GEOMETRIC GEODESY

 Geodesy
 Ancient Greek word: geo = γη = Earth; daisia = δαίω = I divide
 oldest professions in the world
 science of the measurement and mapping of the Earth’s surface
 the science of determining the geometry, gravity field, and rotation of the Earth
and their evolution in time.
 Three pillars: Geokinematics, Earth Rotation, Gravity Field
 Explanation: The changes in Earth's shape (including the surface of the water and
ice bodies), i.e. the geokinematics, result from dynamic processes in the solid
Earth and its fluid envelope, affecting mass distribution and angular momentum,
and thus changing the gravity field and Earth rotation.

 Geometric Geodesy:
 Studying the shape and size of the Earth
 Adrien-Marie Legendre (1806): Applies the theory of least squares to test the
abundant observational data from astro-geodetic surveying and eliminate their
contradictions, on the basis of which to determine the most reliable result and
assess observation accuracy.
 Theory was used to derive the asteroid orbit by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1794)
 Applies method of least square in astro-geodetic survey
 spheroidal triangle and the deduction of geodetic coordinates have to be
done on the ellipsoid surface.
 Gauss Conformal Projection is the best way to convert geodetic coordinates to
plane coordinates.
 Friedrich Robert Helmert proposed the area method for solving the fittest
ellipsoid parameters for the geoid of the survey area under the condition that the
sum of squares of the vertical deflection of all astronomical points is the least in
an astro-geodetic network.
 encompasses the 3-D geometrical elements of the Earth and the location of
points relative to that model.
 Horizontal datums
 Vertical datums

 Physical Geodesy
 studies the external gravity field of the Earth to accurately determine the shape
of the geoid and in combination with arc measurements, the size of the Earth.
 Theorie de la figure de la Terre by Clairaut
 Stokes theorem by G.G. Stokes shape of the geoid can be studied by
terrestrial gravimetric results.
 Molodensky theorem, by Mikhail Sergeevich Molodensky, which enabled
rigorous calculation of the distance between surface points and the reference
ellipsoid directly
 from terrestrial gravimetric results without any reduction.
 relates the earth’s geophysical internal constitution to its corresponding external
gravity field.

 Satellite Geodesy
 determines the solution of geodetic problems through precise measurements to,
from, or between artificial Earth satellites.
  measuring precision of the semimajor axis of the Earth ellipsoid reached ±5
meters.
 deals with satellite orbits, tracking existing satellites and predicting the trajectory
of a given missile, satellite, or spacecraft.

 History of Geodesy
 Geomatics - mapping, geodesy, photogrammetry, remote sensing, and
information science.
 Science of Geodesy - earth’s size, shape and gravity, and field
 Art of Geodesy – latitude, longitude, lengths, directions, trajectory of missiles,
satellites or other spacecraft.
 Geodetic astronomy – compute positions and directions on the Earth based
upon optical observations of stars in the sky.
 Goals of Geodesy – size and shape, gravity field, and providing a means of
locating points.
 Reference system – surface in which we “refer” (positions) all our surveys or
mapping activities.
 Homer’s Iliad and Thale of Miletus believed that the Earth is flat or disk shape
 Pythagoras declared the Earth to be a globe.
 Aristarchus of Samos determine ratios of the distance between the Sun and
the Earth with the distance between the Moon and the Earth
 Aristotle concluded the Earth must be a spherical, upon viewing the shadow
of the Earth cast upon the moon during an eclipse.
 Eratosthenes was given credit for first determining the size of the Earth.
 Poseidonius determined the size of the Earth using degree measurements.
 Klaudios Ptolemaios finally established the geocentric world system of
Aristotle.
 Caliph Abdullah al Mamun included a measurement on the plains near Baghdad
about AD 827 that yielded an answer only about 3.6 percent too big.
 Gerardus Mercator published a map of the world having parallels of latitude.
Later, his map is now called a conformal projection.
 Willebrord Snellius me an arc more than 80 miles long using a series of 33
triangles
 Jean Picard measured an arc of triangulation from Paris to Amiens (1669-1670).
He used telescope with cross hairs where computation shows the meridian arc
length was smaller towards the poles
 Isaac Newton convinced that the Earth is flattened at the poles.
 Jean-Dominique and Jacques Cassini - the total arc was about 8° 20' but the
arc was computed in two segments - the parts north and south of Paris.
 Bouger and Maupertius - Two geodetic surveying expeditions were sent by the
French Academy of Science to Peru (Bouguer) and Lapland (Maupertuis) to make
precise measurements to settle the dispute.
 Meter - 5,130,740 toises = 10,000,000 meters

