PETROLEUM GEOLOGY AND EXPLORATION

1.0: INTRODUCTION

1.1 UNDERSTANDING THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF PETROLEUM.

1.2 CONDITIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION

1.3 ORGANIC MATTER AND THE PETROLEUM TYPES

1.4 STAGES IN THE FORMATION OF PETROLEUM

2.0: PLAY CONCEPT/ THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM (BASIN ANALYSIS).

2.1 PETROLEUM GENERATION, MIGRATION, TRAPPING AND SEALING.

2.2 FAULT, FRACTURES AND FLUID FLOWS; SEALING CAPACITY OF FAULTS

3.0: RESERVOIR PROPERTIES AND THEIR SPATIAL VARIATI0NS

3.1 RESERVOIR TYPES

3.2 PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

3.3 GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS ON POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY

4.0 WELL LOGGING TOOLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (WIRELINE LOGS)

5.0: CALCULATIONS

5.1 RESERVOIR PROPERTIES, PRESSURE GRADIENT, OWC AND GOC.

5.2 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

 1.0: INTRODUCTION

Petroleum geology is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration
of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the
search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).Hydrocarbons are defined as naturally occurring
organic compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon.

In the petroleum system, HCs exist in two forms; liquid and gas--- (methane, oil and
condensate).

1.1 UNDERSTANDING THE ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF PETROLEUM.

The very fine-grained shale is one of the most common sedimentary rocks on earth. In many
places, thousands upon thousands of feet of shale are stacked up like the pages in a book, deep
underground. It is not unusual to have layers in the earth’s crust made up mostly of shale that are
4 miles thick. These shales were deposited in quiet ocean waters over millions of years time.

During much of the earth’s history, the land areas we now know as continents were covered with
water. This situation allowed tremendous piles of sediment to cover huge areas. The oceans
may have left the land we now live on, but the great deposits of shale and sandstone remain deep
underground….right under our feet!

The Tiny Gigantic Kingdom

In the deep ocean, far from land, about the only sediment deposited is the fine-grained clastic
rock known as shale. But what about the oil and gas? For the answer, we need to move to the
ancient oceans that once covered almost all of the earth.

Tiny Microfossils Make Up the Sea-Floor Ooze

A lot of other material is deposited along with the clay or mud-sized sediments. We often think
of sharks and whales as being the kings of the deep oceans. Actually, there are other animals
that have established giant kingdoms in the sea…the largest and most impressive kingdoms of
all! These animals are the various kinds of microscopic creatures….both plant and animal. Most
of them would fit on the head of a pin. They are tiny, but there are uncountable trillions of
them. When these creatures die, they sink to the bottom and become part of the sediments there
that will eventually turn into shale.

The animals die by the trillions and rain down on the ocean floor all the time. And since the
beginning of life on earth, they have been living their exciting lives in the ocean, dying, sinking
to the bottom, and becoming part of the once-living matter that is part of most shale rocks.

It is the trillions of tiny animals that make up most of the gunk (the scientific name for this gunk
is “ooze”) deposited on the ocean floor. It’s a very fine-grained goop containing a lot of organic
material mixed with the clay-sized particles that form shale. It is called organic-rich shale.

Later, when thousands of feet of organic-rich shales have piled up over millions of years, and the
dead animal bodies are buried very deep (more than two miles down), an amazing thing
happens. The heat from deep inside the earth “cooks” the animals, turning their bodies into
what we call hydrocarbons……oil and natural gas.

At first, the oil and gas only exist between the shale particles as extremely tiny blobs, left over
from the decay of the tiny animals.

Then, the intense pressure of the earth squeezes the oil and gas out of the shale, and the oil and
gas fluids gather together in a porous layer and move sideways many miles. On their way, they
may meet up with other traveling oil or gas fluids.

Finally, the oil and gas may become “trapped” in a rock formation like sandstone or
limestone….a hydrocarbon trap. The oil and gas stay there, under tremendous pressure, until the
petroleum geologist comes looking for it. Without a trap, the geologist has no place to drill. All
oil and gas deposits are held in some sort of trap.
1.2 CONDITIONS FOR PETROLEUM GENERATION

Most of the organisms that generate petroleum are planktons, and as the planktonic OM fall in
large numbers to the seafloor, they are preserved within the sediments if conditions are suitable.

