel as it enters the burner, these types of burners can ensure that NOx emissions
are reduced.
The combustion chamber, usually made of cast iron or steel, houses the burners and
combustion process. Temperatures inside the combustion chamber can reach several
hundred degrees very quickly.

Heat exchangers may be made from cast iron, steel tube bundles, or, in the case of some smaller
boilers, copper or copper-clad steel.

The exhaust stack or flue is the piping that conveys the hot combustion gasses away from the
boiler to the outside. Typically this piping is made of steel, but in the case of condensing boilers
it needs to be constructed of stainless steel to handle the corrosive condensate. Another
consideration is whether the exhaust stack will be under a positive or negative pressure. This can
determine how the joints of the exhaust stack must be sealed.

Boiler controls help produce hot water or steam in a regulated, efficient, and safe manner.
Combustion and operating controls regulate the rate of fuel use to meet the demand. The main
operating control monitors hot water temperature or steam pressure and sends a signal to control
the firing rate, the rate at which fuel and air enters the burner. Common burner firing sequences
include on/off, high/low/off and modulating.

Boiler safety controls include high pressure and temperature, high and low gas/oil pressure, and
high and low water level and flame safeguard controls. These controls are considered safeties or
limits that break the electrical circuit to prevent firing of the boiler. For example, if the event
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

pressure in the boiler exceeds the pressure limit setting, the fuel valve is closed to prevent an
unsafe, high pressure condition. The safety circuit of a flame safeguard control system typically
includes switch contacts for low water cutoff, high limits, air providing switches, redundant
safety and operating controls, and flame detectors. Flame detectors often consist of flame rods,
and ultraviolet or infrared scanners to monitor the flame condition and deactivate the burner in
the event of a non-ignition or other unsafe condition. Flame safeguard controls are programmed
to operate the burner and cycle it through the stages of operation.

The boilers are widely used for heating applications. Fire tube boiler is as simple as its
construction. In fire tube boiler, the fuel is burnt inside a furnace. The hot gases produced in the
furnace then passes through the fire tubes. The fire tubes are immersed in water inside the main
vessel of the boiler. As the hot gases are passed through these tubes, the heat energy of the gasses
is transferred to the water surrounds them. As a result steam is generated in the water and
naturally comes up and is stored upon the water in the same vessel of fire tube boiler. This steam
is then taken out from the steam outlet for utilizing for required purpose. The water is fed into
the boiler through the feed water inlet. As the steam and water is stored is the same vessel, it is
quite difficult to produce very high pressure steam from. General maximum capacity of this type
of boiler is 17.5 kg/cm2 and with a capacity of 9 Metric Ton of steam per hour. In a fire tube
boiler, the main boiler vessel is under pressure, so if this vessel is burst there will be a possibility
of major accident due to this explosion [1]. Types of Boiler There are two main types of boilers

• Water Tube Boilers: Water tube boilers are used in large power plants. In such type of boilers
the water runs through tubes while there is fire surrounding them. These types of boilers are also
ideal for high pressure applications. Figure 2a: water tube boiler

• Fire Tube Boilers: Fire tube boilers are usually used for the small scale applications. One
advantage that these boilers have over other types is that they are compact in size and do not
occupy much spac

Conclusion

The best way to keep your commercial boiler working as efficiently, and therefore as cheaply, as
possible is to have it maintained on a regular basis. There are many components that need to be
checked over by a qualified inspector to ensure they are in good condition and will not break
down. It’s important to remember that boilers are volatile systems containing high pressure
steam and very hot water, so it’s vital to make sure every element is clean and working properly,
and that all safety systems are
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Fire tube boiler

A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases pass from a fire through one or more
tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred through
the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating steam.

Operation principle

In the locomotive-type boiler, fuel is burnt in a firebox to produce hot combustion gases. The
firebox is surrounded by a cooling jacket of water connected to the long, cylindrical boiler shell.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The hot gases are directed along a series of fire tubes, or flues, that penetrate the boiler and heat
the water thereby generating saturated
steam. The steam rises to the highest point of the boiler, the steam dome, where it is collected.
The dome is the site of the regulator that controls the exit of steam from the boiler.
In the locomotive boiler, the saturated steam is very often passed into a superheater, back
through the larger flues at the top of the boiler, to dry the steam and heat it to superheated steam.
The superheated steam is directed to the steam engine's cylinders or very rarely to a turbine to
produce mechanical work. Exhaust gases are fed out through a chimney, and may be used to pre-
heat the feed water to increase the efficiency of the boiler.
Draught for firetube boilers, particularly in marine applications, is usually provided by a
tall smokestack. In all steam locomotives since Stephenson's Rocket, additional draught is
supplied by directing exhaust steam from the cylinders into the smokestack through a blastpipe,
to provide a partial vacuum. Modern industrial boilers use fans to provide forced or induced
draughting of the boiler.

FIRE TUBE BOILER

Hot flue gases flow inside tubes that are submerged in water within a shell.
• Pressures up to about 10 bar
• Produce up to 14 tonnes of steam/hr
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

• Can meet wide and sudden load fluctuations because of large water volumes
• Usually rated in HP

SCOTCH FIRE-TUBE BOILER

Wet back designs
 Have a water wall at the back of the boiler in the area where combustion gases reverse
direction to enter tubes.
Dry back designs
 Refractory is used at the back, instead of a water wall. Internal maintenance is simplified,
but refractory replacement is expensive and overheating, gauging and cracking of tube
ends at the entrance to return gas passages often cause problems.
Advantages:
• Lower initial cost
• Few controls
• Simple operation
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Disadvantages:
• Drums exposed to heat, increasing the risk of explosion
• Large water volume, resulting in poor circulation
• Limited steam pressure and evaporation

Types of fire tube boilers

aining the fires. It was the invention of William Fairbairn in 1844, from a theoretical
consideration of the thermodynamics of more efficient boilers that led him to increase
the furnace grate area relative to the volume of water.
Later developments added Galloway tubes (after their inventor, patented in 1848),[2] crosswise
water tubes across the flue, thus increasing the heated surface area. As these are short tubes of
large diameter and the boiler continues to use a relatively low pressure, this is still not considered
to be a water-tube boiler. The tubes are tapered, simply to make their installation through the flue
easier.[3]

Side-section of a Scotch marine boiler: the arrows show direction of flue gas flow; the
combustion chamber is on the right, the smokebox on the left.
Scotch marine boiler[edit]
Further information: Scotch marine boiler

The Scotch marine boiler differs dramatically from its predecessors in using a large number of
small-diameter tubes. This gives a far greater heating surface area for the volume and weight.
The furnace remains a single large-diameter tube with the many small tubes arranged above it.
They are connected together through a combustion chamber – an enclosed volume contained
entirely within the boiler shell – so that the flow of flue gas through the firetubes is from back to
front. An enclosed smokebox covering the front of these tubes leads upwards to the chimney or
funnel. Typical Scotch boilers had a pair of furnaces, larger ones had three. Above this size, such
as for large steam ships, it was more usual to install multiple boilers.[4]
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Locomotive boiler[edit]
A locomotive boiler has three main components: a double-walled firebox; a horizontal,
cylindrical "boiler barrel" containing a large number of small flue-tubes; and
a smokebox with chimney, for the exhaust gases. The boiler barrel contains larger flue-tubes to
carry the superheater elements, where present. Forced draught is provided in the locomotive
boiler by injecting exhausted steam back into the exhaust via a blast pipe in the smokebox.
Locomotive-type boilers are also used in traction engines, steam rollers, portable engines and
some other steam road vehicles. The inherent strength of the boiler means it is used as the basis
for the vehicle: all the other components, including the wheels, are mounted on brackets attached
to the boiler. It is rare to find superheaters designed into this type of boiler, and they are
generally much smaller (and simpler) than railway locomotive types.
The locomotive-type boiler is also a characteristic of the overtype steam wagon, the steam-
powered fore-runner of the truck. In this case, however, heavy girder frames make up the load-
bearing chassis of the vehicle, and the boiler is attached to this.
Taper boiler
Certain railway locomotive boilers are tapered from a larger diameter at the firebox end to a
smaller diameter at the smokebox end. This reduces weight and improves water circulation.
Many later Great Western Railway and London, Midland and Scottish Railway locomotives
were designed or modified to take taper boilers.
Vertical fire-tube boiler[edit]
Main article: Vertical boiler

A vertical fire-tube boiler (VFT), colloquially known as the "vertical boiler", has a vertical
cylindrical shell, containing several vertical flue tubes.
Horizontal return tubular boiler[edit]
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Horizontal Return Tubular boilers from the Staatsbad Bad Steben GmbH
Horizontal return tubular boiler (HRT) has a horizontal cylindrical shell, containing several
horizontal flue tubes, with the fire located directly below the boiler's shell, usually within a
brickwork setting
Admiralty-type direct tube boiler[edit]
Extensively used by Britain, before and in the early days of ironclads, the only protected place
was below the waterline, sometimes under an armoured deck, so to fit below short decks, the
tubes were not led back above the furnace but continued straight from it with keeping the
combustion chamber in between the two. Hence the name, and considerably reduced diameter,
compared to the ubiquitous Scotch or return tube boiler. It was not a great success and its use
was being abandoned after the introduction of stronger side armouring – “the furnace crowns,
being very near the water-level, are much more liable to over-heating. Further, on account of the
length of the boiler, for an equal angle of inclination, the effect on the water-level is much
greater. Finally, the unequal expansion of the various parts of the boiler is more pronounced,
especially at the top and bottom, due to the increased ratio between the length and the diameter
of the boiler; the local strains are also more severe on account of the comparatively feeble
circulation in long and low boilers.” All these also resulted in a shorter life. Also, the same
length of a combustion chamber was much less effective on a direct tube than on a return tube
boiler, at least without baffling.[5]: 233-235
Immersion fired boiler[edit]
The immersion fired boiler is a single-pass fire-tube boiler that was developed by Sellers
Engineering in the 1940s. It has only firetubes, functioning as a furnace and combustion chamber
also, with multiple burner nozzles injecting premixed air and natural gas under pressure. It
claims reduced thermal stresses, and lacks refractory brickwork completely due to its
construction.[6]

Variations[edit]
Water tubes[edit]
Fire-tube boilers sometimes have water-tubes as well, to increase the heating surface. A Cornish
boiler may have several water-tubes across the diameter of the flue (this is common in steam
launches). A locomotive boiler with a wide firebox may have arch tubes or thermic syphons. As
firebox technology developed, it was found that placing a baffle of firebricks (heat-resistant
bricks) inside the firebox to direct the flow of hot flue gasses up into the top of the firebox before
it flowed into the fire tubes increased efficiency by equalizing the heat between upper and lower
fire tubes. To hold these in place, a metal bracket was used, but to prevent these brackets from
burning and eroding away they were built as water tubes, with cool water from the bottom of the
boiler moving upwards by convection as it heated, and carrying the heat away before the metal
reached its failure temperature.
Another technique for increasing the heating surface is to include internal rifling inside the boiler
tubes (also known as Serve tubes).
Not all shell boilers raise steam; some are designed specifically for heating pressurised water.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Reverse flame[edit]
In homage to the Lancashire design, modern shell boilers can come with a twin furnace design.
A more recent development has been the reverse flame design where the burner fires into a blind
furnace and the combustion gasses double back on themselves. This results in a more compact
design and less pipework.
Package boiler[edit]
The term "package" boiler evolved in the early- to mid-20th century; it is used to describe
residential heating boilers delivered to the installation site with all insulation, electrical panels,
valves, gauges, and fuel burners already assembled by the manufacturer. Other delivery methods
more closely resemble prior practice from the coal burning era, when other components were
added on-site to either a pre-assembled pressure vessel, or to a "knock-down" boiler, where the
pressure vessel is delivered as a set of castings to be assembled on-site. As a general rule, factory
assembly is much more cost-effective and the packaged boiler is the preferred option for
domestic use. Part-assembled deliveries are only used when necessary because of access
limitations - e.g. when the only access to a basement installation site is down a narrow flight of
stairs.

Kewanee Gas-Fired Packaged Fire-Tube Boiler from 1974 rated at 25 horsepower

Safety considerations[edit]
Because the fire-flume boiler itself is the pressure vessel, it requires a number of safety features
to prevent mechanical failure. Boiler explosion, which is a type of BLEVE (Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapor Explosion), can be devastating.

