CHAPTER 3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
KEY WORDS
1 Seminal plasma: Secretions of male accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate and
bulbourethral) constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain
enzymes.
2 Scrotum: A pouch like structure outside the abdominal cavity in which the testes is
situated. It helps in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2-2.5 C lower than the
normal internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
3 Semen: The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitutes the semen.
4 Acrosome: Cap like structure on sperm head. it has enzymes that help fertilization of the
OVum.
5 Spermatogenesis: The immature male germ cells produce sperms that begins at puberty
(Production of sperm).
6 Spermiogenesis: The process of transformation of spermatids into sperm.
7 Spermiation: Release of sperms from seminiferous tubule.
8 Oogenesis: Process of formation of a mature female gamete initiated during embryonic
development
9 Ovulation: The process during which the Graafian follicle ruptures to release the
secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary.
10 Corpus luteum: Remaining part of Graafian follicle after ovulation.
11 Antrum: Fluid filled cavity in Graafian follicle.
12 Menarche: The first menstruation that begins at puberty (Starting of first menstrual flow
in females).
13 Menstrual cycle: Cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one after
every 28/29 days.
14 Menopause: Ceasation of menstrual cycle around 50 years of age.
15 Cleavage: The mitotic division the zygote undergoes when it moves toward uterus and
forms blastomeres.
16 Implantation: Embedding of blastocyst in the endometrium of the uterus leads to
pregnancy.
17 Parturition: Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causing
expulsion/delivery of the foetus (child birth).
18 Foetalejection reflex: Mild uterine contractions induced by the signals for parturition
from the fully developed foetus and the placenta.
19 Birth Canal: Cervical canal along with vagina forms birth canal.
20 Lactation: The process by which the mammary gland starts producing milk.
21 GnRH: Gonadotropin releasing hormone.
22 LH: Luteinising hormone.
23 FSH: Follicle stimulating hormone
24 hCG: Human chorionic gonadotropin
25 hPL: Human pla cental lactogen
26 Placenta: The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other
and jointly form a structural and functional unit called placenta.
27 Colostrum: The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum.
Male and Female Reproductive Systems
" In humans, the reproductive phase starts after puberty.
" It involves:
o Gametogenesis
o Insemination
o Fertilisation
o Implantation
o Gestation
O Parturition
The Male Reproductive System:
" It is located in the pelvic region.
" It consists of:
o A pair of testes
o Accessory glands and ducts
o External genitalia
Testes
"Situated within the scrotum, which protects the testes and
also helps in maintaining the temperature.
" Each testis is 4 to 5 cm in length, and 2 to 3 cm in width, and has about 250 compartments
called testicular lobules.
" Testicular lobules have seminiferous tubuleswhich are the sites of sperm formation.
" Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:
o Male germ cells- They undergo meiosis to form sperms.
o Sertoli cells- They provide nourishment to the germ cells.
" Region outside the seminiferous tubules is called the interstitial space, which contains
Leydig cells (interstitial cells). The Leydig cells produce androgens.
Accessory Ducts and Glands
" Accessory ducts include:
o Rete testis
o Vasa efferentia
o Epididymis
o Vas deferens
"The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia through the rete testis.
" The vasa efferentia open into the epididymis, which leads to the vas deferens. The vas
deferens opens into the urethra along with a duct from the seminal vesicle called the
ejaculatory duct.
"The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports them to the outside.
" The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends through the penis and opens via the
urethral meatus.
"Accessory glands include:
OA pair of seminal vesicles
o Prostate gland
OA pair of bulbourethral glands
" The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma, and provide nutrition and a
medium of motility to the sperms.
The Female Reproductive System:
"It is located in the pelvic region:
" It includes:
OA pair of ovaries
OA pair of oviducts
o Uterus
o Cervix
o Vagina
o External genitalia
O Mammary glands (not part of the reproductive system, but aids in child care)
Ovaries
" They are the primary female sex organs. They produce the ovum and other ovarian
hormones.
"They are located in the lower abdomen, and are 2 to 4 cm in length.
"They are connected by ligaments to the pelvic walls and to the uterus.
" Each ovary is covered by epithelium, and contains the ovarian stroma.
" The ovarian stroma is made up of:
o Peripheral cortex
o Inner medulla
Oviducts
"They are also called fallopian tubes.
" They are 10 to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary to the uterus.