Preservation is enhanced by;

✓ When sedimentation rate is very high so that the organic matter can be buried rapidly.
✓ Sediment grain size should be very small so that oxygen cannot penetrate (i.e. the
environment should be anaerobic and reducing).
✓ No bottom dwellers (benthons) should be around to eat up the organic matter.

NOTE: shales and fine-grained limestones create anoxic environments. They therefore constitute
good source rocks for petroleum.

1.3 ORGANIC MATTERS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Kerogen is a disseminated organic matter in sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in oxidizing

acids, bases and organic solvent.

Vitrinite is a non fluorescent type of organic matter/ material in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material. The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the best indicators of coal
rank and thermal maturity of petroleum source rock.

1.4 ORGANIC MATTER AND PETROLEUM TYPES

The type and amount of petroleum generated in a basin depend on some factors,,

✓ The nature of the organic matter (remains) in the sediments

✓ The abundance of the organic matter
✓ The extent to which the organic matter was matured (i.e. degree of cooking by heating).
✓ The nature and type of environment in which the organic matter accumulated.

Based on the above factors, petroleum can be divided into three types, namely;

TYPE I is derived from fine algae present in freshwater lakes particularly in warm climates.
They are usually high quality waxy oils with a H: C ratio of 1.6-1.8.

TYPE I results from planktons, algae and bacteria present in marine and ocean sediments. Most
of the world’s oil belongs to this group. The H: C ratio is usually around 1.44.

TYPE III results from derivatives of land vegetation such as plant fragments, spores and pollens
which have been incorporated into sediments. The material generates coal and /or dry gas. Thick
leafed tropical plants usually produce waxy oils. The H: C ratio is less than 1.0.
1.5 STAGES IN THE FORMATION OF PETROLEUM

Diagenesis

As the fine-grained sediments and organic matter in them get buried by overlying layers,
temperature and pressure begin to rise.

The organic matter is then attacked by anaerobic bacteria which break up the OM into a
structureless substance called kerogen while at the same time liberating methane.

Burial to high temperatures (50-80oC) matures the source rock and the production of
cycloalkanes and alkanes, two of the main components of crude oil begins (Turner, 2001).

In the early phase of the generation of petroleum (diagenesis), the sediments or source rocks are
said to be immature.

Catagenesis

As the temperature of the environment increases with further burial, the bacteria get killed.

At about 600C (the critical ‘jump tempt’), oil starts to form from the kerogen.

With further increase in temperature, the heavy molecules are cracked and progressively lighter
oil is produced. The carbon content of the resulting hydrocarbon increases and the FTC ratio
decreases as temperature increases.

This is the phase during which most of the petroleum is produced and at this point, the sediments
or source rocks are said to be matured.

Metagenesis

At higher temperature, liquid hydrocarbon is cracked to yield methane.

At a critical temperature, the point of peak oil generation is reached. After this point, oil
production drops off and ‘wet’ gas is produced.

Beyond 1200C, only dry gas is produced and pre existing heavier hydrocarbons are cracked down
to methane (thermogenic gas).

Above 1500C, all hydrocarbons are destroyed and metamorphism of the source rock is initiated.

At this stage/ time, the sediments or source rocks are said to be over matured.
 TIME AFTER BURIAL VS TEMPERATURE PLOT

Majority of the oil generation occurs at the ‘oil window’ at temperature around 75-1200C at
depth of [Link] is no set time between the source rock deposition and when the oil
window is reached. The delay may range from a few million years to 300 million years.

Time after
burial (Ma)

Oil Gas Oil destroyed & gas

lost

T (0C)

NOTE:

Nearly all petroleum occurs in sediments of marine origin. Conditions in the marine environment
are anoxic and reducing. The oxidizing conditions in the continental environments would not
permit the generation of petroleum, as the organic matter (OG) would decay during oxidation.
 2.0: PLAY CONCEPT/ THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM (BASIN ANALYSIS).