 Safety valves release steam before a dangerous pressure can be built up

 Fusible plugs over the firebox melt at a temperature lower than that of the firebox
plates, thereby warning the operators by the noisy escape of steam if the water level
is too low to cool the firebox crown safely.
 Stays, or ties, physically link the firebox and boiler casing, preventing them from
warping. Since any corrosion is hidden, the stays may have longitudinal holes,
called tell-tales, drilled in them which leak before they become unsafe.
The fire-tube type boiler that was used in the Stanley Steamer automobile had several hundred
tubes which were weaker than the outer shell of the boiler, making an explosion virtually
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

impossible as the tubes would fail and leak long before the boiler exploded. In nearly 100 years
since the Stanleys were first produced, no Stanley boiler has ever exploded.[citation needed]

Economics and efficiencies[edit]

Excessive cycling[edit]
Each time a boiler cycles off and on, it can lose efficiency. When the fire starts combustion
efficiency is usually lower until steady state conditions prevail. When the fire stops the warm
chimney continues to draw additional air from the interior space until it cools.
Excessive cycling can be minimized

 Modulating boilers can run longer (at firing rates that match the loads) than the non-
modulating boilers (which operate at the full firing rate).
o By using condensing modulating boilers.
o By using non-condensing modulating boiler.
o By setting the controls (thermostats or controller with temperature
sensors) with greater temperature differentials between STOP and
START.
 At Non-Condensing Boilers make provisions so that minimum return water
temperature of 130 °F (54 °C) to 150 °F (66 °C) to the boiler to avoid fireside
corrosion.
o By setting the MINIMUM OFF times at 8 to 15 minutes. For comfort
heating loads, short time intervals do not usually trigger occupant
complaints.[7]
Common provisions are to provide a primary piping loop with pump(s) and a secondary piping
loop with pump(s); and either a variable speed controlled pump to transfer water from the
primary loop to the secondary loop, or a 3-way valve to divert water from the secondary loop to
the primary loop.[8]
Fireside corrosion in non-condensing boilers[edit]
A minimum return water temperature of 130 °F (54 °C) to 150 °F (66 °C) to the boiler,
depending on the specific design, is used to avoid condensing water vapor from the flue gas and
dissolving CO
2 and SO
2 from the flue gasses forming carbolic and sulfuric acid, a corrosive fluid that damages the heat
exchanger.[9]
Condensing boilers[edit]
Condensing boilers can be 2% or more efficient at lower firing rates by extracting the heat of
vaporization from the water vapor in the flue gases. The efficiency increase depends on the fuel
and the available energy to be recovered as a fraction of the total. Methane flue gas containing
more available energy to recover than propane or fuel oil relatively less. The condensed water is
corrosive due to dissolved carbon dioxide and sulfur oxides from the flue and must be
neutralized before disposal.[9]
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Condensing boilers have a higher seasonal efficiency, typically 84% to 92%, than non-
condensing boilers typically 70% to 75%. The seasonal efficiency is an overall efficiency of the
boiler over the entire heating season as opposed to the combustion efficiency which is the
boiler's efficiency when actively fired, which excludes standing losses. The higher seasonal
efficiency is partly because the lower boiler temperature used to condense the flue gas reduces
standing losses during the off cycle. The lower boiler temperature precludes a condensing steam
boiler and requires lower radiator temperatures in water systems.
The higher efficiency of operating in the condensing region isn't always available. To produce
satisfactory domestic hot water frequently requires boiler water temperature higher than allows
effective condensing on the heat exchanger surface. During cold weather the building's radiator
surface area is usually not large enough to deliver enough heat at low boiler temperatures so the
boiler's control raises the boiler temperature as required to meet heating demand. These two
factors account for most of the variability of the efficiency gains experienced at different
installations.[9]

Maintenance[edit]
An intensive schedule of maintenance is needed to keep a high pressure railway steam boiler in
safe condition.
Daily inspection[edit]
The tube plates, the fusible plug and the heads of the firebox stays should be checked for leaks.
The correct operation of the boiler fittings, especially the water gauges and water feed
mechanisms, should be confirmed. Steam pressure should be raised to the level at which
the safety valves lift and compared with the indication of the pressure gauge.
Washout[edit]

Cutaway of locomotive boiler. Note the narrow water spaces around the firebox and the
"mudhole" for access to the crown sheet: these areas require special attention during washout
The working life of a locomotive boiler is considerably extended if it is spared from a constant
cycle of cooling and heating. Historically, a locomotive would be kept “in steam” continuously
for a period of about eight to ten days, and then allowed to cool sufficiently for a hot-water boiler
washout. The schedule for express engines was based on mileage.[10] Today's preserved
locomotives are not usually kept continuously in steam and the recommended washout interval is
now fifteen to thirty days, but anything up to 180 days is possible.[11]
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The process starts with a “blowdown” while some pressure remains in the boiler, then the
draining away of all the boiler water through the “mudholes” at the base of the firebox and the
removal of all the “washout plugs”. Scale is then jetted or scraped from the interior surfaces
using a high-pressure water jet and rods of soft metal, such as copper. Areas particularly
susceptible to scale buildup, such as the firebox crown and narrow water spaces around the
firebox, are given special attention. The inside of the boiler is inspected by sighting through the
plug holes, with a particular check paid to the integrity of the firetubes, firebox crown and stays
and absence of pitting or cracking of the boiler plates. The gauge glass cocks and tubes and
fusible plug should be cleared of scale; if the core of the fusible plug shows signs of calcination
the item should be replaced.[12]
On reassembly care should be taken that the threaded plugs are replaced in their original holes:
the tapers can vary as a result of rethreading. The mudhole door gaskets, if of asbestos, should be
renewed but those made of lead may be reused; special instructions are in force for the disposal
of these harmful materials.[11] Many boilers today make use of high temperature synthetics for the
gaskets for both working environments and in preservation service as these materials are safer
than the historic options. At large maintenance facilities the boiler would have been both washed
and refilled with very hot water from an external supply to bring the locomotive back to service
more quickly.
Periodic examination[edit]
Typically an annual inspection, this would require the removal and check of external fittings,
such as the injectors, safety valves and pressure gauge. High-pressure copper pipework can
suffer from work hardening in use and become dangerously brittle: it may be necessary to treat
these by annealing before refitting. A hydraulic pressure test on the boiler and pipework may
also be called for.
General overhaul[edit]
In the UK the specified maximum interval between full overhauls is ten years. To enable a full
inspection the boiler is lifted from the locomotive frame and the lagging removed. All firetubes
are removed for checking or replacement. All fittings are removed for overhaul. Before returning
to use a qualified examiner will check the boiler's fitness for service and issue a safety certificate
valid for ten years.[11]

4 Different Designs of the Fire Tube Boiler

Home » Blog » 4 Different Designs of the Fire Tube Boiler

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Fire tube boilers are designed to transfer hot gases from the heating source and cycle these gases
through tubes that circulate through a drum filled with water. This process effectively transfers
the heat from the gas into the water, which effectively generates steam.

Due to this relatively simple design, fire tube boilers are easy to operate and inexpensive to
purchase. With the ability to generate medium to low degrees of pressure, fire tube are
exceptionally versatile and able to be configured in a variety of designs. The following
information explains some of the most common designs for fire tube boilers.

1. Horizontal Return Tubular Fire Tube Boiler

As one of the oldest and most simple designs for industrial boilers, the Horizontal Return
Tubular fire tube boilers are still being produced today. It features a shell, a tube sheet on each
end of the shell, and tubes that connect both tube sheets.
The boiler is mounted above the masonry or steel furnace. Once the combustion products leave
the furnace, it's directed through the tubes on the end of the boiler. After going through the tubes,
the combustion products leave the other end of the boiler. The combustion products are directed
to the chimney or stack.

2. Firebox Boiler Design

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The firebox boiler design utilizes locomotive boilers and fire tube firebox boilers. As a one-pass
boiler design, the combustion products pass through the locomotive boiler once. Depending on
the arrangement of the tubes and baffles, some firebox boiler designs may be a three-pass or two-
pass.

The most common characteristic of the firebox boiler design is a furnace that may be contained
partially in the boiler. The furnace is cooled by water for the majority of its entire surface area.

Multi-pass boilers are an extremely common option. These boilers are typically found in
colleges, universities, or areas where the system is used to produce steam for space heating or
use to create hot water.

3. Scotch Fire Tube Boiler Design

The scotch fire tube boiler design is most commonly referred to as the scotch marine boiler. With
this design, the furnace is a big diameter tube located inside of the boiler. The furnace and boiler
are circumferenced by water.
Some of the larger, older scotch boilers would have two or even three different boilers. However,
most of today's modern scotch boilers only have one. Depending on the arrangement of the tubes
and baffles, these systems can be two, three, or even four-pass.

Systems with four passes are typically recognized as the best option when balancing
condensation induced corrosion and economic heat transfer. With every pass through the boiler,
heat from the combustion products is transferred to the water located in the boiler. After a certain
number of passes, it increasingly becomes economically difficult to extract heat from cooling
products of combustion. At the same time, if the combustion products cool too much, the gases
for combustion will condense, which can lead to corrosion.

Wet-Back & Dry-Back Scotch Boilers

Wet-back scotch boilers feature a design where the end closure is opposite of the burner end of
the boiler. As the name suggests, wet-back refers to the fact the end closure is cooled by water.
On the other hand, a dry-back design means the end closure isn't cooled by water. Dry-back
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

designs rely on a refractory, fire brick, or some combination of the two to avoid the end closure
from overheating.

4. Vertical Fire Tube Boiler Design

As a one-pass boiler design, vertical fire tube boiler has the furnace on the bottom. The tubes run
between the upper and lower tube sheets. With this type of design, the furnace may be comprised
of masonry or enclosed on its sides with a water-cooled jacket.

Wet-Top & Dry-Top Vertical Tube

The top tube sheet can be below or above the water line. When the top tube sheet is below, it's
known as a wet-top; but when it's above the water line, it's known as a dry-top. One of the most
attractive facets of vertical boilers is a relatively small footprint.s

These types of systems are optimum for facilities with space restrictions. Due to this facet,
vertical boiler systems are extremely popular within the dry cleaning industry.

WATER TUBE BOILER

Water flows through tubes that are surrounded by hot combustion gases in a shell.
• Usually rated in tons of steam/hr
• Used for H.P. steam
• High capacity
 In recent years, interest has been revived in high temperature hot water heating systems
for institutional, industrial and commercial plants. By increasing the temperature and
pressure of the hot water and increasing the size of the generators,
 some advantages are gained over the low pressure steam heating systems previously
used. In other cases, special forced circulation boilers have been designed, which consist
of many rows of tubes without a steam drum. In another type, heat is supplied by steam
from a standard type of boiler which heats the water in a direct contact heater. This is
referred to as a cascade system.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

WATERTUBE BOILER
Advantages:
• Rapid heat transmission
• Fast reaction to steam demand
• High efficiency
• Safer than firetube boilers
Disadvantages:
• More control than fire tube boilers
• Higher initial cost
• More complicated to operate
D-type boiler[edit]
The 'D-type' is the most common type of small- to medium-sized boilers, similar to the one
shown in the schematic diagram. It is used in both stationary and marine applications. It consists
of a large steam drum vertically connected to a smaller water drum (a.k.a. "mud drum") via
multiple steam-generating tubes. These are surrounded by walls made up of larger water-filled
tubes, which make up the furnace.
M-type boilers[edit]
The M-type boilers were used in many US World War II warships including hundreds
of Fletcher-class destroyers. Three sets of tubes form the shape of an M, and create a separately
fired superheater that allows better superheat temperature control. In addition to the mud drum
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

shown on a D-type boiler, an M-type has a water-screen header and a waterwall header at the
bottom of the two additional rows of vertical tubes and downcomers.
Low water content[edit]
The low water content boiler has a lower and upper header connected by watertubes that are
directly impinged upon from the burner. This is a "furnace-less" boiler that can generate steam
and react quickly to changes in load.
Babcock & Wilcox boiler[edit]

Babcock & Wilcox boiler

Designed by the American firm of Babcock & Wilcox, this type has a single drum, with
feedwater drawn from the bottom of the drum into a header that supplies inclined water-tubes.
The watertubes supply steam back into the top of the drum. Furnaces are located below the tubes
and drum.
This type of boiler was used by the Royal Navy's Leander-class frigates.
Stirling boiler[edit]
Main article: Stirling boiler

The Stirling boiler has near-vertical, almost-straight watertubes that zig-zag between a number of
steam and water drums. Usually there are three banks of tubes in a "four drum" layout, but
certain applications use variations designed with a different number of drums and banks.
They are mainly used as stationary boilers, owing to their large size, although the large grate area
does also encourage their ability to burn a wide range of fuels. Originally coal-fired in power
stations, they also became widespread in industries that produced combustible waste and
required process steam. Paper pulp mills could burn waste bark, sugar refineries
their bagasse waste. It is a horizontal drum type of boiler.
Yarrow[edit]
Main article: Yarrow boiler
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

End-view of a Yarrow boiler

Named after its designers, the then Poplar-based Yarrow Shipbuilders, this type of three-drum
boiler has three drums in a delta formation connected by watertubes. The drums are linked by
straight watertubes, allowing easy tube-cleaning. This does, however, mean that the tubes enter
the drums at varying angles, a more difficult joint to caulk. Outside the firebox, a pair of cold-
leg pipes between each drum act as downcomers.[14]
Due to its three drums, the Yarrow boiler has a greater water capacity. Hence, this type is usually
used in older marine boiler applications. Its compact size made it attractive for use in
transportable power generation units during World War II. In order to make it transportable, the
boiler and its auxiliary equipment (fuel oil heating, pumping units, fans etc.), turbines,
and condensers were mounted on wagons to be transported by rail.
White-Forster[edit]
The White-Forster type is similar to the Yarrow, but with tubes that are gradually curved. This
makes their entry into the drums perpendicular, thus simpler to make a reliable seal. [14]
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Thornycroft[edit]

End-view of a Thornycroft boiler

Designed by the shipbuilder John I. Thornycroft & Company, the Thornycroft type features a
single steam drum with two sets of watertubes either side of the furnace. These tubes, especially
the central set, have sharp curves. Apart from obvious difficulties in cleaning them, this may also
give rise to bending forces as the tubes warm up, tending to pull them loose from the tubeplate
and creating a leak. There are two furnaces, venting into a common exhaust, giving the boiler a
wide base tapering profile.[14]
Forced circulation boiler[edit]
In a forced circulation boiler, a pump is added to speed up the flow of water through the tubes.[15]
Other types[edit]

 O-type boiler
 A-type boiler
 Flex-tube boiler
 M-type control superheater

CHAPTER 4: STEAM DISTRIBUTION

The purpose of steam distribution system is to deliver steam from the point of generation to the
point of use.

