Periodic Element : Polonium

Avanti Sudarsanan

Chemistry DCC Honors

Dr. Christine Wiamer

14 November 2024
Introduction

Polonium is a very rare and highly radioactive element first isolated by Marie Curie in

her historic work on radioactive elements in 1898. With the name polonium, it became important

in early investigations of radioactivity, which further developed knowledge about atomic

structure and overthrew the hitherto-held belief in the indestructibility of atoms in honor of the

homeland of Curie, Poland. With its enormously powerful radioactivity, however, polonium

provided insight into radioactive decay and atomic behavior that has become so important in

developing nuclear physics and chemistry. Nowadays, polonium retains scientific interest not

only from the point of view of history but because of its unique properties and practical

applications and also for the problems caused by its high toxicity and radiological hazard. The

review describes the discovery, properties, application, and implication of polonium, drawing

from the relation of the subject to scientific development and continuous research into

radioactive materials.

History

The discovery of polonium by Marie Curie was an important milestone in her

radioactivity research and marked one of the earliest breakthroughs in understanding atomic

properties. Shortly after Henri Becquerel discovered in the late 1890s that uranium emitted

unusual, penetrative rays, Marie Curie conducted an investigation into these emissions. She

assumed that such emittances, which she later termed "radioactivity," might be a more general

property of certain elements and not confined to uranium. Marie's early experiments consisted of

the measurement of electrical conductivity of air exposed to uranium compounds. She found that

the air became more conductive. She realized this effect was a result of ionization, which
suggested that uranium was emitting some kind of energy with the capability of changing

properties of the air particles around it.

Curie and her husband then began to examine other materials for similar types of rays.

With an electrometer-a device that was able to measure very weak electrical currents, and one

that Pierre Curie had helped develop-she began an exhaustive test of minerals. She found that the

mineral pitchblende, which contained uranium, emitted much stronger radiation than pure

uranium itself. She then found that the excess radioactivity in pitchblende did not appear to be

due to its uranium content. Marie Curie realized that pitchblende must contain one or more other

elements even more radioactive than uranium. This was a revolutionary thought, because it

suggested that new, highly radioactive elements could be found and identified by their unique

emissions, and that highly radioactive elements could exist. This contradicted many perspectives

at the time as well.

This experiment and the involved exposure to radioactive materials that was hazardous,

although they did not know it at the time because the deleterious effects of radioactivity were not

yet understood. By repeated chemical separations, Marie was able to find a fraction of

pitchblende that showed extremely intense radioactivity. She then used chemical analysis to

realize that it behaved unlike any known elements. On July 18, 1898, Marie Curie officially

declared that a new element, which she christened "polonium," had been found, naming it after

her homeland of Poland. At the time of her discovery, Poland had been partitioned and was

under the control of foreign powers, and naming the element "polonium" represented a symbolic

for independence of her homeland.

Physical Properties

Polonium is classified as a metal, though it exhibits some metalloid characteristics. It has

a silvery-gray appearance and can appear somewhat shiny when freshly prepared, although it

tarnishes quickly in the presence of air due to oxidation. Polonium’s density is notably high,

approximately 9.32 grams per cubic centimeter, making it one of the denser elements in the

periodic table. For comparison, it is nearly as dense as lead, which is known for its high density

and atomic mass.

One of the notable physical properties of polonium is its melting and boiling points.

Polonium melts at 254 degrees Celsius (489 degrees Fahrenheit) and boils at 962 degrees Celsius

(1764 degrees Fahrenheit). These values are relatively low for a metal, and they place

polonium’s melting and boiling points closer to metalloids like selenium and tellurium, rather

than traditional metals. This characteristic is due to polonium’s position in the periodic table,

where it shares some properties with both metals and nonmetals.

Polonium also exhibits an interesting crystalline structure. When it solidifies, it can form

a simple cubic crystal lattice. This is unusual for metals, as most metals adopt more complex

structures like face-centered cubic (FCC) or body-centered cubic (BCC) lattices. Polonium’s

simple cubic structure is relatively rare in nature and results in unique packing arrangements

within the metal. This structure also influences its physical characteristics, including its density,

reactivity, and how it interacts with other elements. Polonium’s simple cubic crystal structure

makes it mechanically weaker and more prone to deformation under stress, which is why it is not

considered structurally stable or suitable for most conventional applications of metals.

Chemical Properties

Polonium’s chemical properties also distinguish it from other elements, particularly

within the chalcogen group (group 16). Polonium is relatively reactive and can form compounds
with a range of other elements, displaying both metallic and nonmetallic behavior depending on

the type of compound. For instance, it can form oxides, sulfides, halides, and various

intermetallic compounds, which showcase its chemical versatility.