The search for oil and gas is a multiphase process involving the following;

➢ Global basin analysis

• Play concept
• Exploration fairway
• Drillable prospect.
➢ Production Feasibility studies
• Environmental impact study
• Obtain lease.
➢ Wildcat drilled
➢ Appraisal wells
➢ Field facilities
➢ Development wells
➢ Refining and Marketing.

Sedimentary basin analysis

Petroleum geology is principally concerned with the evaluation of seven key elements in
sedimentary basins:

• Source
• Reservoir
• Seal
• Trap
• Timing
• Maturation
• Migration

In general, all these elements must be assessed via a limited 'window' into the subsurface world,
provided by one (or possibly more) exploration wells. These wells present only a 1-dimensional
segment through the Earth and the skill of inferring 3-dimensional characteristics from them is
one of the most fundamental in petroleum geology. Recently, the availability of inexpensive,
high quality 3D seismic data (from reflection seismology) and data from various electromagnetic
geophysical techniques (such as Magnetotellurics) has greatly aided the accuracy of such
interpretation. The following section discusses these elements in brief. For a more in-depth
treatise, see the second half of this article below.

Evaluation of the source uses the methods of geochemistry to quantify the nature of organic-rich
rocks which contain the precursors to hydrocarbons, such that the type and quality of expelled
hydrocarbon can be assessed.
The reservoir is a porous and permeable lithological unit or set of units that holds the
hydrocarbon reserves. Analysis of reservoirs at the simplest level requires an assessment of their
porosity (to calculate the volume of in situ hydrocarbons) and their permeability (to calculate
how easily hydrocarbons will flow out of them). Some of the key disciplines used in reservoir
analysis are the fields of structural analysis, stratigraphy, sedimentology, and reservoir
engineering.

The seal, or cap rock, is a unit with low permeability that impedes the escape of hydrocarbons
from the reservoir rock. Common seals include evaporites, chalks and shales. Analysis of seals
involves assessment of their thickness and extent, such that their effectiveness can be quantified.

The trap is the stratigraphic or structural feature that ensures the juxtaposition of reservoir and
seal such that hydrocarbons remain trapped in the subsurface, rather than escaping (due to their
natural buoyancy) and being lost.

Analysis of maturation involves assessing the thermal history of the source rock in order to
make predictions of the amount and timing of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion.

Finally, careful studies of migration reveal information on how hydrocarbons move from source
to reservoir and help quantify the source (or kitchen) of hydrocarbons in a particular area.

A play is a perception or a model of how a producible reservoir, petroleum charge system,

regional top seal and traps may combine to produce petroleum accumulation at a specific
stratigraphic level.

Prediction of source rocks, reservoir, top seal and traps requires an understanding of the
stratigraphic and structural evolution of depositional sequences within the basin. This
understanding can be achieved through basin analysis, which serves as a platform for the
assessment of petroleum play.

Correct identification and interpretation of the fundamental tectonic and thermal processes
controlling basin formation and the geometry and sedimentary facies contained in the basin fill is
the first and most important step towards building the geological models that underpin play
assessment.

The basic unit of petroleum resource assessment is the play, but the ‘petroleum system’ concept
is also a useful way for the practicing petroleum geologist to organize his/her investigation.