Steam distribution piping

2.2 Pipes
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

This section describes the pipework of a steam system.5 2.2.1 Pipe material Pipes for steam
systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 Al06. The same material
may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in some industries. For
high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as 5 Section 2.2 is
a summary of information in Module 10.2 Pipes and Pipe Sizing, and Module 10.3 Steam Mains
and Drainage. In: Spirax Sarco Learning Centre, Block 10, ‘Steam Distribution’.
www.spiraxsarco.com chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and
creep resistance at high temperatures. Typically, pipes are supplied in 6-meter lengths.

2.2.2 Pipeline sizing The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the
correct pressure to the point of use. Pipeline sizing is an important factor. Oversized pipework
means: ß Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary. ß Higher installation
costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc. ß For steam pipes a greater vo
lume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss. This in turn means that either
more steam trapping is required or wet steam is delivered to the point of use. Undersized
pipework means: ß A lower pressure may only be available at the point of use. This may hinder
equipment performance due to only lower pressure steam being available. ß There is a risk of
steam starvation. ß There is a greater risk of erosion, water hammer and noise due to the inherent
increase in steam velocity. The require pipeline size can be calculated based on pressure drop
and velocity described below. a) Pipeline sizing based on pressure drop Pressure drop through
the distribution system is an important feature. In practice whether for water pipes or steam
pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and pressure loss. Pressure drop as a general rule,
should not exceed 0.1 bar/50 m. Pipe sizing can be computed using the chart in Figure 4. Those
who prefer tables instead of graphs can use Table 2 to determine the pipeline size. An example
calculation is as follows: Given: ß Inlet pressure P1 = 7 bar g ß Steam flowrate = 286 kg/h ß
Minimum allowable P2 = 6.6 bar g ß Length of pipeline = 165 m Calculate the maximum
pressure drop per 100 m Maximum pressure drop per 100 m = P1 – P2 x 100 L = (7.0 – 6.6) x
100 165 = 0.24 ba

2.2.3 Piping layout The European Standard EN45510, Section 4.12 states that whenever
possible, steam mains should be installed with a fall of not less than 1:100 (1 m fall for every 100
m run), in the direction of the steam flo w. This slope will ensure that gravity, as well as the flow
of steam, will assist in moving the condensate towards drain points where the condensate may be
safely and effectively removed (Figure 6).
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

2.3 Drain points The drain point6 must ensure that the condensate can reach the steam trap.
Careful consideration must therefore be given to the design and location of the drain points.
Consideration must also be given to condensate remaining in a steam main at shutdown, when
steam flow ceases. Gravity will ensure that the water (condensate) will run along sloping
pipework and collect at low points in the system. Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these
low points. The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main under start-up conditions is
sufficient to require the provision of drain points at intervals of 30m to 50m, as well as natural
low points such as at the bottom of rising pipework. In normal operation, steam may flow along
the main at speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging condensate along with it. Figure 7 shows a 15
mm drain pipe connected directly to the bottom of a main.

Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is unlikely to capture much of the condensate
moving along the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffective. A more reliable
solution for the removal of condensate is shown in Figure 8. The trap line should be at least 25 to
30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for
larger mains. This allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle. Such dirt and scale can
easily be removed if the bottom of the pocket is fitted with a removable flange or blowdown
valve.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

2.4.1 Branch line connections

Branch line connections taken from the top of the main line, carry the driest steam (Figure 10).
If connections are taken from the side, or even worse from the bottom (as in Figure 11a), they
can accept the condensate and debris from the steam main. The result is very wet and dirty steam
reaching the equipment, which will affect performance in both the short and long term. The
valve in Figure 11b should be positioned as near to the off-take as possible to minimize
condensate lying in the branch line, if the plant is likely to be shutdown for any extended
periods.

2.4.2 Drop leg Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most common is a drop leg close
to an isolating valve or a control valve (Figure 12). Condensate can accumulate on the upstream
side of the closed valve, and then be propelled forward with the steam when the valve opens
again - consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good practice just prior to the strainer
and control valve.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

2.4.3 Rising Ground and Drainage There are many occasions when a steam main must run
across rising ground, or applications where the contours of the site make it impractical to lay the
pipe with the 1:100 fall. In these situations, the condensate must be encouraged to run downhill
and against the steam flow. Good practice is to size the pipe on a low steam velocity of not more
than 15 m/s, to run the line at a slope of no less than 1:40, and install the drain points at not more
than 15 meter intervals (see Figure 13). The objective is to prevent the condensate film on the
bottom of the pipe increasing in thickness to the point where droplets can be picked up by the
steam flow.

2.5 Strainers This section provides an overview of strainers.8 As the marketplace becomes
increasingly competitive, more emphasis has been placed on reducing plant downtime and
maintenance. In steam and condensate systems, damage to plant is frequently caused by pipeline
debris such as scale, rust, jointing compound, weld metal and other solids, which may find their
way into the pipeline system. Strainers are devices which arrest these solids in flowing liquids or
gases, and protect equipment from their harmful effects, thus reducing downtime and
maintenance. A strainer should be fitted upstream of every steam trap, flow meter and control
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

valve. Strainers can be classified into two main types according to their body configuration;
namely the Y-type and the basket type. Typical examples of these types of strainers can be seen
in Figure 14.

4.1 Steam traps

A steam trap is a device used to discharge condensates and non-condensable gases with a
negligible consumption or loss of live steam

Steam traps are designed to retain the steam in a radiator or other using device until it changes
into condensate. After the steam has turned into condensate, the trap releases the water so it can
enter the return lines. However, it keeps the steam coming into the radiator from escaping. The
trap performs an important function since the excessive accumulation of water prevents the
proper heating of the radiator or other steam equipment. Also, steam that is permitted to blow
through a defective trap results in heat loss.

4.1.1 Types of Traps

Traps are generally classified according to their operation. The most common types of traps are
float, bucket thermostatic, float thermostatic, impulse, thermodynamic, throttling, and bimetallic
element.

a.) Float Trap

The float trap normally consists of a body, float, linkage, seat, and valve. A
typical float trap is shown in Figure 10-11. As water enters the trap, the float rises,
opens the valve, and allows the accumulation of water to flow into the return lines
that take it to the boiler. When the water has run out, the float falls, closes the
valve, and traps the steam. The maintenance to be done on a float trap is simple.
One of the most common difficulties is that the float gets water in it and does not
rise. In this case, the float must be replaced. The valve sometimes gets plugged or
worn and has to be cleaned or replaced.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

b.) Ball float trap

In a ball-float trap, the valve of the trap is connected to the float so the valve opens when the
float rises. When the trap is in operation, the steam and water that may be mixed with it flow into
the float chamber. As the water level rises, the float is lifted, thereby lifting the valve plug and
opening the valve. The condensate drains out and the float moves down to a lower position, then
closes the valve. The condensate that passes out of the trap is returned to the feed system.

c.)Bucket Trap There are two types of bucket traps: the upright and the inverted. An example
of the inverted bucket trap is shown in Figure 10-12. During operation of the upright bucket
trap, the steam and water both enter the trap body. As the water enters, it causes the bucket
to float and the valve to close. The water continues to rise; it overflows into the bucket, which
sinks. When the bucket sinks, the trap valve is opened and the steam pressure forces the water
out. When all of the water is expelled from the bucket, the bucket again floats, the valve closes,
and the cycle starts again.

D.) Inverse bucket Trap

During the operation of the inverted bucket trap, the steam Figure 10-12 -Inverted bucket trap.
and water both enter under the bucket. The steam makes the bucket buoyant, causes it to rise,
and closes the valve. When the steam condenses, the bucket drops, opens the valve, and the
steam blows the water out of the trap. Maintenance on bucket traps consists mainly of cleaning
and inspecting them periodically. If the trap begins to leak steam, replace the valve disk and
seat. However, if the bucket fails to open the valve, the trap usually becomes waterlogged.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

When a valve disk or seat becomes damaged, the trap allows steam to leak through. The
condensate return line becomes excessively hot when the trap is leaking steam. Bucket traps
contain some water at all times. Therefore, they must be drained when the system is to be off
during freezing weather.

e.) Thermostatic Trap The thermostatic trap is often used on radiators and is commonly known
as a radiator trap. It has a bellows that contains volatile fluid that expands and vaporizes when
heated. Pressure builds up inside the bellows and causes it to lengthen and close the valve. A
typical thermostatic trap is shown in Figure 10-13. When water collects around and cools the
bellows, the bellows contracts. This action opens the valve and permits water to escape. As the
water goes out, the steam that enters contacts the bellows and causes it to expand, closing the
valve and preventing the steam from escaping. The most common trouble with the thermostatic
trap is that the bellows develops holes, fails to work, and has to be replaced. The bellows and
lower valve seat can be removed for repair without disconnecting any of the piping.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

f.) Float Thermostatic Trap The float thermostatic trap operates on the principle of the float
trap and the thermostatic trap. Practically the same maintenance is required. A typical example of
the float thermostatic trap is shown in Figure 10-14. The thermostatic bellows acts as an air
eliminator.

g.) Impulse Trap The operation of the impulse trap is based on the principle that a portion of hot
water, under pressure, flashes into steam when its pressure is reduced (Figure 10-15). The trap is
operated by a moving valve impelled by changes of pressure in a control chamber. The valve has
tiny orifices drilled through its center that allow the continuous bypassing of condensate from the
inlet of Figure 10-14 - Float thermostatic trap. the trap to the control chamber. This bypassing
reduces the chamber pressure below the inlet pressure so the valve opens and allows free
discharge of the condensate. The temperature of the remaining condensate rises and flashes back
to steam. The flow through the valve orifice is choked and pressure builds up in the control
chamber, closing the valve. About 5 percent of the rated capacity of the trap flows through the
valve orifice. The pressure on the discharge side of the trap should not be over 25 percent of the
inlet pressure if the trap is to function properly. Very little maintenance, except some periodic
cleaning, is required for the impulse trap. The trap may be disassembled for cleaning or repairing
without disturbing any of the piping.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

h.) Thermodynamic Trap A typical thermodynamic trap is shown in Figure 10-16. It contains
only one moving part-a disk. This disk is operated by changes in steam pressure. Pressure under
the disk raises it to allow the condensate to be discharged. Droplets of condensate form on top of
the disk. Then steam enters at high velocity and creates a low pressure under the disk; the
droplets of water above the disk then flash into steam and create a high pressure above the disk.
(Water expands to as much as 1,728 times its volume when it changes to steam.) The high
pressure against the top of the disk overcomes the lower pressure of the incoming steam, so the
trap closes. As more condensate collects in the trap, Figure 10-16 -Thermodynamic steam trap.
the steam above the disk condenses and relieves the high pressure and the cycle is repeated. The
most common trouble is that the trap becomes plugged and has to be disassembled and cleaned.
The thermodynamic trap can be cleaned or repaired without disturbing any of the piping. Very
little other maintenance is required for this trap because of its simple construction. Also, the trap
is usually constructed of stainless steel. 3.3.1.8

i.) Throttling Trap

The operation of the throttling trap is based on the principle that the flow of water
through an orifice decreases as its temperature approaches that of the steam used (Figure
10-17). The rate of flow of the condensate may be adjusted by raising or lowering a stem
(needle valve) that fits into a tapered seat. This throttling trap has no moving parts.
Condensate that is slightly cooler Figure 10-17 -Throttling trap. NAVEDTRA 14265A
10-18 than steam enters the trap, travels up through a baffle arrangement, and is
discharged through an orifice. If the condensate discharge rate is higher than the inlet
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

rate, the water (condensate) level in the chamber drops. This allows steam to enter the
baffle passage and heat the condensate. The amount of water flashing into steam
increases, so the volume of steam-water mixture handled by the orifice increases and
thereby reduces the capacity of the orifice. The reduced flow through the orifice permits
the level of condensate in the chamber to rise until the heater water in the baffle passage
has been completely discharged and replaced with water that is slightly cooler. Then the
cycle is repeated. Air is vented from this trap through the same passage as the
condensate. The throttling trap can be replaced without disturbing any of the piping.

i) Bimetallic-Element Trap
The bimetallic-element trap contains bimetallic elements that bend when heated
(Figure 10-18). The metals in the bimetallic strip generally are Emvar and copper.
The copper expands rapidly when heated, but Emvar expands very little.
Therefore, the bimetallic strip bends when it is heated. This trap may be used for
higher or lower steam pressure by increasing or decreasing the number of
bimetallic leaves in the trap. Figure 10-18-Bimetallic-element steam trap. This
trap works basically the same as the thermostatic trap. When steam enters the
trap, the element is heated and bends, thus closing the valve. As steam condenses,
the elements cool and straighten out to allow the valve to open and let the
condensate escape. The bimetallic trap can be repaired without disturbing any of
the piping.

General Pointers on Operating Procedures To help ensure trouble-free service of steam

traps.

Some important factors involving operating procedures are furnished below.

• Steam traps should be operated within the capacity rating and pressure differentials
recommended by the manufacturer. Use traps for the correct pressure and temperature. If
operating pressures change, it may be necessary to change trap sizes, or internal parts, to fit the
new pressure conditions.

• Traps should be insulated where heat must be conserved. Some types of traps which depend on
the cooling effect of the condensate for operation should be left bare. Check the manufacturer's
instructions regarding insulation.

• Where continuity of service is a requirement, a three-valve bypass is usually provided to permit

drainage while the trap is being overhauled. Bypasses are also used to speed up the discharge of
condensate and air when you are starting a system. In normal operation, however, the bypass
valve should be kept closed to prevent steam from being wasted.