" The part of each oviduct lying towards the ovary is funnel shaped, and is called
[Link] has finger like projections called fimbriae.
" The infundibulum leads to the ampulla, and then to the isthmus, which has a narrow
lumen opening into the uterus.
Uterus
" It is also called womb, and is pear shaped.
" It is connected to the pelvic walls by ligaments.
" The uterine wall consists of:
o External perimetrium
o Middle myometrium
o Internal endometrium, which lines the uterine cavity.
"The endometriunm undergoes changes during the menstrual cycle.
Cervix and Vagina
"The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina.
"The cervix and the vagina constitute the birth canal.
External Genitalia
" Consists of:
O Mons pubis - Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
o Labia majora - Extends from mons pubis and surrounds the vaginal opening.
o Labia minora - Fold of skin beneath the labia majora.
o Hymen - Partially covers the vaginal opening.
o Clitoris - Lies at the junction of labia minora.
Mammary Glands
"Present in all female mammals
" It is paired and is glandular.
"Each breast contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with alveoli which secrete milk.
"The alveoli open intothe mammary tubules, which unite to form a mammary duct.
" Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary ampulla, which is connected to the
lactiferous duct.
Gametogenesis
The testis and ovary produce the male and female gametes respectively by gametogenesis
(spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females).
Spermatogenesis
" In males, sperms are produced by the spermatogonia (immature germ cells), which are
present in the inner walls of the seminiferous tubules.
"Spermatogonia increase in number by mitosis. These are diploid.
"Some of thespermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
" After the first meiotic division, two haploid and equal secondary spermatocytes are
formed.
" These further undergo meiosis to give rise to four haploid spermatids.
"These spermatids are converted into sperms by spermiogenesis.
" The sperm head gets embedded in the Sertoli cells after spermiogenesis and is released
from the seminiferous tubules by spermiation.
"Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the gonadotropin releasing hormone
(GnRH), which in turn causes the release of twO gonadotropins called Luteinizing Hormone
(LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
" LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release androgens, which stim ulate the process
of spermatogenesis while the FSH acts on the Sertoli cells, which help in spermiogenesis.
Structure of a Sperm
"A mature sperm consists of:
o Head
o Neck
o Middle piece
o Tail
"The whole sperm is enclosed in a plasma membrane.
" The head consists ofa haploid nucleus and a cap"like acrosome, which contains enzymes
that aid in fertilisation.
" The middle piece contains several mitochondria, which produce energy for the motility of
the sperm.
" Sperms released by the seminiferous tubules are transported by the accessory ducts.
" Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate are essential for
maturation and motility of sperms.
Oogenesis
"The ovum is formed by the process of oogenesis.
" It starts during embryonic growth and millions of gamete mother cells (oogonia) are
formed in the foetal ovary.
" These cells undergo meiosis, but get temporarily arrested at the prophase and are called
primary oocytes.
"Before reaching puberty, a large number of primary oocytes degenerate and the
remaining ones get surrounded by layers of granulosa cells and new theca and are called
secondary follicles.
" The secondary follicles are then converted into tertiary follicles that have characteristic
fluid filled cavity called antrum. At this stage, the primary oocyte present within the tertiary
folicle completes meiosis, which results in the formation of haploid secondary oocyte and a
tiny polar body.
" This tertiary follicle further changes into the Graafian follicle. The secondary oocyte is
surrounded by the zone pellucida.
"Then the Graafian follicle ruptures to release the ovum by ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle
" Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates and begins at puberty
(menarche).
" In human females, menstruation occurs once in 28 to 29 days. The cycle of events starting
from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
" During the middle of the menstrual cycle, one ovum is released (ovulation).
" The cycle starts with the menstrual flow (3 to 5 days), caused due to the breakdown of
the endometrium of the uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state are discharged, but this
occurs only when the ovum is not fertilised.
" It is folowed by the follicular phase. In this phase, the primary follicles mature into the
Graffian follicles. This causes the regeneration of the endometrium.
These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary hormones. In this phase, the
release of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases. This causes follicular growth and the
growing follicles produce oestrogen.
" The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle (14th day), and cause the
rupture of the Graafian follicles to release ovum. This phase is called the ovulatory phase.
" The remains of the Graafian follicles get converted into the corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone for the maintenance of the endometrium.