1. The first requirement for play is that there should be a petroleum charge system. The
petroleum charge system comprises source rocks, which must be capable of regenerating
and expelling petroleum and a migration pathway into the reservoir unit. Source rocks are
sediments rich in organic matter derived from photosynthesizing marine algae and land
plants, containing chemical compounds known as lipids. Lipids are preserved when
 sediments are preserved under anoxic conditions. Lakes, deltas and marine basins
are the main depositional settings of source beds.
2. A further requirement for a play is a porous and permeable reservoir rock. Pore space
enables the reservoir to act as a tank of hydrocarbons and permeability provides the
plumbing system by which the reservoir may be drained of its hydrocarbon content. In
both carbonates and sandstones, reservoir quality depends on depositional
environment and palaeoclimate, but is very strongly affected by diagenetic pathway.
The nature of near surface diagenesis is predictable from the position in a depositional
sequence. A number of scales of heterogeneity exist, from km scale to microscopic, that
affect the distribution of porosity and permeability in the gross reservoir unit. Particular
basin tectonic settings have association with particular type of reservoir geometry and
composition.
3. A regional top seal, or cap rock is needed to seal the petroleum in a gross reservoir unit.
The mechanics of sealing is the same as those that control secondary migration. The ideal
cap rock is of a fine-grained lithology and is ductile and laterally persistent. Thickness
and depth of burial do not appear to be critical. Two of the most successful reservoir cap
rock associations are where marine shales transgress over gently sloping clastic shelves,
and where evaporites regress over shallow- marine carbonate shelves.
4. The final requirement for the operation of a petroleum play is the presence of traps. Traps
are local subsurface concentrations of petroleum and may be classified into structural,
stratigraphic, and hydrodynamic traps. Structural traps represent the habitat of most of the
world’s already discovered petroleum, and are formed by tectonic diapiric and
gravitational processes. Stratigraphic traps are those inherited from the original
diagenetic effects. Large volumes of undiscovered petroleum probably reside in
stratigraphic traps, and owing to difficulties in detection, may remain so.

FROM BASIN ANALYSIS TO PLAY CONCEPT

Basin analysis is a platform for assessment of the undiscovered petroleum potential of an

area. Assessment of this kind guides the exploration programs of the petroleum industry. An
understanding of the distribution and evolution of depositional sequences and facies allows
rational and realistic predictions to be made of petroleum source rocks, reservoir rocks, and
cap rocks- the building-blocks of a petroleum play. The associated structural development of
the basin is primarily responsible for the formation of petroleum traps.

The bulk of subsurface information in a sedimentary is obtained from seismic reflection

surveying and well log interpretation. These are both technologically fast-moving fields that
are documented elsewhere.

Play concepts are founded on an understanding of the stratigraphic and structural evolution
of the basin. The geological model upon which predictions f sources, reservoir and cap rocks,
and their evolution through time are based on outcomes of this understanding. The validity of
these models and therefore of the plays that are generated from them is dependent on a
correct interpretation of the boundaries and overall geometry of the genetic stratigraphic
units. Systems tracts and depositional sequences involved in the play, and on a correct
interpretation of the sedimentary facies within these stratigraphic units. Basin analysis
provides the means of making these interpretations.

Our understandings of basin analysis have shown that the location and overall form of
megasequences and depositional sequences may be understood in terms of the mechanical
processes of basin formation. Thus basin formation due to lithospheric stretching, flexure,
mantle dynamics, and strike-slip deformation each exhibit characteristic locations.
Geometries and evolutions that may be understood in terms of the controlling broad plate
tectonic and mantle processes. Knowledge of the underlying basin forming process also
implies a particular tectonic and thermal development for the basin, which is an important
input to the thermal modeling of potential source rock intervals.

Correct identification and interpretation of the megasequences present the province is

the first step towards building the geological models for play assessment. Each
megasequence can be broken into series of depositional sequences and systems tracts
representing discrete phases of the basin infill. The information forms the basis for the
prediction of source, reservoir and caprocks.

THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM AND PLAY CONCEPT

A play may initially be defined as a perception or model in the mind of the geologist of how
a number of geological factors might combine to produce petroleum accumulations at a
specific stratigraphic level in a basin. These geological factors must be capable of providing
the essential ingredients of the petroleum play, namely:

• A reservoir unit, capable of storing the petroleum fluids and yielding them to the
wellbore at commercial rates.
• A petroleum charge system, comprising thermally mature petroleum source rocks
capable of expelling petroleum fluids into porous and permeable carrier beds, which
transport them towards sites of accumulation (traps) in the gross reservoir unit.
• A regional topseal or caprock to the reservoir unit, which contains the petroleum
fluids at the stratigraphic level of the reservoir.
• Petroleum traps, which concentrate the petroleum in specific locations, allowing
commercial exploitation.
• The timely relationship of the above four ingredients so that, for example traps are
available at the time of petroleum charge.
Thus, a play may further be defined as a family of undrilled prospects and discovered pools of
petroleum that are believed to share a common gross reservoir, regional topseal and petroleum
charge system. A brief description of a play might be;

Mid-Jurassic submarine fan sandstone reservoirs in late Jurassic fault blocks, sealed by Lower
Cretaceous marine mudstones, and charged during the Early Tertiary from Upper Jurassic marine
source rocks.