• Check valves, located in the discharge line, are important in parallel installations to prevent the
discharge of one trap from backing up into that of another. Also, when condensate from the trap
must discharge to a higher elevation, a check valve prevents backflow of condensate.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

• Inverted bucket traps must be primed for operation by providing a condensate seal in the
bottom of the trap. Prime the trap before starting operation by removing the test plug on top of
the trap and filling the trap with water. If no test plug is available, the trap can be primed by
closing the discharge valve and opening the steam supply valve slowly until the steam is
condensed and the trap is filled with condensate.

• Blow down steam traps periodically to rid them of dirt and sediment. Blow down and clean
strainers as required.

• When overhauling traps, do not remove thermostatic elements while hot. This practice may
result in expansion beyond the stroke range of the bellows or diaphragm.

• Periodically, open the air vents of float traps not provided with thermostatic air vents to vent
out accumulated air.

Steam Trap Tests Methods for testing traps without breaking the installation are stated
below.

a.) Test Valve Method Close the discharge valve and open the test valve. Observe discharge
characteristics. Intermittent discharge, dribble, or semi-continuous discharge indicates correct
operation. A continuous steam blow indicates loss of prime, defective valve operation, or foreign
matter embedded in the valve seat. A continuous condensate flow may indicate that the trap is
too small, the amount of condensate is abnormally high, or a pressure differential that is too low.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 10-20

b.) Glove Test Method Grab inlet and outlet pipes simultaneously, using a canvas glove on each
hand for protection. A slight temperature difference indicates that no condensate is passing.

c.) Pyrometer Test Method This method is more accurate than the previous one, as it uses a
surface contact pyrometer to check inlet and outlet temperatures. File a clean spot on both pipes
before taking readings.

d.) Pyrometric Crayon Test Method Temperature-indicating crayons can be used when no
pyrometer is available. Select crayons of proper temperature ratings and mark the required pipe
spots. When the crayon marks melt, the temperature of the test spots corresponds to those of the
crayon ratings.

e.) Ear Test Method

Hold one end of a metal rod to the trap body and place the other end in your ear, or use an
engineer's stethoscope. If the trap is operating properly, you will hear the regular opening and
closing of the valve. If operation is defective, you will hear considerable rattling or the
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

continuous flow of steam. 3.3.3.6 Protection Against Freezing Protect traps from freezing in cold
weather. If the steam is shut off during freezing weather, drain the traps and piping of all
condensate. Make certain insulation is in good condition. The inverted bucket is especially prone
to freezing because, in normal operation, it is half filled with water.

4.2 WATER HAMMER

Waterhammer is condensate in the steam system that is picked up by moving steam and can
cause damage to pipelines, fittings and steam traps.

Symptoms of waterhammer are often attributed to malfunction of the steam trap. A more likely
explanation is that a faulty steam trap has been damaged by waterhammer.

Waterhammer can be caused in a number of ways, including: ß Failure to remove condensate

from the path of high velocity steam in the pipework.

From an application, which is temperature controlled and where condensate has to lift to a return
line, or return to a pressurized system. ß The inability of condensate to properly enter or travel
along an undersized return line, due to either

(a) flooding,
(b) or (b) overpressurisation with the throttling effects of flash steam. The problem of
waterhammer can be eliminated by positioning the pipes so that there is a continuous
slope in the direction of flow. A slope of at least 12 mm in every 3 metres is necessary, as
also an adequate number of drain points every 30 to 50 metres.

Water Hammer Is Never Normal; It Is Abnormal Water hammer is not only a system issue; it is
primarily a safety issue. Understanding the nature and severity of water hammer in a steam and
condensate system, will allow facilities to avoid its destructive forces. A greater understanding
should also help with the introduction of preventative measures into system designs, steam
system startups, maintenance and installations. This will additionally help provide maximum
safety for personnel, reduce maintenance cost, and reduced system downtime. Water hammer; in
its most severe form, can injure or even cause fatalities to plant personnel. Unfortunately, a high
percentage (82%) of the steam systems are experiencing some type of water hammer.

Many mistakenly believe that water hammer is unavoidable, and a natural part The Number One
Problem in a Steam System–Water Hammer of steam and condensate systems. This is entirely
false. If the system is properly designed and correctly operated, water hammer in any form will
not occur. It is possible to have high pressure steam systems operating without water hammer,
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

and a long operational life from the steam components. Where Does Water Hammer Occur?
Water hammer can occur in any steam or condensate line. Its effects can be even more
pronounced in heterogeneous or condensate bi-phase systems. Condensate bi-phase systems
contain two states, the liquid (condensate) and a vapor (flash or generated steam). The bi-phase
condition exists in a steam system where condensate coexists with generated steam or flash
steam. Typical examples include heat exchangers, tracer lines, steam mains, condensate return
lines and sometimes, pump discharge lines. A common example of water hammer occurs during
the startup or energizing of a steam system. If the steam line is energized too quickly with out
proper warm up time and the condensate created during the startup is not being properly
removed; water hammer will be the result.

Effects of Water Hammer

The effect of water hammer cannot be underestimated as its forces have been documented to
result in many of the following:

1. Collapse the elements in all designs of steam traps

2. Overstress pressure gauges

3. Bend internal system mechanisms

4. Crack steam trap bodies

5. Rupture pipe fittings

6. Cause valve failures

7. Cause heat exchanger equipment tube failures

8. Break pipe welds and even rupture piping systems

9. Failure of pipe supports. When water hammer is severe, it can result in not only damage to
equipment, but also possible injury to plant personnel.

Water hammer may be occurring and yet silent to personnel. This means water hammer is not
always accompanied by audible noise that can be heard by the human ear. For example, a steam
bubble may be small in size and yet the collapsing bubble creates a thermal shock that is not
heard by the human ear. However, damage to steam and condensate components is still
occurring. The continuing banging or audible sound accompanying water hammer should be
interpreted as the way the steam system is trying to communicate with plant personnel. This
audible noise should be an alarm meaning, fix the water hammer problem or damage will occur.
This water hammer sound means something in the system is wrong and needs to be corrected.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Evidence gathered while conducting root cause analysis on steam component failure suggested
water hammer causes 67% of the premature component failures.

Conditions Causing Water Hammer

Four conditions have been identified as causes of violent reactions from water hammer:

1. Hydraulic shock

2. Thermal shock

3. Flow shock

4. Differential shock

1. Hydraulic Shock

A small percentage of the water hammer problems found in a steam system are caused by
hydraulic shock. This type can be easily described by using the example of a household faucet.
Swagelok Energy Advisors, Inc. Document No. 11 When the faucet in a home opens, a solid
shaft of water is moving through the pipes from the point where it enters the house to the outlet
of the faucet. This could be 200 pounds of water moving at 10 feet per second or about seven
miles per hour. When the faucet is suddenly shut, it could be compared to a 200-pound hammer
coming to a stop. There is a noticeable bang heard in the system when the faucet is closed. This
shockwave sound is similar to a hammer hitting a piece of steel. The shock pressure wave of
about 300-psi is reflected back and forth from end to end until the energy is dissipated in the
piping system. This is the same action that can take place in the suction or discharge piping in a
steam and condensate system. Pumps are often installed with check valves. As the pump starts
and stops, hydraulic shock can occur as the flow rapidly stops and the check valves restrict the
flow in one direction. Slow closure of the valve, just like slowly closing a faucet, is the solution
to this problem. When a column of water is slowed before it is stopped, its momentum is reduced
gradually, and therefore, damaging water hammer will not be produced.

2. Thermal Shock

One pound of steam at 0 psi occupies 1,600 times the volume of a pound of water at atmospheric
conditions. This ratio drops proportionately as the condensate line pressure increases. When the
steam collapses, water is accelerated into the resulting vacuum from all directions with great
speeds. In bi-phase condensate systems, steam bubbles may be introduced below the level of
condensate in a condensate line. For example, a branch line from a steam trap may be piped to
the bottom of a condensate main header. The pressure in the condensate line (lower pressure =
lower temperature) is lower than the flash steam temperature. The condensate cools the flash
steam bubble and the steam bubble collapses immediately. While collapsing, a void is created in
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

the volume of the pipe and condensate rushes to fill this void, thus causing an audible pinging
sound.

Flow Shock

Flow shock is most commonly caused by lack of proper drainage ahead of a steam line isolation
valve or steam control valve. For example, consider a steam line isolation valve (typically used
with pipe of 3 in. or larger) opened without the use of a warm up. When the large valve is
opened, steam rushes down a cold pipe producing a large quantity of condensate at high velocity.
This condensate will continue to build in mass as it travels along the pipe and a large wave of
condensate is created. The wave will travel at a high velocity until there is a sudden change in
direction, possibly an elbow or valve in the line. When the condensate changes direction, the
sudden stop will generate water hammer. When a steam control valve opens, a slug of
condensate enters the equipment at a high velocity. Water hammer is produced when the
condensate impinges on the heat exchanger tubes or walls. Additionally, water hammer from
thermal shock will result from the mixing of steam and condensate that follows the relatively
cooler condensate. The above CAD print is the standard installation of a isolation valve in a
steam system. Two main points are the warm-up valve and the drip leg pocket with a steam trap
ahead of the isolation valve. The installation will prevent waterhammer during startup, and it will
also promote long valve life.

4. Differential Shock

Differential shock, like flow shock, occurs in bi-phase systems. It occurs whenever steam and
condensate flow in the same line, but at different velocities. This is commonly seen in
condensate return lines. Swagelok Energy Advisors, Inc. Document No. 11 In bi-phase systems,
velocity of the steam is often 10 times the velocity of the liquid. If condensate waves rise and fill
a pipe, a seal is formed temporarily between the upstream and downstream side of the
condensate wave. Since the steam cannot flow through the condensate seal, pressure drops on the
downstream side. The pressure differential now drives the condensate seal at a high velocity
downstream accelerating it like a piston. As it is driven downstream it picks up more liquid,
which adds to the existing mass of the slug, and the velocity increases. Just as in the example
shown, the slug of condensate gains high momentum and will be forced to change direction due
to a tee, elbow or valve in the line. The result is usually great damage when the condensate slug
pounds into the wall of a valve or fitting while changing direction. Since having a bi-phase
mixture is possible in most condensate return lines, correctly sizing condensate return lines
becomes essential. Condensate normally flows at the bottom of a return line with the assistance
of gravity. Condensate flows naturally because of the pitch in the pipe and also because the
higher velocity flash steam above it, pulls it along. The flash steam moves at a higher velocity
because it moves by differential pressure. Flash steam occurs in return lines when condensate
discharges into these lines that are operating at a lower pressure. The lower pressure causes a
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

percentage of the condensate to flash back to steam at the given saturation pressure. If the lines
are also undersized, additional pressure is created in the line. This pressure pushes the flash
steam at relatively higher velocities toward the condensate receiver, where it is vented to
atmosphere. Heat loss of the flash steam while moving in the line causes some of the flash steam
to condense which contributes to this pressure difference and amplifies the velocity. Because the
flash steam moves faster than the condensate, it makes waves. As long as these waves are not
high enough to touch the top of the pipe and do not close off the flash steam’s passageway, there
isn’t a problem. This is why larger sized condensate return lines are preferred. To control
differential shock, the condensate seal must be prevented from forming in a bi-phase system.
Steam mains must be properly trapped and condensate lines must be properly sized. The length
of horizontal lines to the trap’s inlet should be minimized. Steam main drainage is one of the
most common applications for steam traps. It is important that water is removed from steam
mains as quickly as possible, for reasons of safety and to permit greater plant efficiency. A build-
up of water can lead to water hammer, and as we have already discussed, the water hammer can
have any number of adverse effects on the steam and condensate components of a system.

Preventing or Resolving Water Hammer

There are a variety of design or system changes that can be implemented to prevent or eliminate
water hammer: 1. Proper training for plant personnel.

2. Ensure correct steam and condensate design

3. Have documented SOP’s (standard operation procedures) for steam system startups and shut
downs. 4. Have installation standards for steam components.

5. Properly specify and place steam line drip steam traps on the steam system.

6. Correct condensate connections of branch lines to the main condensate line and enter only on
the top. 7. Use steam traps that are properly sized and appropriate for the application.

8. Use warm up valves on steam line isolation valves larger than 2 inch. Do not “crack open”
large steam isolation valves with the hope of avoiding condensation-induced water hammer. This
will not guarantee safe operation.

9. Check or repair the pipe insulation. It saves energy and reduces accumulation of condensate in
the piping system.

10. Condensate line sizing is crucial to ensure proper operation of the steam system. Under-
sizing the condensate lines is one of the largest contributors to water hammer.