" In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates, thereby causing the
disintegration of the endometrium and the start of a new cycle.
" In humans, the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the age of 50 years. This phase is
known as the menopause.
Phase Days Changes in Ovary Changes in Uterus Hormonal Changes
Development of
Menstrual 4-5 Breakdown of uterine endometrial lining Decrease in progesterone and
phase days primary folicles leads to bleeding oestrogen
Primary follicles
Follicular 6th to grow to becomea Endometrium regenerates through
13th fully mature proliferation FSH and oestrogen increase
phase
day Graafian follicle
The Graafian follicle
Ovulatory 14th ruptures, and Increase in endometrial thickness
phase releases the ovum LH peak
day
(egg)
Endometrium is prepared for
LH and FSH decrease, Corpus
15th implantation if fertilization of egg takes
Emptied Graafian luteum produces progesterone
Luteal to follicle develops into place, if fertilization does not occur corpus and its level increases followed
phase 28th luteum degenerates, uterine wall by a decline, if menstrual
corpus luteum ruptures, bleeding starts and unfertilized
day bleeding occurs
egg is expelled
Fertilisation and Implantation
" During coitus, the semen is released into the vagina, passes through the cervix of the
uterus and reaches the ampullary isthmic junction of the fallopian tube.
" The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilisation to occur.
" The process of fusion of the sperm and the ovum is known as fertilisation.
" During fertilisation, the sperm induces changes in the zona pellucida and blocks the entry
of other sperms. This ensures that only one sperm fertilises an ovum.
"The enzymatic secretions of the acrosomes help the sperm enter the cytoplasm of the
OVum.
"This causes the completion of meiotic division of the secondary oocyte, resulting in the
formation of a haploid ovum (ootid) and a secondary polar body.
" Then, the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid nucleus of the ovum to form a
diploid zygote.
" Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct (cleavage) and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
" The 8-16 cellembryo is called a morula,which continues to divide to form the blastocyst.
The morula moves further into the uterus.
" The cells in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer trophoblast and an inner cell mass.
" The trophoblast gets attached to the uterine endometrium, and the process is called
implantation. This leads to pregnancy.
" The inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo.
Pregnancy, Parturition and Lactation
Pregnancy
" After implantation, the trophoblast forms finger like projections called chorionic villi,
surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
" The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to form the placenta, which helps
in supplying the developing embryo with oxygen and nutrients, and is also involved in the
removal of wastes.
" The placenta is connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord. The placenta acts as an
endocrine gland, and produces the human chorionic gonadotropins, human placental
lactogen, oestrogen, progesterone and relaxin(later stages of pregnancy).
" These hormones support foetal growth and help in the maintenance of pregnancy.
Hormones like oestrogen, progestogen, cortisol, prolactin, etc., are increased several
folds in the maternal blood.
" Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) gets differentiated into the
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, which give rise to the different tissues. This ability of
the inner cell mass is due to the presence of multiepotent cells called stem cells.
" Most of the major organs are formed at the end of 12 weeks of pregnancy; during the 5th
month, the limbs and body hair are formed; by the 24th week, the eyelids separate and
eyelashes are formed. At the end of nine months, the foetus is fully formed.
|MONTH/PERIOD CHANGES IN FOETUS GROWTH
" First month Heart development & starts heart beat.
" Second month Limbs &digits
" First Trimester (Three month) Organ system develops.
" Fifth Month Eruption of hair & foetal movement.
Second Trimester (Six month) Body covered with hair, Eye lids separates, eye
" Eight month lashes formed.
" Third Trimester (Nine month) Testis descend into scrotum.
Development of body mass & at last parturition.
Parturition and Lactation
" Human pregnancy has the duration of 9 moths. This duration is called the gestation
period.
" At the end of this period, vigorous uterine contractions lead to the delivery of the foetus.
This process is called parturition.
" Parturition is a neuro"endocrine mechanism, and is started by the signals from the
developed foetus and the placenta, which produce the foetal ejection reflex.
"This causes the release of oxytocinfrom the pituitary, which causes stronger uterine
contractions.
"This leads to the expulsion of the baby along with the placenta.
" During pregnancy, the mammary glands undergo differentiation, and milk is produced
during the end of pregnancy.
" The milk produced during the first few days of lactation is known as colostrum. It contains
several antibodies that aid the new born to develop resistance.