The geographical area over which the play is believed to extend is the play fairway. The extent
of the fairway is determined initially by the depositional or erosional limits of the gross reservoir
unit, but may also be limited by the known absence of any of the other factors.

A play may be considered proven if petroleum accumulations (pools or fields) are known to have
resulted from the operation of the geological factors that define the play. These geological
requirements are thus known to be present in the area under investigation, and the play may be
said to be “working”. In unproven plays, there is some doubt as to whether the geological factors
actually do combine to produce a petroleum accumulation. One of the objectives of play
assessment is to estimate the probability of play working: this is known as play chance.

2.1 PETROLEUM GENERATION, MIGRATION, TRAPPING AND SEALING

2.1.1 PETROLEUM MIGRATION

The movement of petroleum from the source rock to the reservoir and within the reservoir rocks
into a pool is called migration.

At this time of generation, petroleum is dispersed within the sediments as discrete droplets. In
order to accumulate as pools, these droplets must migrate from the source rock into a reservoir
rock where there is sufficient porosity to host it.

The oil is stored in the tiny openings (pores) between the grains in the reservoir rocks and not in
large ravenous openings or underground lakes. Such spaces do not occur or exist underground.

Migration is principally movement along permeability paths, fluid potential gradients and even
temperature gradients. Migration may be over short distances like from source rock to reservoir
rock or over long distances (even hundreds of miles).

Like within the reservoir rock, petroleum movement under its own local pressure from strata into
wellbore shows that petroleum migrates within reservoir rocks.

PRIMARY MIGRATION

This the movement of petroleum from the source rock to the reservoir rock.
Compaction of the strata of the source rock is the main driving force of primary migration.
Compaction takes place under gravity load of the overlying material/sediments, and the process
leads to loss of porosity.

As compaction takes place, all fluids containing within the source rock clays and shales are
squeezed out in a vertical direction.

Migration is believed to be based on the movement of the squeezes water along side with the
colloidal oil droplets and possibly some little oil in solution, to region of lower pressure, which
means shallower depth.

On getting to the reservoir bed, there is gravity separation and the dispersed petroleum particles
flocculate into oil patches that continue to grow until enough oil has come together to develop
buoyancy.

The petroleum now moves independently as a separate phase within the reservoir bed until a
pool is formed.

SECONDARYY MIGRATION

This is the movement of petroleum within reservoir beds.

Secondary migration is always in the direction of lower hydrostatic pressure because the
reservoir pressure is the main force responsible for movement at this stage.

Once there is sufficient hydrocarbon within the reservoir, and the permeability pathways are not
blocked by traps, the reservoir pressure will ensure movement. Since petroleum is immiscible in
water and floats on it, as water moves, the petroleum is move along.

The distance of movement within the reservoir rocks is dependent on the size and nature of the
reservoir, its structural configuration, presence or absence of traps or changes in
sedimentological characters.

➢ Oil will normally migrate upward towards the earth’s surface unless it is stopped by an
impermeable bed, which is called a seal.
➢ The stoppage of upward vertical by the cap rock produces a pool of oil.
➢ Movement after this becomes only lateral and this can be in the scale of hundreds of
miles.
➢ Laterally the water flowing down gradient pushes the petroleum forward (water drive) in
the direction of hydraulic gradient until it is trapped.
 TERTIARY MIGRATION

This takes place due to the natural flow of fluids along pressure gradients.

As a hole is drilled into the petroleum bearing formation, the pressure of the formation fluids
drops within the hole area. There is disequilibrium and a gradient is established.

The fluids then flow into the hole to restore equilibrium and pressure balance.