11. System that has a modulating control valve should have a drip leg trap upstream of the valve
to remove condensate during a closed condition for the valve.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

12. Always gravity drain away from the process applications with a modulating control valve.

13. Condensate can be drained into a pressurized condensate return line 14. Properly label the
steam and condensate lines. 15. Remove abandoned steam and condensate lines from the system.
16. Proactive maintenance program.

a) Dirt
b) Dirt is another major factor which must be considered when selecting traps. Although
steam condenses to distilled water, it can sometimes contain trace products of boiler feed
treatment compound and natural minerals found in water. Pipe dirt created during
installation and the products of corrosion also need to be considered. c) Strainers These
devices are frequently forgotten about in steam systems, often, it seems, in an effort to
reduce installation costs. Pipe scale and dirt can affect control valves and steam traps, and
reduce heat transfer rates. It is extremely easy and inexpensive to fit a strainer in a pipe,
and the low cost of doing so will pay dividends throughout the life of the installation.
Scale and dirt are arrested, and maintenance is usually reduced as a result. Selection is
simple. The strainer material is selected to match the type of installation and the system
pressure up to which it is expected to operate. Different filter screen sizes may be
considered for differing degrees of protection. The finer the filter, the more often it may
need cleaning. One thing is certain, strainers are far easier and cheaper to buy and
maintain than control valves or steam traps. d) Steam locking The possibility of steam
locking can sometimes be a deciding factor in the selection of steam traps. It can occur
whenever a steam trap is fitted remotely from the plant being drained. It can become
acute when condensate is removed through a syphon or dip pipe. To relieve this problem
a trap is needed with a 'steam lock release' valve. This is an internal needle valve which
allows the steam locked in the syphon pipe to be bled away past the main valve. The float
trap is the only type of trap with this facility and is the correct choice on rotating
machinery such as drying cylinders. e) Group trapping Group trapping describes the use
of one trap serving more than one application (Figure 25). The original reason for group
trapping was that there used to be only one kind of steam trap. It was the forerunner of
the present day bucket trap, and was very large and expensive. Steam traps today are
considerably smaller and cost effective, allowing individual heat exchangers to be
properly drained. It is always better for steam using equipment to be trapped on an
individual basis rather than on a group basis. Thermal Equipment: Steam distribution and
utilization Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia – www.energyefficiencyasia.org
©UNEP 34 The only satisfactory arrangement is to drain each steam space with own trap
and then connect the outlets of the various traps to the common condensate return main
(Figure 25). f) Diffusers With steam traps draining to atmosphere from open ended pipes,
it is possible to see the discharge of hot condensate. A certain amount of flash steam will
also be present relative to the condensate pressure before the trap. This can present a
hazard to passers by, but the risks can be minimized by reducing the severity of the
discharge. This may be achieved by fitting a simple diffuser (Figure 25) to the end of the
pipe which reduces the ferocity of discharge and sound. Typically, sound levels can be
reduced by up to 80%. Figure 26. Diffuser (Spirax Sarco) Figure 25. Group Trapping and
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Individual Trapping with Common Condensate Return (BEE, 2004) Thermal Equipment:
Steam distribution and utilization Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia –
www.energyefficiencyasia.org ©UNEP 35 g) Drain point The drain point should be large
enough and should be located to allow the condensate to flow into the trap easily. For
example, a 150 mm steam main will require a drain of at least 100 mm diameter and 150
mm deep located at the bottom of the main. Table 4 can be used to select the drain point
dimensions.

Boiler control

1. Boiler Valves
Main Types of Steam Boiler Valves or Safety Valves

Boiler Valves are integral parts in any steam or heated water applications. Boiler valves are
used as safety equipment in steam boilers to control pressure & control temperatures.
There are several types of steam boiler valves available in the market as per the requirement.
Table of Contents
Types of Valves
Main types of boiler valves are as follow:
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Ball Valve

Ball Valve

Ball Valve is a quarter turn operated valve. Ball Valves consists of a closure membrane which is
a spherical plug with a through hole.

When the valve is open the through hole is in line with the fluid flow and it allows the fluid to
flow through it. The valve can be closed by rotating the globe by 90 deg. such that the hole now
becomes perpendicular to the flow and thus stops the flow.

It’s sheets are usually made up of soft materials to offer tight shutoff. Sometimes sheets can be
made from plastic and metals.These valves are not recommended to be used in partial open
conditions.

A large pressure drop occurs in open conditions of the valves due to misalignment between
direction of flow and opening of the plug.

Gate valve

Gate Valve
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Gate valve is a sliding type of Boiler valve. In the gate valve the closure membrane is a metal
gate.

These gates slide down to close the valve. The flow area is equal to the area of the pipe in fully
open condition which results in negligible pressure drop across the valve.

These valves are usually used in on/off condition. In partially open conditions due to vibrations
the valve is exposed to quick wear and tear.These valves find their use in the petrochemical
industry due to the fact that they can work with metal-metal sealing.

Plug valve

Plug valve

Like a ball valve, these valves are quarter turn valves.

These boiler valves consist of a plug which can either be in the shape of a cylinder or
conical.The plug also consists of a through slit which remains in-line with the flow in the open
condition.

When the plug is rotated by 90 Deg., this slit becomes perpendicular to flow and valves get
closed.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Butterfly valve

Butterfly valve

These are the most simple and versatile steam boiler valves. These are also quarter turn operated
valves.quarter turn operation ensures quick operating of the valves.in opening condition there is
minimum hindrance to the flowing fluid through the valves. This results in very less pressure
drop across the valve.

Due to its unique mode of operation, the valve can be actuated easily without requiring wear and
tear.its advantage is its compact size which makes its installation process easy.
Globe valve

Globe valve

Globe valve is a linear motion type of valve and is typically used in both on/off conditions.n
globe valves, the flow of the fluid through the valve follows an S-path.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Due to this, the flow direction changes twice which results in higher pressure drops. Due to other
advantages offered by them, they are widely used in applications where pressure drop through
the valve is not a controlling factor.

These valves can be used in three configurations, depending upon the applications-

1. Tee pattern
2. Angle Pattern
3. Wye Pattern
Disc check valves

Disc check valves

These are also called as non return valves as they allow the flow to pass through them only in
one direction and stop the flow in another direction. Because of this unique property check
valves are used in some critical applications in steam systems.

There are four major types of disc check valves as follows

Lift Check Valve
these work simply on the principle of gravity.When the fluid comes in the forward direction, the
disc gets lifted from the seat against the gravitational force by the force of incoming fluid. The
valve thus allows fluid to pass in this direction. When the fluid comes in the opposite direction, it
supports the force of gravity and the disc remains on the seat, keeping the valve closed.

Swing Check Valve

In this kind of check valve, the disc or the closing element swings around a point to which it is
hinged. When the fluid comes in the forward direction, the disc swings in an open position
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

allowing the fluid to pass. When the fluid flow comes in the opposite direction, the disc swings
and rests on the seat to lose it.
Spring loaded Check Valves
In this kind of check valves, tight shut-off is provided using a spring.the disc on the seat is held
back by the spring.even in the forward flow condition, the fluid should exert some pressure,
called cracking pressure in order to open the disc against the spring pressure.

Diaphragm Type Check Valve

This kind of check valve uses diaphragms arranged in such a way that open to allow the flow
only in forward direction. When flow comes from the reverse direction, the diaphragms remain
closed.

Pressure Reducing Valves for Steam

The pressure reducing valve may be used for water hammer protection under properly defined
conditions. The water hammer events are so fast that the relief of pressure by this means requires
very special rapid response valves designed for the particular system.

Contents:
1. Reducing Steam Pressure
2. Advantages of Pressure Reducing Valves
3. Types of Pressure Reducing Valves for Steam
a. Direct Acting (Non-piloted)
b. Pilot-Operated
4. Summary
In a steam-using plant, steam is often generated at high pressures and reduced locally to provide
heat for each steam user. This is usually done to minimize the diameter of steam distribution
piping and enable more cost-efficient steam delivery.

Reducing Steam Pressure

A common way of lowering pressure is by throttling down the size of the steam passageway. For
the most basic pressure reduction, it is possible to simply use a conventional globe valve in a
fixed partly-open position, or by inserting an orifice plate into the flow of steam. However, any
fluctuation in flow rate would be accompanied by a corresponding fluctuation in pressure. To
avoid such circumstances, pressure reducing valves (PRVs) can be used to provide precise
control of downstream pressure. They automatically adjust the amount of valve opening to allow
the pressure to remain unchanged even when the flow rate fluctuates.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Advantages of Pressure Reducing Valves

While it is possible to maintain a constant pressure by using the combination of an actuated
control valve, a pressure sensor, and a controller, a pressure reducing valve offers the advantage
of being able to control pressure through fully-automatic self-contained operation, requiring no
type of external power source. It can offer the further advantage of extremely rapid response
action by immediately sensing and adjusting based on the downstream pressure.

Fig. 1 Heating processes usually benefit from using steam at a lower pressure than that supplied
by the boiler. Thus, pressure reducing valves are often used to reduce steam pressure to the set
point value required by the process.

Types of Pressure Reducing Valves for Steam

In pressure reducing valves, the mechanism that automatically adjusts the downstream pressure
typically uses the balance of forces between the steam pressure and an adjustment spring. At
present, this is a universal concept on almost all manufactured pressure reducing valves.
However, there are two different ways in which this mechanism is implemented to control the
amount of valve opening:
 Non-piloted, Direct Acting Valve: Adjustment spring places downward pressure setting
force directly on the main valve.
 Pilot-Operated Valve: Adjustment spring places downward pressure setting force
directly on a pilot valve, which is smaller and different from the main valve.
The following is an overview of the features of each type of PRV.

Direct Acting (Non-piloted)

Used for small loads where extremely close pressure control is not needed.
 Pros: Compact size, low price, easy to install.
 Cons: Higher droop (variation from set pressure) than Pilot-operated PRV.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Direct Acting Pressure Reducing Valve

Fig. 2 Delivered steam pressure is regulated by balancing forces acting directly on the valve
itself: the downward force caused by compression of the adjustment spring against the upward
force from the secondary pressure acting against the underside of a bellows or diaphragm.
Note: The movements in the animation are slowed and exaggerated in order to show the opening
and closing of the valve.

In direct acting pressure reducing valves, the amount of valve opening is determined directly by
the movement of the adjustment spring. If the spring is compressed, it creates an opening force
on the valve which increases flow. As pressure builds downstream, equalizing occurs by feeding
the downstream pressure to the underside of the adjustment spring (usually against a bellows or
diaphragm) where its upward force counter-balances against the spring compression. Spring
compressive force which opens the valve is limited to allow sufficient spring sensitivity to
equalize with downstream pressure changes. The net result is simple pressure control through a
valve orifice where high flow rates can cause pressure droop.

Pilot-Operated
Used for larger loads where close pressure control is required
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 Pros: Close pressure control, fast response to load variation, may be used across a broader
range of flow rates than the direct acting types.
 Cons: Larger size, higher price.
Pilot-Operated Pressure Reducing Valve

Fig. 3 Delivered steam pressure is regulated in a similar manner as direct acting PRVs, however
indirectly via a pilot valve. As the pilot valve is actuated, it provides the opening flow to the
larger main valve which can supply significantly higher flow rates than the pilot itself. The pilot
valve is then equalized by the secondary pressure, which correspondingly controls the opening
flow to the main valve.
Note: The movements in the animation are slowed and exaggerated in order to show the opening
and closing of the valve.

In pilot-operated pressure reducing valves, a pilot valve is used to load a piston or diaphragm
that increases the downward force used to open a larger main valve. This enables larger flow
capacity with a lower pressure offset (droop). The opening and closing of the pilot valve is
controlled by the balance of force between the adjustment spring and the secondary pressure in
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

the same manner that a direct-acting valve operates. However, in a pilot-operated PRV, this
opening and closing of the pilot valve purposely delivers pressure to the main valve piston or
diaphragm. This pilot flow pressure then causes a downward force that is amplified by the area
of the piston or diaphragm to enable opening of a much larger main valve, which in turn provides
the ability for very high flow rates.
Because the downward force is amplified through the use of a piston or diaphragm, a small
change in the opening on the pilot valve can result in a large change in flow and downstream
pressure through the main valve. As a result, there is little change needed in adjustment spring
force on the pilot to accomplish quick response over a wide range of steam flow rates. Quick
response and tight delivered pressure control represent the main advantages of this type of valve
over the direct-acting type.

Summary
From the above characteristics, it can be seen that the function and applications of non-piloted
direct acting PRVs differ substantially from those of pilot-operated PRVs.
In short:
 Direct-operated valves are used when loads are small and some downstream pressure
droop may be accepted. They are generally used in light load services.
 Pilot-operated pressure reducing valves can respond quickly to varying load conditions
while maintaining stable secondary pressure where precise pressure control is needed.
They are generally intended for larger load applications.
Typical Applications in a Steam-Using Plant:
 Small load applications such as sterilizers, unit heaters, humidifiers, and small process
equipment may typically use a simple Direct Acting PRV for pressure reduction.
 In case of larger flows, such as steam distribution piping, loads may fluctuate greatly
depending on the operational status of the recipient equipment. Such load variations and
large capacity would call for the use of a Pilot-operated PRV to reduce pressure.
 Furthermore, the amount of steam used by certain equipment at start-up may differ
significantly from the amount required during normal operation. Such wide variations
may also necessitate the use of a Pilot-operated PRV for pressure reduction.

Pressure relief valves

Relief valves

Pressure Relief Devices

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Pressure relief devices are used to provide a means of venting excess pressure which could
rupture a boiler or pressure vessel. A pressure relief device is the last line of defense for safety. If
all other safety devices or operating controls fail, the pressure relief device must be capable of
venting excess pressure.

There are many types of pressure relief devices available for use in the boiler and pressure vessel
industry. This inspector guide will address the most common devices found on boilers and
pressure vessels. Virtually all jurisdictions require a pressure relief device to be manufactured
and certified in accordance with the ASME BPV Code in addition to being capacity-certified by
the National Board.