IMPORTANT DIAGRAMS
Ureter Urinary
bladder
Vas deferens
Seminal
vesicle
Prostate
-Bulbourethral
gland
Epididymnis
Vasa efferentia
-Urethra
Rete testis
Testicular lobules -Testis
-Foreskin
Glans penis
Male Reproductive System
Uterine fundus
Uterine cavity
Isthmus
Ampulla Fallopian
tube
-lnfundibulum
Endometrium Ovary
Myometrium Fimbriae
Perimetrium
Cervix
-Cervical canal
Vagina
Female Reproductive System
Interstitial
cells
Spermatogonia
Spermatozoa
Sertoli cells
Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubule
Fat
Mammary lobe
Mammary alveolus
Mammary duct
Ampulla Rib
Lactiferous duct Muscles
between ribs
Nipple
Pectoralis
Areola major muscle
Diagrammatic sectional view of Mammary gland
Spermatoz0a
Spermatid
R6 Secondary spermatocyte
Primary spermatocyte
Sertoli cell
Spermatogonium
Diagrammatic sectional view of a seminiferous tubule(enlarged)
Plasma
membrane
Acrosome
Head Nucleus containing
chromosomal material
Neck
Middle piece
Mitochondria
(energy source for swimming)
Tail
Structure of a sperm
Primary Tertiary follicle
Blood folicle Showing antrum
vessels Graafian
follicle
Ovum
Corpus
luteum
Diagrammatic sectional view of ovary
leels
Hormene
|FSH LH
events
Developing Regressthg
OvarlanDeveloping folltcle Mature folicle corpus luteum corpus luteum
levels
Ovulation
Hocmnne
Estrogen
events
Utertne Progesterone
Menses
Days
1
3 5 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29/1
Menstruation Follicular phase Luteal phase Next cycle
(Proliferattve phase) (Secretory phase) begins
Diagrammatic presentation of menstrual cycle
Sperm
Cells of the
corona radiata
Zone Ovun:
pellucda
Pertvitelline space
Structure of Ovum
b)
(a) (c)
(Morula)
Blastocyst
Implantation
( (Blastocyst)
Stages of embryonic development
Placental villi
Cavity of
uterus
Umbilical -Yolk sac
cord
with its
vessels -Embryo
Plug of mucus
in cervix
Human foetus within the uterus
FLOW CHARTS
CHROMOSOMES Oogonia
NUMBER
PER CELL Mitosis
46
differentiation
Fetal life
Primary oocyte
lst meiotic
division
Birth (completed
Childhood prior to
Puberty..--.-. ovulation)
23
First Secondary oocyte
poler body
Adult
reproductive Ovum
23
life Seond
polar body
Oogenesis
BIOLOGY
Spermatozoa
Diffierentiation
Spermatids
division meiotic 2nd
spermatocyte Secondary
division meiotic lst
spermatocyte Primary
ifferentiation and Mitosis
Spermatogonia
Spermatogenesis
Spermatozoa
Dterentiation
23+ Spernatids
division
meiotic 2nd
23 spermatocytes Secondary
division
meiotic lst
spermatocytes Primary
differentiation Mitosis
46 Spermatogonia
CELL PER Puberty At
NUMBER
CHROMOSOMES
MIND MAP
(1) Male reproductive system
Male accessory ducts - Testes - primary organ Male accessory gland
rete testis, vasa in scrotum seminal vesicle .prostate
gland bulbourethral
Testicular lobule -250 compartments
Seminiferous tubule -highly coiled tubule- 3 Leydig cells - secrete androgen
Spermatogonia - form sperms by meiosis Sertoli cells - provide nutrition to germ cells
(2) Female reproductive system
Accessory ducts- oviduct
(infundibulum ampulla, isthmus) Ovary Mammary gland-alveoli,
primary organ mammary tubule, mammary
, uterus- perimetrium,
(3) Gametogenesis- formation of gametes
Spermatogenesis - formation of sperms Oogenesis- formation of ovum
Spermatogonia - at puberty Oogonia -During embryonic development
Primary spermatocyte - diploid Primary oocyte- upto Prophase I
undergo meiosis I primary follicle, secondary follicle,
Secondary spermatocyte -
Secondary oocyte-ovulation occur
Spermatids - undergo spermiogenesis After the entry of sperm - completes Meiosis II
Spermatozoa/sperm Ovum
BIOLOGY