2.2 TRAPS FOR HYDROCARBON

❖ Petroleum migration within reservoir rocks will continue indefinitely due to the effects of
buoyancy, gradient differentials and both capillary and hydrodynamic forces, unless the
movement is stopped by a trap.

❖ A trap is therefore a geologic structure or phenomenon that stops the movement of

hydrocarbon in reservoir rocks.

❖ Traps enable hydrocarbons to accumulate in pools hence petroleum geologists and

engineers try to locate traps so that pools can be discovered.

❖ Information used in locating traps may be geologic, geophysical, structural, stratigraphic,

sedimentological, paleontologic, etc.

Traps for Oil and Gas under Hydrostatic Conditions

Traps for oil and gas under hydrostatic conditions have two general trapping mechanisms:

• An arched upper surface

• An up-dip termination of the reservoir

Traps for hydrocarbons under hydrostatic conditions are of structural or stratigraphic origin,
either alone or in combination, and have horizontal gas-water or oil-water contacts.

Hydrodynamic (moving liquid) traps may also occur in different structural environments, but
they are characterized by inclined gas or oil-water contacts.
 They are formed by deformation of the earth’s crust by
either faulting or folding.
HYDROCARBON TRAPS

➢ A) Structural (anticline)
➢ B) Structural (faulted)
➢ C) Stratigraphic (latera lithology change)

Trapping must be in all directions for an oil pool to accumulate. Vertical movement is stopped
by impervious rock layers (shales).

The trapping shale layer on top is called the cap rock while the bottom trapping shale is called
the bottom seal. A concave cap rock will prevent migration both vertically and laterally.

In carbonate reservoir rocks in the Middle East, the caprock and bottom scats consist of
anhydrite beds.

Shales and evaporites make good seals, although any unfractured rock that has a displacement
leakage-pressure higher than that of the hydrocarbon accumulation can be a reservoir.

Most traps are not filled to their structural or stratigraphic spill points. It is possible for a trap to
overfill and leak subsequent, migrated hydrocarbons to higher trapping mechanisms.

In the first stage of filling a trap, there will be stratification of gas, oil, and water above the spill
point. In later stages, hydrocarbons fill the trap to the spill point.
Since oil will be structurally lower than gas, subsequently migrated oil will spill over to the next
higher structure. In the final stage, gas moving from below enters the trap, but a equal volume
spills out at the same time, any oil with the gas will bypass the trap entirely.

North Sea Example – Salt Gas traps, Southern North Sea

ANTICLINAL TRAPS

These vary widely in shape and size. However, they all have a common characteristic in that a
gas-water or oil-water contact completely surrounds an accumulation of hydrocarbons.

The structure generally extends through a considerable thickness of formation so that traps are
formed in all the potential reservoir rocks.

Cross-section of a Simple Anticlinal Trap

 FAULT TRAPS

These traps depend upon the effectiveness of the seal at the face of the fault. The seal may be the
result of placing different types of formations side by side, for example, shale against sand, or it
may be caused by impermeable material called “gouge” within the fault zone itself.

A simple fault trap may occur where structural contours provide closure against a single fault.
However, in other structural configurations, such as a monocline, two or three faults may be
required to form a trap.

Fault trap accumulations tend to be elongated and parallel to the fault trend.

A common type of fault trap is that formed when growth faults develop. This is common in
deltaic sediments where there is a stratigraphic section that has had prolific deposition during its
accumulation.
 STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

These result from lateral changes that prevent continued migration of hydrocarbons in a potential
reservoir lithology.

Many are directly related to their environment of deposition, but others (particularly carbonates)
are caused by later changes, such as dolomitization.

Many large fields are associated with this kind of trap

 CLASSIFICATION OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

Pinchouts

Channels
Deposition
Unassociated with Bars
unconformities
Reefs

Diagenetic Porosity and/or k transition

On lap
Associated with
unconformities Supra unconformity Strike valley

Channel

Sub unconformity Truncation

 FAULTS, FRACTURES AND FLUID FLOW

Sedimentary rock strata are normally deposited horizontally.