The most common types of pressure relief devices are:

 Safety Valve – This device is typically used for steam or vapor service. It operates
automatically with a full-opening pop action and recloses when the pressure drops to a
value consistent with the blowdown requirements prescribed by the applicable governing
code or standard.
 Relief Valve – This device is typically used for liquid service. It operates automatically
by opening farther as the pressure increases beyond the initial opening pressure and
recloses when the pressure drops below the opening pressure.
 Safety Relief Valve – This device includes the operating characteristics of both a safety
valve and a relief valve and may be used in either application.
 Temperature and Pressure Safety Relief Valve – This device is typically used on
potable water heaters. In addition to its pressure-relief function, it also includes a
temperature-sensing element which causes the device to open at a predetermined
temperature regardless of pressure. The set temperature on these devices is usually 210°F.
 Rupture Disk – This device is classified as nonreclosing since the disk is destroyed upon
actuation. This type of device may be found in use with a pressure vessel where a spring-
loaded pressure relief device is inappropriate due to the operating conditions or
environment.

Pressure relief devices must operate as designed in order to perform their required task. Different
types of problems can prevent normal operation:

 The inlet piping connected to the device must not be smaller in diameter than the inlet
opening of the device. An inlet pipe that is smaller than the device inlet opening could
alter the operating characteristics for which the device was designed.
 The discharge piping connected to the device must be no smaller than the discharge
opening of the device. A discharge pipe that is smaller than the device discharge opening
could cause pressure to develop on the discharge side of the device while operating.
 Multiple devices discharging into a discharge manifold or header is a common practice.
The discharge manifold or header must be sized so the cross-sectional area is equal to or
greater than the sum of the discharge cross-sectional areas of all the devices connected to
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

the discharge manifold or header. Failing this requirement, the devices would be
subjected to pressure on the discharge side of the device while operating. Even a small
amount of pressure here could adversely affect the operation of the device.
 Constant leakage of the device can cause a build-up of scale or other solids around the
discharge opening. This build-up can prevent the device from operating as designed.
 Discharge piping connected to the device must be supported so as not to impart any
loadings on the body of the device. These loadings could affect or prevent the proper
operation of the device including proper reclosure after operating.
 Some devices, especially on larger boilers, may have a discharge pipe arrangement which
incorporates provisions for expansion as the boiler heats up or cools down. These
expansion provisions must allow the full range of movement required to prevent loads
being applied to the device body.
 Drain holes in the device body and discharge piping, when applicable, must be open to
allow drainage of liquids from over the device disk on spring loaded valves. Any liquid
allowed to remain on top of the device disk can adversely affect the operating
characteristics of the device.
 Most jurisdictional requirements state the device must be "piped to a point of safe
discharge." This must be accomplished while keeping the run of discharge piping as short
as possible. Most jurisdictions also limit the number of 90 degree elbows that may be
installed in the discharge piping. Too long of a run and multiple elbows can adversely
affect the operation of the device.

While inspecting a boiler or pressure vessel, the inspector will also be evaluating the pressure
relief device(s) installed on, or associated with, the equipment. The inspector should:

 Compare the device nameplate set pressure with the boiler or pressure vessel maximum
allowable working pressure (MAWP) and ensure the device set pressure does not exceed
the MAWP. A device with a set pressure less than MAWP is acceptable. If multiple
devices are used, at least one must have a set pressure equal to or less than the MAWP.
The ASME Code should be reviewed for other conditions relating to the use of multiple
devices.
 Ensure the device still has the device manufacturer's seals intact. These seals can be in the
form of wire through a drilled hole with a soft metal button, such as lead, crimped on the
wire, or removable parts may be stake punched or crimped to inhibit accidental
movement. Any evidence of the seal mechanism being broken or destroyed could
indicate tampering. If this is found, the inspector should require replacement of the
device or repair by a qualified organization.
 Verify the discharge of the device is piped to a safe point of discharge.
 Instruct the owner or owner's representative to lift the test lever, if so equipped, on
spring-loaded devices. ASME BPV Code Section IV devices can have the test levers
lifted without pressure in the boiler. All other devices must have at least 75% of the
device set pressure under the device disk prior to lifting the test lever. If the device is
found to be stuck in a closed position, the equipment should be immediately removed
from service until such time the device can be replaced or repaired.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 Lifting the test lever of a spring-loaded device may not be practical in all cases when
inspecting pressure vessels. The contents of the vessel may be hazardous. In these cases,
the vessel owner/user should have a testing procedure in place which will ensure
documented inspection and testing of the device at regular intervals.
 The small pressure relief devices found on many air compressor vessels have a ring
inserted through a drilled hole on the end of the device stem. These are tested by pulling
the stem straight out and then releasing. The discharge openings in this type of device are
holes drilled around the periphery of the device. These holes often get filled with oily
dust and grit which can cause eye damage when the device is tested. A rag, loosely
wrapped around the device when testing, can help prevent personal injury from the dust
and grit.
 Detailed testing and operational inspection guidelines can be found in the National Board
Inspection Code, Part 2 2.5.4 and 2.5.7.
 Recommended inspection and test frequencies can be found in the National Board
Inspection Code, Part 2 2.5.8.

What does a pressure relief valve do in a boiler? PRVs, also sometimes known as safety release
valves, are in place to prevent a buildup of pressure. The valve opens to release pressure when
the level becomes too high, and closes again when the pressure has dropped to within a safe
range.

Boiler Pressure Relief Valve Leaking and What to Do

The pressure relief valve of your boiler is a very important part of your heating system. This is
because it is a safety valve that protects your heating system from building up too much pressure.
When that happens, you are faced with leaks or even the possibility of your heating system
blowing up. When you notice a leak coming from your boiler pressure relief valve, attend to it
immediately. Here are possible causes and solutions to fix such a problem.

1. The Relief Valve Is Defective.

Eventually, everything will give in to wear and tear. This safety valve should be checked at least
every three months. If you haven’t checked it for quite some time, check it right away because
unchecked valves can become rusted and closed.

IMPORTANT: Make sure to turn the power of the boiler off and allow the water to cool for
about two hours. Then check the temperature first before you pull the lever.

2. The Fill Valve Is Defective.

This pressure reducing valve is designed to allow only 12psi into the boiler. If it is allowing the
pressure to reach 30psi or higher, leaks can occur. To check if the fill valve is the problem, turn
the boiler off, allow it to cool, drain some of the water until the pressure reaches 10psi. Don’t
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

turn the boiler back on and wait if the gauge starts to go up again. If it does, then the fill valve
may be defective.

2. Thermostats

Find out how to use heating controls and thermostats to save money on your heating bills.

In this article

 Top tips for using boiler controls and thermostats

 Which heating controls work with which heating systems?
 Signs that your heating might not be efficient
 What advanced boiler and heating controls are available?

One in four of you* have told us that you believe the most efficient and cost-effective
method of heating your home is simply leaving the heating on and setting the thermostat to
a consistent temperature. This is definitely not the case.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Effective heating controls are a vital part of an efficient boiler-powered central-heating system.
Clever use of controls can help you minimise energy consumption by ensuring each room is at
the right temperature for comfort. This will keep your home cosy and cut your energy bills.

Will your boiler let you down during a cold snap or mid-shower? Our unique research
reveals the most reliable boiler brands.

Top tips for using boiler controls and thermostats

Adjusting room thermostats

A room thermostat works by sensing the air temperature in the room. It switches on the heating
when this falls below the thermostat setting, and switches it off when the required temperature is
reached.

Because of this:

 your room thermostat should be positioned away from your boiler

 it will need a free flow of air to sense the temperature, so make sure yours isn't covered
by curtains or blocked by furniture
 it should be set away from electric fires, TVs, walls or table lamps, as these may stop the
thermostat from working properly.

It's best to install the room thermostat in the room you want to be warmest, such as the living
room.

Mechanical boiler timers explained

A simple mechanical timer usually gives you three options for running a central heating system:
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 the boiler is off

 the boiler is providing heat
 the boiler turns on and off at set times.

Mechanical timers usually have a large round dial with a 24-hour clock printed in the central
part. You turn the dial until it is set to the correct time and then leave it to switch on and off.

This doesn't affect the temperature the boiler is set at. For that you will need a temperature
control on your boiler, or a thermostat.

Mechanical timers are simple to set, but your boiler always turns on and off at the same time
each day. This may not suit you if you have different weekday and weekend routines. If you
want flexibility, it's worth thinking about getting a programmer, or a smart thermostat.

Using built-in boiler controls

Built-in boiler controls are useful if your boiler is easy to access, but not if your boiler is in a loft
or garage.

3. Boiler on/off switch

The simplest boiler control is the on/off switch. Turning it on puts the boiler in standby mode
until it needs to provide heat for your hot water or radiators, for example because you have a
thermostat and the room is cooler than the say temperature. Standby uses a small amount of
electricity - usually less than 10W per hour.

Some on/off switches have an option to turn on just the hot water, so you can turn the heating off
permanently during summer. Keep in mind that some older washing machines and dishwashers
need hot water from the boiler to run. Modern ones should heat the water within the appliance
itself.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Turning off your heating will save energy, particularly if it's an old boiler with a pilot light that's
always burning. It's worth turning your heating on and off every so often over the summer,
though, to make sure that valves and pumps don't seize up.

Temperature controls for your heating and hot water

Some boilers have separate controls for the temperature of the radiators and hot water.

This allows you to set the temperature of the water that leaves the boiler to heat the house. If you
lower the temperature, your boiler will operate as efficiently as possible. If you increase the
temperature, you will heat your radiators more quickly in cold weather.

It's advisable to:

 set your boiler temperature to 82°C in winter (between medium and high) and adjust
down if radiators feel too hot, or up if not warm enough
 set your boiler temperature to 65°C in summer (between medium and low) and adjust
down if your water feels too hot.

If you have children, being able to control the hot water temperature is essential, as you can
prevent scalding hot water from reaching the taps. It can also provide a boost in cold weather if
your hot water is not quite hot enough.

If you don't have separate controls for this, it's worth speaking to a heating engineer about getting
thermostatic mixing valves to regulate the temperature for your bath, shower or sinks to avoid
scalding.

Zoned heating: the most efficient setup

The most efficient systems will allow you to have zoned heating, so you can set different
temperatures in different rooms. One way of doing this is through a smart thermostat system,
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

which will also allow you to control your heating from your phone when you're away from
home.

Get zoned heating for the most efficient system

Temperature tips:

 Setting your thermostat to 19°C or 20°C is usually adequate

 Recommended night-time temperature is 16-19°C
 Turning down your thermostat by just 1°C can save you £80 to £85 a year, according to
the Energy Saving Trust.

But it's worth keeping in mind that babies should sleep in a room with a temperature between
16°C and 20°C, according to the Lullaby Trust. For older people and those with impaired
mobility, Age UK says that the main living room temperature should be around 21°C, and the
rest of the house at a minimum of 18°C.

Which heating controls work with which heating systems?

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

There are five main types of heating controls that can help you to save money on your heating,
some of which we have mentioned above, but not all controls will work with all heating
systems.

 Room thermostat – measures how warm your room is and adjusts the boiler
accordingly. You can get programmable or timer versions of these (see below)
 Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) – allow you to adjust the temperature of
individual radiators and turn them off completely.
 Timer – turns your boiler or hot water on or off at set times, such as off when you're at
work, and on ready for when you get home.
 Programmer (see image below) – lets you set different times and temperatures for your
heating and hot water for different days of the week. For example, you might want your
heating to be hotter and on for longer at the weekend than during the week. You can find
out more information about using timers and programmers, and see our expert tips lower
down this page.
 Smart thermostat – allows you to control the temperature in your home when you are
not there, for example from your smartphone or tablet.

The heating controls you need will depend on the type of heating system you have - combination
or heat-only - and whether or not your hot water comes direct from your boiler. Read about
the different types of boiler.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

When you have a new boiler or heating component installed, you should discuss with your
heating engineer the controls you need for your home. But to make sure you're well informed
before you call someone in, here's what controls you should ideally have:

Controls to use with heat-only boilers

What is a heat-only boiler?

There are two types of heat-only boilers. The first are supplied by cold water from a cylinder that
sits high up in your home, usually in your loft. Cold water then flows down from there to a
gravity-fed hot water cylinder (as mentioned above), where it's heated and then sent around the
house.

The other type doesn't require a tank in the loft, but instead just one hot water cylinder.

Heat-only boiler controls

To make the most of your heating and to save money, both types of heat-only system should
include:

 a room thermostat, preferably a timed or programmable one

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 a hot water cylinder thermostat

 a hot water cylinder timer
 hot water cylinder insulation
 thermostatic radiator valves on all rooms except the one with the room thermostat
 a boiler timer
 a boiler interlock
 motorised valves
 automatic bypass valve.

See the best heat-only boilers as voted for by owners and heating engineers.

Controls to use with combi boilers

What are combination boilers?

There are a few types of combination (combi) boiler, but in essence, they all take cold water
directly from the mains supply and heat it when it’s needed, removing the need for any cylinders
or water storage tanks.

Combi boiler controls

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

 a room thermostat, preferably a timed or programmable one

 thermostatic radiator valves in all rooms except the one with the room thermostat
 a boiler timer
 a boiler interlock
 motorised valves
 automatic bypass valve.

You can find out more about combination boilers and the best brands on our dedicated combi
boilers page.

Signs that your heating might not be efficient

Out-of-date central heating system components and controls can lead to wasted energy, costing
you money. They can also create potential heating problems, which could mean forking out for
expensive boiler repairs.

Learn more about what you heating system includes, or lacks, below.

Gravity-fed hot water cylinder

Gravity-fed hot water cylinders work with heat-only boilers. With these systems, cold water is
stored in a cylinder or tank at a high level in your home. It is then funnelled down when needed,
using gravity, to a hot water cylinder below. From there, it is heated by the boiler before being
pushed out to your taps, radiators or shower. Systems with gravity-fed hot water cylinders are
also known as low-pressure systems.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Why will this cost me money? Cold water that's stored is slow to reheat, which means you'll use
more energy getting it up to the right temperature.