One notable compound is polonium dioxide (PoO2), an oxide of polonium. PoO2 is a

yellowish compound that has potential uses in scientific research to understand polonium’s

behavior in oxidizing environments. Polonium dioxide is also important in understanding the

chemical behavior of polonium under different conditions, as it provides insights into the

reactivity and oxidation states of polonium in compounds.

Polonium can also form polonium halides with halogen elements such as chlorine and

iodine. These halides, like polonium chloride (PoCl2), exhibit ionic and covalent bonding,

corresponding to specific elements. Polonium halides tend to be volatile and are often studied for

their potential in radiochemistry and nuclear science which will be talked about further. The

ability of polonium to form various halide compounds indicates its flexibility in bonding,

reflecting characteristics of both metals and nonmetals within its group.

In terms of oxidation states, polonium typically exhibits +2 and +4 oxidation states. The

+4 oxidation state is seen in compounds like polonium dioxide (PoO2), while the +2 state

appears in polonium monochloride (PoCl2). These oxidation states influence polonium’s

reactivity and how it interacts with other elements. The ability of polonium to adopt different

oxidation states reflects its position in the periodic table, where elements often transition between

metallic and nonmetallic behavior. This variation in oxidation states allows polonium to form a

range of compounds with diverse chemical properties, making it a versatile subject in

radiochemical research.
Reactivity and Toxicity

Polonium is highly reactive, especially when exposed to air. It quickly oxidizes, forming

a surface layer of polonium oxide that tarnishes its initially silvery appearance. This reactivity

means that polonium must be stored in airtight containers, often under inert gas atmospheres, to

prevent it from reacting with oxygen or other elements in the environment. This rapid oxidation

also poses a handling challenge, as it means that polonium surfaces are always at risk of

contamination through chemical reactions with the air.

The extreme toxicity of polonium is another crucial aspect of its chemical properties.

Polonium is one of the most toxic elements known; even microscopic amounts of Po-210 can be

lethal due to its intense radioactivity and the resulting alpha radiation. If inhaled or ingested,

polonium can cause severe radiation poisoning as the alpha particles released during decay

damage tissues and organs. This high level of toxicity means that polonium is strictly regulated,

with usage limited to highly controlled environments and applications where it can be safely

contained and managed.

Isotopes, Half Lifes, Abundance

An isotope is any one of two or more different forms of an element, each having the same

number of protons in its atoms but having different numbers of neutrons in its atoms, and hence

different atomic masses. More than 30 isotopes of polonium have been discovered so far, ranking

it among elements with the highest number of isotopes. However, all isotopes of polonium are

radioactive; they undergo radioactive decay with time, emitting radiation either in the form of

particles or electromagnetic waves. This process of decay is quantified as a half-life, which refers

to the time needed for half of the atoms in any particular sample of a radioactive substance to
undergo radioactive disintegration. From a few milliseconds up to several years, polonium

isotopes differ in half-life, and this fact has practical and scientific implications. The most

famous naturally occurring isotope, polonium-210, has a half-life of 138 days. It is important

because it is substantially longer than all the other isotopes of the same elements, making its

isolation, study, and application in various fields more viable. That is, the 138-day half-life

means that the Po-210 stays radioactive long enough to be commercially useful in, for example

static eliminators and in basic research on radiation, but it decays rapidly enough that on longer

time-scales the storage of samples becomes problematic. Po-210 is an alpha-emitter. An alpha-

particle is essentially the nucleus of a helium atom, containing two protons and two neutrons.

These alpha particles are of high energy and of low penetration power, which means highly

injurious when taken in internally or inhaled but less dangerous when it is present externally. Po-

210 abundance in nature is limited because it is present in trace amounts in the form of uranium

ores and also generated in small quantities within the Earth's crust.

Isotopic abundance and half-lives are major determining factors in their importance and

applications. Since Po-208 and Po-209 have bigger values for half-life, these isotopes are much

more suitable for research purposes because their inability to decay quickly reduces the risk of

radiation exposure and allows longer, closer observations. The radioactivity of these isotopes is

also much lower compared to those with a shorter half-life, for instance, Po-210.

The importance of the isotopic variability of polonium is associated with the impact that

this has on scientific understanding and practical use. The study of isotopes with different half-

lives can lead to important insights into radioactive decay chains, stability problems of atomic

nuclei, and alpha-emitting behaviors of elements. The radioactivity of polonium further makes it

very useful as a tracer in scientific experiments, whose emission characteristics can be analyzed
for data on other radioactive processes. Moreover, an understanding of half-lives and decay

patterns in isotopes of polonium has implications for nuclear safety and environmental

monitoring, since these factors determine, among other things, the rate at which radioactive

waste containing polonium decays and disperses over time.