The strata can be laterally extensive or restricted depending on the nature of the basin, amount of
sediment supply, strength of the currents etc.

Due to earth movements, compressional and tensional stresses can later deform the horizontal
rock strata.

This deformation leads to the formation of geologic structures like flexures and fractures.

The structures result from the elastic or inelastic behaviour of the strata when subjected to
stresses.
 FAULTS

In petroleum provinces, normal faults are the most common and important of the fault types that
can trap hydrocarbons. Normal faulting is a genetic part of basin formation because they are
syndepositional and always dip towards the subsiding basin (e.g. as in the Niger Delta).

Post accumulation faulting allows escape of hydrocarbons and may even strut as migration paths
for petroleum.

Pre-accumulation faulting constitutes a barrier, as it becomes sealing.

Faults hardly form traps by themselves, however,

A fault may constitute a trap alone by bringing impermeable lithology against porous and
permeable strata. Such taints are usually normal faults. The fault must be sealing in order to
avoid leakage.

The fault may have resulted from the development of other structures like Anticlinal folds and
Diapirs. These structures are the real traps but the associated faults aid in the napping
mechanism.

Some structures like Roll-Over Anticlines, folds, horsts and grabbens, result from faulting.

These structures produced by the faulting are the traps rather than the fault itself.

In the Niger Delta, Roll-Over-Anticlines form the traps rather than the growth faults that
gave rise to them.
 UNCONFORMITY

This is an erosional surface marking a period of non-deposition of strata.

There are four types of unconformities.

• Angular Unconformity

• Disconformity

• Para conformity
In an angular unconformity, the beds above the erosional surface transgresses the eroded edges
of folded and tilted older beds below.

In a Disconformity, the beds above and below the erosional surface are paralleled although they
may be of different lithologies.

In a Para -conformity, there is an established break in sedimentation but there is no clear

Disconformity. Usually similar beds lie on top and below the erosional surface.

NOTE! The feature of all traps is the impermeable cap rock which forms the top of the traps.

FIG: GENERATION, MIGRATION, AND TRAPPING OF HYDROCARBONS

IMPORTANT POINTS:

Several conditions must be satisfied for an economic hydrocarbon accumulation to exist. First,
there must be sedimentary rocks that have good source rock characteristics and have reached
thermal maturity. Second, the hydrocarbons must have migrated from the source rock to a
potential reservoir, which must have adequate porosity and permeability. Finally, there must be
a trap to arrest the hydrocarbon migration and hold sufficient quantities to make the prospect
economic. Hydrocarbon traps usually consist of an impervious layer (seal), such as shale, above
the reservoir and barrier such as a fault or facies pinch that terminates the reservoir.

The creation of reservoirs containing oil or gas involves complex geological that occurred over
millions of years ago. These processes are still taking place today.

✓ If a rock is capable of containing and transmitting fluids, it’s called a reservoir.

✓ Rock is an aggregate of solid minerals called grains, between which are spaces called
pores. Pores can contain oil, gas or water, and can act in an interconnected pore system
to transmit fluids.
❖ 0il and gas are the products of the ancient remains of organic matter (OM). As this
material is buried along with its host material/rock, it is subjected to increasing
temperatures and pressures. Over millions of years, the OM is transformed into
hydrocarbons.
❖ The rock in which oil and gas are created is called the source rock.
❖ Oil and gas have the tendency to move upwards and laterally through pores in the
rock. This is called migration.
❖ Impermeable rocks in which the pores are very small or are not interconnected are
called seals, because they are resistant to migration.
❖ When the migrating hydrocarbons encounter a seal, they accumulate at the highest
point beneath it-in a trap. If the trap is discovered, it becomes a field.
 SUBSURFACE PRESSURE

The elevated pressures encountered with depth are due to one or both of the causes:

1. Hydrostatic pressure imposed by the weight of fluid (predominantly water) which fills the
voids of the rock above and / or contiguous with the reservoir in question.
2. Overburden pressure due to the weight of the rocks and their fluid content existing above
the reservoir.

It is more common to find subsurface pressures varying as a linear function of depth with a
gradient close to the hydrostatic gradient of fresh to moderately saline water.