How will I know if I have this? If you have a gravity-fed hot water cylinder, you'll usually have
a tank in the loft, and another storage tank below it somewhere else in your home, often in the
airing cupboard.

If you want to find the most efficient boiler for your home, read our guide on how to buy the best
boiler.

No cylinder insulation

Cylinders that are insulated have an extra layer of material so that heat is kept within the
cylinder.

Why will this cost me money? If a cylinder is not insulated, heat will be wasted through its
surface.

How will I know if I don't have this? Some cylinders have a layer of insulation on the inside,
so you won't be able to see it from the outside. With others, they have what's called a 'cylinder
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

jacket' wrapped around them, which acts as insulation. These are fully visible. If yours doesn't
have one, you can buy one.

No thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs)

Thermostatic radiator valves let you regulate the temperature of each radiator in your home that
has one.

Why will this cost me money? If a radiator doesn't have one, when the heating is on it will heat
the room to a hotter temperature than is needed.

How will I know if I don't have this? These are located at the end of a radiator, either at the top
or bottom, attached to the pipe that runs from the radiator. Take a look at the image below to see
what they look like.

No boiler interlock

A boiler interlock is an arrangement of wires that stops the boiler from producing heat when it's
not needed.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Why will this cost me money? This means the boiler stays hot unnecessarily, or keeps turning
itself on and off, using more energy.

How will I know if I don't have this? It's usually present if you have a boiler thermostat, so if
you have one of those, you'll have a boiler interlock. If you don't, take a look at the manual, or
contact the manufacturer to find out.

No hot water cylinder thermostat

A thermostat does the job of keeping the water in your cylinder at a certain temperature. It does
this by heating up the water if it goes below the stated temperature on the thermostat, and turning
the heating within the cylinder off to stop it getting too hot.

Why will this cost me money? If you don't have one, stored water can become too hot, using
more energy than is necessary to heat it. It also means there is a risk of water scalding you.

How will I know if I don't have this? Thermostats are small dials that have a range of
temperature options around a central circle, as in the image below. If your cylinder has one,
you'll be able to see it on the outside, around one third of the way up.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

No room thermostat

Like the thermostat on a cylinder, you can also have a thermostat in one room or each room of
your house. Older versions are connected by wires running to your boiler, while newer systems
tend to send signals to the boiler wirelessly.

Why will this cost me money? If you don't have a thermostat, it means rooms can be too hot,
wasting energy and money, or too cold.

How will I know if I don't have this? If you have one, you'll be able to see a dial on the wall.
Take a look at the image above to see what one looks like.

You can scroll back up to our section on using boiler controls and thermostats for our expert tips
to help you save money.

No motorised valves and automatic bypass valve

In essence, both of these control the flow of water from the boiler, making sure that it's not using
more hot water than is needed. Automatic bypass valves are more specifically used to maintain
the water flow rate when there are thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs).
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Why will this cost me money? Without these, more hot water than is needed may flow through
your heating system, wasting energy.

How will I know if I don't have this? Both of these comprise of a collection of pipes and joints,
and motorised valves have a small box on the top - see the image below for examples. To
determine whether you have them, it's worth asking an installer to take a look.

What advanced boiler and heating controls are available?

These features give you full control of your heating and make it adapt automatically to changing
weather conditions.

Intelligent heating controllers

These combine several of the basic controls, and can learn how long it takes for a house to heat
up in different weather conditions. They also often allow for different temperatures to be set
between day and night.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Weather compensators

These measure the temperature, either internally or externally, and delay switching on the central
heating on milder days.

Full zone control

Most homes have a single heating zone – the only controls in the rooms are thermostatic radiator
valves (TRVs - see above).

When a new central-heating system is installed, it's possible to fit full zone control that has
separate pipe loops and thermostats for two (or more) areas. This can save significant amounts of
fuel in larger houses.

Smart thermostats

Smart thermostats can be controlled with a tablet or mobile phone. This means that you can
adjust your heating when you are out of your home, or from the comfort of your own sofa. To
find out everything you need to know about smart thermostats, including which ones are the best,
see our smart thermostat guide.

ENERGY SAVINGS MEASURES

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

BLOWDOWN HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS

Boiler water is very hot (boiling hot!), so blowdown wastes valuable heat. Blowdown heat
recovery systems capture this heat and put it to use. These are generally used when a boiler is
performing continuous surface blowdown. Because the blowdown is continuous, there is a
significant amount of energy being wasted if it were to just be dumped down the drain.

Boiler heat recovery systems take this blowdown and use the heat to preheat cold make-up water.
They are generally not overly expensive and can show a pretty quick return on investment.

CONDUCTIVITY BLOWDOWN CONTROLLERS

Because continuous blowdown can waste a lot of water and heat, reducing blowdown can
provide big savings. A controller, conductivity probes and actuated blowdown valve may be
used in larger systems to control the conductivity of the water without wasting energy. Boiler
water conductivity relates to the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the water. Dissolved solids
increase water conductivity, so measuring this conductivity gives an indication of TDS. When
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

this boiler water conductivity exceeds the set point, the blowdown controller will open a valve
and begin a blowdown cycle. This valve will stay open until the boiler is below set point again.

Conductivity blowdown systems can save massive amounts of blowdown, especially in boilers
that run at a lower rate at night or on weekends. Further, the boiler water will maintain a more
even conductivity, allowing more accurate chemistry control, saving on chemical usage. Lastly,
in the event of a water treatment issue, the conductivity system would adjust blowdown
accordingly, preventing a major scale buildup in the boiler!

BOILER MAINTENACE

1. Boiler blow down

TYPES OF BOILER BLOWDOWN

BOTTOM BLOWDOWN

Sometimes called blowoff, bottom blowdown is typically performed every shift on each blowoff
connection. Bottom blowdown rids the boiler of sludge and sediment at the bottom of the boiler.
This makes it imperative that each boiler blowdown connection is used to prevent accumulation
of sludge and solids in that part of the boiler. Frequency and duration of bottom blowdown
depends on how much the boiler is being used. Take into account the boiler load profile, water
quality, and the chemical treatment program when making this decision. Your chemical
treatment provider can provide guidance for frequency and duration of bottom blowdown. It is
imperative that the boiler is internally inspected periodically to ensure all solids and sludge are
being evacuated. If solids are found, frequency or duration should be increased to compensate.
Always blowdown the bottom of a boiler before taking it offline.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

CONTINUOUS BLOWDOWN

Sometimes called surface blowdown, this type of blowdown is often referred to as the boiler
skimmer. Sometimes the continuous blowdown is as simple as a dip tube in the boiler right
below the water level. In larger boilers, the continuous blowdown skimmer is a tube that runs the
length of the boiler. It sits just below the water surface with holes space along the entire length.
Continuous surface blowdown involves the slow extraction of water along the surface of the
water. This removes scum that forms on top of the water. It also prevents the buildup of
dissolved solids, often referred to as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).

So why do we care about reducing TDS? Well, high TDS levels increase the surface tension of
the boiler water. When surface tension is high, steam bubbles won’t separate cleanly from the
water surface, forming foam and causing boiler water carry-over. Carry-over can wreak havoc on
the steam distribution system.

Utilizing water softeners and Reverse Osmosis systems to treat incoming boiler water can reduce
the usage of chemicals and reduce the rate of blowdown. Adding water softeners and reverse
osmosis will very likely decrease operating costs by saving boiler water chemistry, wastewater,
and blowdown.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

VALUE SEQUENCING

This is one of the most common mistakes we see boiler operators make.

When you are performing a bottom blowdown, it is important to open your values in the correct
order. The quick opening valve (if equipped), or inside valve is closest to the boiler and should
be fully opened first. This will prevent high velocity flow from cutting the seats of this valve,
maintaining a tight seal. Next, the slow opening valve is furthest from the boiler and is fully
opened second. This valve is designed to take the higher velocity flow and is undamaged. After
the blowdown duration has elapsed, the valves are closed in reverse order. Outside valve closed
first, then the inside valve.

In higher pressure boilers you may have two slow opening valves. In this case you should open
the inside valve first and then outside. By being consistent in this way when you open the valves,
you only allow one valve to be the “throttling valve”. This ensures the valve closest to the boiler
maintains a tight seal.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

SAFETY NOTE: If a blowdown valve is open, NEVER leave the area. You should keep your
hand on the valve until you are ready to close it. Always have visual contact with the gage glass
during a blowdown to ensure you do not cause a low water scenario.

BLOWDOWN SEPARATORS

Blowdown separators are generally installed with every boiler that is over 15 psi. They allow the
hot boiler water to drop safely to a lower pressure, then cool the water before it goes down the
drain. As the blowdown drains into a blowdown separator, the pressure of the water drops. This
causes some water to flash to steam, which is exhausted via a vent pipe.

After flashing, the water has cooled down to 212 degrees, but is still too hot to enter the sewer
system. An aftercooler is then used to drop the water temperature to an acceptable temperature to
enter the sewer system.

While PVC pipes should not be used as a drain line in a boiler room, sometimes that is the case.
In these situations, separators become even more important. This is because the hot blowdown
can melt the drain in a very short amount of time.

Boiler blowdown separators are now an ASME code vessel. That means if they need a repair,
then an ASME stamped company needs to perform the repair.

BLOWDOWN TANKS
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

These perform the same function as a blowdown separator but are much larger. The main
advantage of a blowdown tank is that they don’t require water cooling because of the volume.
The heat dissipates into surrounding area over time as the blowdown sits in the tank. As the next
blowdown occurs, water (that has been cooling) from the previous blowdown leaves the tank.

Blowdown tanks can also help in situations where sludge from a boiler is clogging a sewer line.
Because of the larger size, sediment can settle the bottom of the tank. It can then be cleaned out
periodically to prevent it from entering a sewer line.

The main disadvantage of a blowdown tank is that the material costs are higher, and it takes up
more floor space. Also, as the heat leaves the blowdown water, it is heating up an already hot
and uncomfortable space!

BOILER BLOWDOWN WATER TESTS

Boiler carryover, boiler sludge build-up and boiler scale are what we are trying to prevent with
blowdown.

There are a number of ways to test for boiler carryover, including condensate conductivity
testing, or chloride testing. Comparing boiler water conductivity to condensate conductivity is
the simplest way to gauge carry-over and where the boiler water is going in the system.
However, this method isn’t as accurate as chloride testing. Chloride testing is often the most
accurate way to determine if you have boiler carryover. This is because boiler conditions do not
chemically affect chlorides. According to Viking Water Technology: “Chloride ions…are
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

extremely soluble and do not precipitate or decompose when subjected to boiler conditions.
Therefore, chlorides are used as a measure of boiler water concentrations.”

Boiler sludge is found upon in internal inspection. The presence of sludge and solids in the
bottom of a boiler indicates changes are needed to the bottom blowdown procedure.

Valves in boiler system

Blow down valves

Why is blowdown valves used?

A steam boiler evaporates liquid water to form steam, or gaseous water; and requires frequent
replenishment of boiler feedwater for the continuous production of steam according to the
requirement of boiler

applications. Water is a
capable solvent and will dissolve small amounts of solids from piping and containers including
the boiler. Continuing evaporation of steam concentrates dissolved impurities until they reach
levels potentially damaging to steam production within the boiler.

Without blowdown, impurities would reach saturation levels and begin to precipitate within the
boiler. Impurity concentrations are highest where steam is being produced near heat exchange
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

surfaces. Precipitation would be expected to occur in the form of scale deposits on those heat
exchange surfaces. Scale deposits thermally insulate heat exchange surfaces initially decreasing
the rate of steam generation, and potentially causing boiler metals to reach failure temperatures.

Surface blowdown continuously bleeds off a low volume of water from within the boiler as a
means of ridding the boiler of dissolved impurities. It is most effective to remove water with the
highest level of impurities and such water is found where steam separates in the steam drum at
the top of the boiler.

Procedures used in a boiler blowdown valve

image628×413 60.8 KB

• Close the steam and water supply valves, then open the drain valve.

• Blow through the steam side by opening the upper steam valve for a few seconds and then
close.

• Blow through the water side by opening the lower water valve for a few seconds and then
close. Now close the drain valve.

• Open the water valve, then open the steam valve.

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

• The low water fuel cut-off stops the fuel to the burner condition, the low water fuel cut-off is
tested for proper operation by the float in the chamber senses the decrease in the water level.
Now the blowdown valve is opened while the burner is firing. This simulates the loss of water in
the boiler and shuts off the fuel to the burner.

The blowdown of the low water fuel

cut-off also discharges any sludge or sediments. A reset switch is activated to restart the flow of
fuel to the burner.

Types of blowdown valves

• Surface blowdown • Bottom blowdown
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

The simpler is a pipe entering the steam drum at the normal water level.A more sophisticated
arrangement attaches a swivel joint to the pipe for a short length of pipe suspended by a float.
The skimmer may be more effective at removing floating oil which might otherwise cause
foaming. Surface blowdown is normally fed to a flash tank and heat exchanger for heat recovery.
The flashed steam can be used in the feedwater heater.

Surface blowdown offers the additional advantage of steady-state operating conditions. Some
boiler water treatments cause precipitation of impurities as insoluble particles anticipating those
particles will settle to the bottom of the boiler before they become entrained in water circulating
past the heat exchange surfaces. These water treatments often include compounds forming a
sludge to entrap such particles and boilers intended for such water treatment include a structure
called a mud drum at the lowest part of the boiler.