Figure 1. Isotope Abundance

Alpha Particle Production

Atomic nuclei of polonium are inherently unstable and tend to decompose slowly over a

period of time by a process known as radioactive decay. In this process, energy is emitted as it

seeks to attain a more stable state, although for the case of polonium, it mainly involves alpha

particle emission. Alpha particles are one of three major types of radioactive emissions, with the

other two being beta particles and gamma rays. They are essentially the nuclei of helium-one

atom that has lost its electrons-so they contain two protons and two neutrons. This gives them a

relatively large mass and very high energy compared to other forms of radiation. Alpha particles

are actually the nuclei of helium and, as such, are positively charged; they are emitted from the

nucleus of an atom of polonium as it undergoes decay into a more stable element, in most

instances lead.

As mentioned before the most widely recognized isotope of polonium is Po-210 with a

half-life of 138 days and is particularly infamous due to its highly intensive alpha radiation. In
one gram of Po 210, about 140 watts of heat is produced in the course of the rapid emission of

alpha particles. Such a rate of energy release demonstrates that Po is intensely radioactive: it

disintegrates rapidly and emits a rather high rate of alpha particles in a comparably short period

of time. The highly energetic emission of Po 210, important for the interests of scientific

research, makes it highly dangerous. Even though alpha particles cannot penetrate very far into a

material-even skin, clothing, or a sheet of paper stop the alpha particles-they can cause enormous

biological damage if the radioactive element is ingested or inhaled. Once inside the body, the

alpha particles collide directly with cellular material, causing massive ionization and cell death,

mutation, and possible death from exposure to high quantities.

Practical applications of Polonium depend on the very consistent and intense emission of

alpha particles issuing from it because it is such an effective ionizer. Probably, the most

notorious application of polonium-210 is in the so-called static eliminators used in various

industries for neutralizing static electricity. Indeed, the alpha particles that polonium emits ionize

air to positive and negative ions that can neutralize the static charges on surfaces. Scientific

research is another domain in which polonium plays the role of an alpha transmitter.

Due to the fact that alpha particles are heavy and their ranges are short, they can interact

frequently with other particles, hence it is possible to use polonium as a controlled source of

radiation in studies of ionization and nuclear reactions. In physics labs, for instance, scientists are

allowed to see and investigate how the alpha particles collide with other particles, study such

processes, including ionization patterns and energy transfers. The fact that it emits alpha particles

in a highly predictable manner means it can be useful as a source for the study of nuclear decay

processes and the structure of atomic nuclei.

Thermoelectric Device

Another use of polonium is for the generation of heat, especially in thermoelectric

devices. Thermoelectric devices are those that transform heat energy into electrical or vice versa,

and the radioactive decay of polonium makes it an ideal candidate for use in these systems. This

released heat from the decay of polonium-210 can be transformed into producing electricity. The

process is very useful in situations where conventional power is not available or even

impracticable. One of the first major applications of thermoelectric generators with the use of

polonium-210 were space explorations. Starting from the middle of the 20th century, polonium-

210 was part of the space missions undertaken by NASA. It especially was used in early space

probes launched for the outer planets. Thermoelectric devices had been applied for the playback

of equipment in spacecraft, due to the conversion of heat released during radioactive decay of

polonium into electrical energy. Space probes are often located outside the realms of high levels

of available solar power, such as deep space or shadowed areas. Thermoelectric generators can

thus provide the much-needed source of power for instruments and sensors whose operation was

crucial for mission success. The ability of Po-210 to provide a steady, long-term source of heat

made it suitable for such applications in circumstances where it would be impossible or unlikely

to depend on solar energy. In space missions today, however, the use of polonium in

thermoelectric converters has been all but eliminated because of the risk in handling a very

radioactive element, for which safer and far more efficient materials are by now available to

replace it.

Medical Uses
 Polonium-210, similar to other radioactive elements, does have possible applications in

medical treatment; more in radiotherapy. In particular, the alpha particles of high energy emitted

by polonium could find applications in certain forms of targeted cancer therapy. Alpha particles

are highly ionizing-meaning they may cause cell DNA damage-and are, therefore, very effective

in the treatment of malignancies directly by killing malignant cells or damaging their capability

of replication. This selective destruction is one of the reasons why alpha radiation has been

considered for use in cancer therapy. Polonium-210 has been investigated in the context of

cancer treatment, especially in tumors for which other forms of radiation therapy may not be that

effective. The relatively short range of alpha particles allows treatment to be more focused and

may limit damage to other, healthy tissue surrounding the tumor. This makes polonium a very

interesting candidate for the development of alpha-particle therapy, a form of targeted radiation

therapy. Because of their very short range, alpha particles could provide very localized and

controlled doses of radiation to cancer cells, an area which is still extremely promising for

precision oncology. However, it has not really gone into full practice in medicine due to the

extreme toxicity and dangerous handling of polonium. Other radioactive elements like radium

and a number of isotopes of iodine are in more common use in medical treatments because their

safety profile is easier to manage. Theoretically, however, the applications of polonium in cancer

therapy-particularly for tumors that cannot easily be treated with ordinary radiation-remain an

item of interest.