 Angular Measurement
 Horizontal and vertical (e.g. theodolite and total station)

 Distance Measurement
 most fundamental of all surveying observations.
 length of at least one line must be measured to supplement the angles in locating
points.
  distance between two points means the horizontal distance in plane surveying.
 If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal length
between vertical lines at the points.
 Electromagnetic Distance Measuring - rate and manner that
electromagnetic energy propagates through the atmosphere.
 Microwave EDM Instrument - The carrier wavelength ranges from 8 mm to 10
cm in the microwave band.
 Laser EDM Instrument - The carrier is usually red visible light of 0.6328 μm
wavelength and it is stimulated emission of radiation (i.e., laser emission).
 Infrared EDM Instrument - The carrier wavelength usually ranges from 0.75 to
0.95 μm and it is stimulated emission of radiation (i.e., laser emission) or
spontaneous radiation (fluorescent light).

 Astronomical measurement
 a technique used to determine position of a point by observing celestial bodies
 Astronomical longitude (λ) of point P is the angle between the initial
astronomical meridian plane and the local astronomical meridian plane of this
point
 Astronomical latitude (ϕ) of point P is the angle between the Earth’s equatorial
plane and the plumb line of this point
 Astronomical azimuth (α) of point Q observed at point P is the astronomical
azimuth of direction PQ is the angle between the astronomical meridian plane of
point P and the vertical plane of point Q.
 Leveling - process of determining the difference in elevation of stations on the earth’s
surface
 Trigonometric Level - method for determining the difference in height between two
ground control points by using the distance and vertical angle observed between the two
points and then transferring the heights of ground control points.
 GNSS - A satellite-based navigation satellite system
 1 – 1,575.42 MHz (λ = 19.03 cm)
 L2 – 1,227.60 MHz (λ = 24.42 cm)
 L5 – 1,176.45 MHz (λ = 25.48 cm)
 C/A – coarse acquisition ranging code, is a pseudorandom noise code (PRN code)
 P – precision ranging code
 D – navigation message
 Pseudo-range positioning - simple data processing, real-time location determination, low
accuracy, c/a (3 m accuracy) or p code (30 cm accuracy), no integer ambiguity
 Carrier phase positioning - Complicated data processing and has integer ambiguity, L1 and
L2, 2 mm or better accuracy, high accuracy
 Absolute positioning - Absolute coordinates of the receiver antenna
 Precise Point Positioning (PPP) – one receiver is used
 Relative positioning - Differential positioning, employs more than two receivers observing
simultaneously.
 Real-time positioning:
 Calculates position of receiver in real-time
 Based on observational data of the receiver
 Base station sends correction to the receiver (rover)
 Non-real-time positioning - post-processed positioning, determines position of the receiver
in post-process
 Kinematic positioning - position of the receiver is changing with the time
 static positioning - Position remains the same throughout the observation
 Gravimetry:
 Absolute gravimetry – technique utilized to determine gravity value at a defined
geometric point
 Relative gravimetry - determine the gravity difference between two points, and
then to obtain the gravity value of each point in a pointwise manner through at
least one point of known gravity value.
 Airborne gravimetry - to determine the near-Earth gravitational acceleration
using an integrated airborne gravity remote sensing system, which consists of an
aircraft as carrier, airborne gravimeter, GPS, altimeter, and attitude
determination devices, etc.
 Satellite gravimetry - ground tracking satellite, satellite-to-satellite tracking
(SST), satellite gravity gradiometry (SGG), and satellite altimetry (SA)