Bottom blowdown involves periodically opening valves in the mud drum to allow boiler pressure
to force accumulated sludge out of the boiler. Similar blowdown connections at the bottom of
water wall headers are blown down less frequently. Several short blowdown events remove
sludge more effectively than a single continuous blowdown. Shorter blowdown events cause less
significant changes in boiler water level and are safer during periods of high steam demand.
Bottom blowdown piping drains the lowest parts of the boiler so it can be used to drain the boiler
for servicing.

Bottom blowdown piping must be of a diameter large enough to minimize the risk of being
plugged with baked sludge. Modern boilers discharge bottom blowdown to a blowoff tank where
the blowdown can flash and vent steam upwards without entraining water which might cause
burns. A pipe near the bottom of the blowoff tank maintains a water level below the blowdown
entry point and allows cooler water remaining from earlier blowdown events to drain from the
tank first.

How does blowdown valves minimize erosion?

• Two bottom blowdown valves are often used in series. One valve serves as the sealing valve,
and the other as the blowdown valve. The sealing valve is customarily opened first and closed
last. Both are opened rapidly and fully to minimize erosion on the seat and disk faces.

• Care is taken to avoid trapping scale or rust particles within the valve by reopening a valve to
flush the particles through if resistance is encountered when attempting to close it.

• Bottom blowdown valves are often rebuilt or replaced whenever the boiler is taken out of
service for maintenance.

Advantages
• Easy in-line maintenance • Minimal maintenance downtime • Automated or manual options
available • Reducing your lifetime cost of blow down • Increased productivity • No Special tools
required • Suitable for all steam boilers.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Boiler Maintenance

ISSUES TO BE CONSIDER DURING THE WORKING OF STEAM BOILER

a) At the run time water level of boiler should be observed occasionally.

b) Pressures on the manometers should be controlled and in case of abnormality system should
be stopped.

c) The safety valves should be opened once each week and clean against to lime coating that
prevents operation of the mechanism.

d) Dregs and mud may accumulate at the bottom of boiler. In this regard, the boiler’s pressure
will drop to 0,5 atu and cumulated residue will be taken from bluff valve. ATTENTION: To
clean bluff valve, minimum steam production period of b

HOW TO SHUT OFF THE STEAM BOILER

The power on-off switch of the burner on the steam boiler board will set to off position. If boiler
will be discontinued long time;

- Cut system power completely. Stick in a robust manner necessary warning “note” on to switch
placed at the control unit and cuts off the power regarding to “not turn onelectricity”.

- Open the boiler air valve to empty water in side the boiler from boiler discharge valve.

- Discharge the water inside the collector by opening collector discharge valves where boiler
water level regulator and water level indicator placed.

- Discharge the water inside the feed pump and in connected line. - Discharge the water inside
the condense tank.

POSSIBLE FAILURES AND TROUBLE SHOOTING

If you see “Hot Funnel” warning;

Burner combustion is out of focus. Adjust it.

2) Boiler flame pipes are contaminated. Clean them.

 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

3) Flue gas thermostat is defective.

Replace

4) Funnel is dirty or blocked. Clean it.

If you see “Insufficient Water Level” or “No Water” warnings;

a) No water in the condense tank. Add water.

b) There is air inside the pump or defective. Repair it.

c) There is dirt at the valves mouths. Clean it.

d) Inside the clipboard pump control elements are defective. Change them or repair.

e) Control elements inside the liquid level device out of adjustment or not operational. Change
them. f) There is excessive use of steam; feed pump can not pump sufficient water. Adjust steam
utilizing or throttle valves.

g) The water level safety electrode on the collector contaminated. Disassemble and clean.

h) The level safety electrode on the collector contaminated due to calcification and is not
detecting water level.

Require chemical cleaning.

i) Liquid level safety relay in side the electricity panel is not working. Change it. The system
stops before the desired pressure a) Operating pressostat needs adjustment. Adjust it.

b) Flue gas thermostat is on safe position or need adjustment. Check it and adjust.

c) There might be a problem on the burner. System Gives Alarm;

a) Operating pressostat is not functioning. Change.

b) There is not enough water inside the boiler. Check water supply lines. Take account warnings
on the warning panel.

c) If the short-term alarm is ringing; liquid level regulator needs adjustment. Adjust it. Water
feed pump is not pumping enough water, may use excessive steam.

d) If the check valve on the feed water line kept dirt, then water will escape back. Clean it.

e) Safety valve has set in and boiler not functioning. Processing valve pressure adjustment is
higher then safety valve pressure adjustment. Adjust it.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

f) Flue gas exit temperature has risen. Noise Coming From the Condense Tank; If check valve
positioned on the feed water line escapes back, it means condense tank receives steam, clean it or
change it. In this situation, there might be some air inside the pump. Take air. System and pump
do not set in to operation automatically; Sparking plugs checks the safety level might be not
detecting water or water level did not rise up to safety level (standard minimum level) so level
controller device might not send command signal to system. You may come across with this
event in first operation or when you completely discharge water. In these cases operate feed
pump manually up to safety level and later put in automatic position and system will continue
operation.

10) GENERAL WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS

6 If boiler’s water is completely discharged, water feed pump will not set in operation
automatically due to safety electrodes insensibility for water. In this case, until system set in
automatic mode, feed pump contactor will operate manually. When water level riches the level
of these electrodes, system will set in automatic mode and will continue to pump water.
Absolutely do not quickly open and close the steam valves. Otherwise formed coach pulses will
give serious problem to installation and will cause damage to your equipment. Do not operate
steam boiler over designed manufacturing pressure. Metal sticker on the boiler declares
operating pressure. Do not operate boiler with hard water. Water softener must be used. Make
regular maintenance of your generator.

Boiler maintenance and troubleshooting best practices

9 May 2021 | HVAC

Inverted bucket steam traps like this one are often used on larger
air handling systems. Diagnosis and repair of one large steam trap can pay for the cost of a
thermal imager in a short period of time.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

How to prevent costly downtime and expensive equipment failures

Boilers and their associated systems are an important part of a modern commercial building's
central energy plant. The central energy plant usually consists of a number of devices that are
normally located together, to allow easy monitoring as well as short runs and connections for
water and electrical systems. The devices in a typical central energy plant are the chillers,
cooling towers, piping and distribution systems, and boilers.
Boiler types
Like other types of equipment found in the central energy plant, boilers and auxiliaries have
many variations. Factors that determine the equipment used include the needs of the building,
applications, and available fuels. Asking these questions narrows down the selection of boilers
and equipment: Is hot water for heating needed? Is steam needed? Is power generation taking
place?
Boilers can be broken down into different types, such as steam or hot water systems. A boiler
generates steam by the application of heat in a closed container. Boilers can be further broken
down into fire tube and water tube boilers. A fire tube boiler has the hot gases of combustion
inside the tubes and the water surrounds the tubes. A water tube boiler is exactly the opposite—
water is inside the tubes and the tubes are surrounded by the hot gases of combustion.
Boiler systems
A properly functioning boiler consists of the boiler itself plus a number of systems. There are
four basic systems in a steam boiler: the steam distribution system, the feedwater system, the fuel
system, and the draft system. The steam system directs the steam from where it is generated to
where it is needed. The feedwater system supplies water at the correct conditions to the boiler so
that steam may be generated. The fuel system provides the fuel in the proper condition for the
combustion process to function. The draft system provides air for combustion and discharges the
gases of combustion into the atmosphere through the breeching and then the stack. All of these
must function correctly for proper boiler operation.

You can use a thermal imager, such as this Fluke Ti105, to check
many parts of a boiler system.

What needs to be checked?

Each of the boiler systems has a number of devices that allow it to function efficiently and
safely. Common fittings include steam traps, pressure gauges, insulation, pumps, and valves. To
maintain safe and efficient boiler operation, these fittings must be maintained properly. Safety
sensors, electrical circuits, and the efficiency of combustion must be checked as well.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Steam traps

The purpose of a steam trap is to remove condensate, air, and non-condensables without the loss
of live steam. The different types of steam traps in use include thermostatic, float-thermostatic,
inverted bucket, bimetallic, and impulse types.
In the event of failure, steam traps will either be closed or open. A closed stream trap will not
pass any condensate through, while a steam trap that fails open will blow live steam through the
trap, wasting energy and money because of the loss of live steam. The steam loss can add up to
tens of thousands of dollars per year.
Steam traps should be tested several times a year for proper operation. Among the common
methods used to test steam traps are sight, sound, temperature, and conductivity.
Today, infrared cameras are often used to test steam traps. The advantage of infrared cameras is
that they can be easily used from the floor of the mechanical room, which avoids the use of
catwalks and ladders. A steam trap that is operating normally will have a specific temperature
difference at the inlet and at the outlet of the steam trap. A thermal imager can easily and quickly
calculate the temperature of the pipes, and diagnose whether or not the steam trap is operating
properly or needs repair. The portability of thermal imagers allows quick diagnosis of multiple
steam traps. Believe it or not, repairing one large steam trap can pay the cost of the thermal
imager.
Pressure gauges

For safety, any pressure gauge that seems to not be operating perfectly must be removed and
checked for calibration. You can ensure pressure gauge accuracy by scheduling checks and
recalibration using proper test equipment.
Insulation

Another area of testing that leads to immediate results and energy savings is pipe insulation
testing. Insulation that is missing, loose, damaged, or inadequate will cost thousands of dollars in
energy costs per year. Fortunately, a thermal imager will easily and quickly spot these insulation
problems. Again, an advantage of the thermal imager is that it allows portability and ease of use.
Pumps

Pumps are one of the most common devices in central energy plants. Boiler systems use hot
water, feedwater, and condensate pumps. The failure of a pump can cause the shutdown of a
critical process or area. In many buildings downtime is very expensive, with thousands of dollars
per minute of lost production not unheard of.
The most common pump type is a centrifugal pump. These pumps can be tested using a variety
of diagnostic equipment. A thermal imager can show water, steam, and bearing temperatures.
A digital multimeter (DMM) and clamp-on ammeter will show electrical problems that can
affect pump operation. Motor insulation testers will show motor problems before they occur.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Vibration testing is also important for centrifugal pumps. Vibration testing can show pump
misalignment, imbalance, looseness, as well as bearings that are about to fail. These tests can
allow corrective maintenance to occur before failure, again with the purpose of preventing major
failures before they occur.

Many boiler plants distribute hot water to various building

systems. A Fluke 810 Vibration Tester will indicate various pump problems. The Fluke 810 can
record vibration information for the pump, diagnose faults, and trend severity of the fault over
time.

Valves

The central energy plant has many valves. Boiler plants use valves for the control of hot water,
feedwater, condensate, and steam.
Modulating valves are often used to control temperature at terminal units, air handling units, and
steam to hot water heat exchangers. A valve that is malfunctioning can cause improper operation
and high energy costs. You can use a thermal imager to detect small steam leaks for early valve
repack and repair.
A valve that is not opened properly may show a high temperature difference across the valve. A
shutoff valve may leak through slightly, which will affect system operation. A thermal imager
can show the temperature difference on either side of the valve, indicating a leak.
Safety limits, sensors, and controls

A boiler system has numerous safety limits, sensors, and controls. The failure of these
components can lead to boiler shutdown or a potentially catastrophic boiler explosion. Examples
of these components include a flame sensor as well as steam pressure, gas pressure, temperature,
and steam pressure devices. You should check their accuracy and operation with certified
diagnostic test equipment to ensure safe and efficient operation. With sensors, compare a reading
at the diagnostic test equipment to the reading of the actual sensor. If not within factory tolerance
it should be replaced. You can check a flame sensor by measuring the milliamp output of the
sensor when it is exposed to the boiler flame.
 THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

Electrical systems

Another major area where diagnostic equipment is vital in a boiler plant is the electrical system.
One of the major worries is that incoming electrical power from the utility will fail, be
interrupted, or have the wrong current, voltage, or phase. Fortunately, power quality
analyzers can show incoming power quality issues and monitor for problems.
Other potential problems occur in individual electrical components: loose connections, breakers,
switches, safety limit controls, and sensors. You can use a thermal imager to see "hot spots" in a
panel, which may be caused by loose connections or a breaker about to fail. With a digital
multimeter you can check continuity in electrical control systems. Measure temperature and
pressure signals such as resistance, voltage, and current input sensors and compare them with
factory calibration values to determine whether the sensor or transmitter is operating properly.
You can use some DMMs to generate voltages to check the operation of motorized valve
actuators.
Carbon monoxide

The combustion of fossil fuels releases different byproducts of combustion. If combustion is

complete, carbon dioxide is produced. If incomplete combustion takes place, carbon monoxide is
released. Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless, tasteless gas. It is deadly and kills many
people per year. Fortunately, carbon monoxide sensing features are available with quality
diagnostic equipment. Carbon monoxide readings should be taken at regular locations and
intervals. A high carbon monoxide reading demands immediate ventilation and equipment
shutdown and checkout to determine the source and cause of the carbon monoxide.
You can use a thermal imager to measure the temperature at the stack to help determine the
combustion efficiency and possible problems at the boiler.
Prevent costly downtime and expensive equipment failures
Modern diagnostic equipment can help save large amounts of energy in a modern central energy
plant. You can diagnose and possibly prevent many boiler problems by conducting regular,
routine maintenance and repair; you can also reduce costly downtime and expensive equipment
failures. Proper boiler and equipment operation improves safety. All of these benefits easily
cover the initial cost of quality equipment. Take advantage of quality diagnostic instruments and
begin saving big dollars today!