Microwaves and Equipment

Polonium has also been used in microwave devices and radionuclide power sources for

scientific instruments. A few highly specialized applications have utilized the polonium-based
radioisotope thermoelectric generators because of the steady heat source available from heavy

polonium metal that can easily be converted into electrical energy. In the past, such generators

have been used to power devices in remote locations where conventional power sources are

unavailable or impractical. Some polonium-210 has been applied in numerous nuclear-related

research studies, conducted to realize the behavior of radioactivity materials for determination of

protection efficiency in radiation shielding and detection systems. Because it is so radioactive

and due to special characteristics that distinguish alpha particles emitted, polonium is indeed a

very useful tool in researching the efficiency of radiation protection and in calibrating radiation

detection equipment.

Bombs

Polonium played a critical role in the design and function of early nuclear weapons,

notably as a component in the triggering mechanism of the "Fat Man" bomb, which was dropped

on Nagasaki, Japan, during World War II. Specifically, polonium-210 was used in a neutron

initiator, a device that released a burst of neutrons at a precise moment to initiate the chain

reaction in the bomb's plutonium core. This initiator, known as the "Urchin," relied on the alpha

particles emitted by polonium-210, which were combined with beryllium. When the bomb's

explosive lenses compressed the initiator, the polonium-beryllium mixture produced a sudden

burst of neutrons. These neutrons were crucial for starting the chain reaction that would cause the

plutonium core to undergo fission, releasing the immense energy of the bomb.

The decision to use polonium-210 in the neutron initiator was due to its high rate of alpha

emission, which allowed for a reliable and potent neutron release when paired with beryllium. Its

relatively short half-life also made polonium an ideal choice, as it ensured high activity levels
necessary for the bomb's timing precision. Polonium’s contribution to the Fat Man bomb

underscores its importance in early nuclear weapons research, where the timing of neutron

release was critical for achieving a successful chain reaction. The use of polonium in this way

represents one of the most impactful applications of the element in history, though it also

highlights the extreme dangers associated with handling and deploying radioactive materials in

weaponry.

The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko

Alexander Litvinenko had fled to Britain after several detentions for fear of persecution

by the Russian authorities. He was given asylum and immediately started working in the UK as

an intelligence officer investigating corruption within Russia. Litvinenko publicly accused the

FSB of orchestrating the bombings of Russian apartment houses in 1999 by complaining about

the then president of Russia, Vladimir Putin. The two situations created powerful enemies for

him. In late 2006, Litvinenko fell terribly sick after having lunch with two men from Russia at

Millennium Hotel in London. He developed symptoms of acute radiation poisoning, which were

later identified to emanate from some substance with high concentration levels of polonium.

Polonium-210 is the isotope employed in poisoning Alexander Litvinenko and is one of the most

dangerous radioactive materials there are on record to exist in science. It would emit strong alpha

radiation upon its ingestion or inhalation, which will cause catastrophic injury to cells and

tissues. They are pretty large and cannot even externally penetrate the skin, but internally they do

massive damage to organs. The surrounding cells get bombarded with these particles, disrupting

DNA and cellular structures; thus, they cause massive cell death. Radioactivity in Polonium-210

has a half-life of about 138 days; hence, it remains highly radioactive for many months, releasing
lethal alpha particles throughout that period. It was also this characteristic that not only made the

treatment of his poisoning difficult but also left behind, on items and places he touched,

radioactive traces that aided by investigators in tracing the source of the poison.

Conclusion

Polonium is a highly radioactive and therefore toxic element with a variety of

applications in life. This includes the use in static eliminators, thermoelectric devices, possible

uses in cancer therapy, and scientific research that has made polonium an important element in

such fields which require exactly controlled radiation. This makes it particularly useful in

applications where its high-energy alpha output is utilized, be it neutralizing static charges,

powering space missions, or providing valuable lessons in nuclear physics. With all its risks,

polonium remains a very vital tool in particular industries and scientific domains, while

continuous research may still continue to disclose new uses that this amazing element might

serve in the future.

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