Departures from this behavior, both higher and lower, are considered abnormal.

The abnormally high pressures are more important as a source of serious drilling and production
hazards.

MAGNITUDE OF SUBSURFACE PRESSURE

Pressure-depth relationships are commonly spoken of in terms of gradients. The hydrostatic

gradient for fresh water is 0.433 Psi/ft of depth, which is the quotient of 62.4lb/ft3 divided by 144
in2/ft2.

Since most subsurface waters are saline, it is common to find the gradient to be more than
0.433psi/ft.

Studies from 100 high pressure wells in Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coast showed a pressure gradient
of 1.0 psi/ft.

This figure is commonly used and may be obtained by using an average water saturated rock
specific gravity of 2.3.

Hence, the overburden gradient is

2.3× 0.433 ≡ 1.0 psi/ft

PRESSURE GRADIENT

Fluid mass above a point increases with depth.

Thus, pressure increases with depth.

p = p0 + pρz…………………………………………………………………………………..(1)

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity=9.81ms2.

po the datum pressure.
dp
= pg………………………………………………………………………………………(2)
dz

Pressure increases fastest for water, then oil, then gas.

RFT (Repeat Formation Tester) measures pressure with depth. Changing gradients used to
identify oil/water and gas/oil contacts. It can also identify (pressure) non-communicating regions
(shales and faults).

Gas
Gas/oil contact
Depth

z Oil

Water
Oil/water
contact

Pressure

Normally pressured; Pressure as expected for depth.

Over-pressured; Reservoir pressure higher than expected. Reservoir has been uplifted since
filling. Risk of blow-outs.

Under-pressured; pressure lower than expected. Reservoir has been down thrown.

Now imagine drilling a well. The well is drilled using a ‘mud’ that is normally an oil or water-
based mixture of fluids containing barite, that gives the mud a density much greater than water.
Why?

Mud is replaced by water and reservoir production starts. The pressure near the wellbore drops
and the oil expands. Fluid flows from high to low pressure and out through the well.

PRODUCTION

Cartoon of a reservoir
 Well

Gas

Oil

Typical height 1-100sm

Water

Typical width=0.1-10km

Typical depth= 0.5-5km

How do I get the oil and gas out of the ground?

Reservoir production processes can be classified into three types.

PRIMARY PRODUCTION

Primary production of oil and gas uses the reservoirs’ own energy. As the reservoir pressure
drops, the fluids expand and as they expand, oil and gas are produced. No other fluids are
injected into the reservoir to push out the oil and gas underground.

Typical recoveries from primary production are around 2-20% of the original oil in place (OOIP)

SECONDARY PRODUCTION

Even if primary production is allowed to continue until the reservoir pressure is atmospheric, we
still have a reservoir full of oil and gas.

After primary production comes secondary production. Here another fluid is injected to displace
the reservoir fluids. Usually this is water but can also be gas. The gas may be air, nitrogen (air
with the oxygen removed to eliminate explosive risk, natural gas that is produced from the
reservoir, or carbon dioxide.

Typical recoveries are around 20-50%.

Water flooding does not normally recover more than half of the OOIP. Why not?

TERTIARY PRODUCTION

This occurs after secondary production. Normally it refers to gas injection after water flooding,
to remove residual oil and to contact unswept zones of the reservoir. Typical recoveries are
around 40-80%.
The other main classification is: primary production (as before); water flooding, and enhanced
(or improved) oil recovery. Enhanced oil recovery refers to the injection of something other than
just water to displace oil, and includes gas injection, steam injection and polymer flooding.

Improved oil recovery is a little more general, but usually means the same as enhanced oil
recovery.

Different production processes

The main primary production mechanisms are;

1. Fluid expansion
2. Solution gas drive
3. Compaction drive
4. Gravity drainage, or gas cap expansion
5. Water influx, or aquifer drive

For secondary and tertiary recovery, the mechanisms are:

1. Water flooding
2. Gas injection
3. Polymer flooding
4. Steam injection
5. Insitu combustion
6. Surfactant flooding
7. Foam flooding