1.3-1.

4 MAJOR HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM and

INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT STORAGE (IPOS) CYCLE

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The main function of a computer system is the processing of data into information.
The processing of this data into information goes through a set of stages, each of which
requires specific sets of devices.

The Stages of Processing

1. Input
2. Processing
3. Output
4. Storage
Input - Data that is entered into the computer via an input device.
➔ Input Device - An input device is any device that provides input to a computer.
The input device allows users to communicate and feed instructions and data into the
computer for processing, display, storage and/or transmission.
◆ Any device that allows data to be entered into a computer.

Processing - This is converting data accepted as input into information to be outputted or

stored. This is the manipulation of data that produces meaningful information for a particular
use.
➔ It is done by the use of a CPU chip found on the motherboard or the main board of the
computer.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) - It processes the data that was entered into the computer
system and produces an output, which may be stored for later use or presented to the user
immediately.
➔ It is considered the brain of the computer.
➔ It receives data as input, executes instructions and processes data to create information.
➔ It communicates with Input/Output (I/O) devices that send and receive data to and from
the CPU
➔ The speed of the CPU is measured in Megahertz (MHz) or Gigahertz (GHz).
➔ It is also known as the processor, the microprocessor or chip.

The CPU has two major components:

➔ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) - This unit is responsible for performing all the
mathematical and logical operations required.
◆ It executes the actual instructions.
◆ It “processes” the data and transforms it into information.
◆ It has two sections
● Logic Unit
● Arithmetic Unit
➔ Control Unit (CU) - This is responsible for managing and directing/coordinating the data
in the computer.
◆ It ensures that the instructions are processed on time and in the proper
sequence/order.
◆ It extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them.
◆ It manages the transfer of information and program processed data and decodes
program instructions to the computer so that the computer may comprehend the
information.

Storage - A process through which digital data is saved within a data storage device by means
of computing technology. The storage means to store information for later use. It is information
at rest.
 ➔ Storage Device - A mechanism that enables a computer to retain data, either
temporarily or permanently.

There are two major types of storage devices:

➔ Volatile Storage - This type of storage requires a continuous supply of electricity to
store/retain data.
◆ The data within the storage is stored until the system is turned off. Once the
system is turned off, the data within the volatile memory is deleted/lost
automatically.
◆ When/If power is removed, all data is removed.
◆ Examples of volatile storage include:
● Random Access Memory (RAM)
● Cache Memory
➔ Non-Volatile Storage - A type of storage device mechanism that retains digital data even
if it is powered off or is not supplied with electrical power.
◆ It is in this type of storage in which data/information is not lost within the memory
even when power is shut down.
◆ When/If power is removed, the data will remain/remains.
◆ Examples of non-volatile memory include:
● Read Only Memory (ROM)
● Optical Disk

Storage can be primary or secondary.

Main / Primary Memory / Immediate Access Storage - The storage space in the computer
where data to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
➔ The function of main memory is to provide temporary storage for instructions and data
during the execution.
➔ When data/information is sent to the CPU, the information must first travel to the main
memory. Then, the CPU accesses the data from main memory.
➔ It holds only the data and instructions on which the computer is currently working on.
The data and instructions to be processed resides in the main memory.
➔ Primary storage devices provide quick access and high transfer speeds.
➔ Primary memory provides fast access to the CPU, which allows active programs to
deliver optimal performance to the end-user.
➔ A computer cannot run without primary memory

There are two types of main memory:

➔ Random Access Memory (RAM) - The internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
programs (instructions) and program results currently being used by the CPU.
◆ It is generally located on the motherboard.
◆ The type of memory is volatile.
 ● This means that all information that is stored in RAM is lost when the
computer is turned off.
➔ Read Only Memory (ROM) - A type of storage medium that permanently stores data on
personal computers.
◆ It is read-only memory.
● This memory from which we can only read but not write to it/on it.
● The data/information stored on it cannot be changed.
◆ It is non-volatile.
● This means it will hold its memory even when the power is removed.
◆ The information is stored permanently in ROM when it is manufactured.
◆ It contains the programming needed to start a PC, which is essential for boot-up;
it performs major input/output tasks and holds programs or software instructions.
◆ It is essential for:
● Basic input/output system (BIOS) - A basic input/output system is a
preinstalled program used during startup on Windows-based computers.
○ The CPU is initially accesses the BIOS, after which the operating
system is loaded.
○ The BIOS is built-in software that contains generic codes required
to control the keyboard, display screens, disk drives and other
functions.
○ The main purpose of the BIOS is to set up hardware and further
load and start an operating system
● Boot up
● Reading and writing to peripheral devices
◆ Read-Only Memory is used for firmware because it is read only and cannot be
changed.
● Firmware refers to software programs or sets of instructions that are
embedded/fixed into a hardware device.
○ It supplies the needed instructions on how a device communicates
with various hardware components.
○ It is referred to as semi-permanent
◆ It only changes when it is updated.
◆ Read-Only Memory is often used in optical storage media such as various types
of compact discs (CDs) including compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM),
compact disc recordable (CD-R) and compact disc rewritable (CD-RW)

Some ROM is non-volatile but can be reprogrammed. This type of ROM include:
➔ Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) - PROM is read-only memory that is initially
empty and can be programmed only once using special equipment.
◆ Once the PROM chip is programmed, the data cannot be modified or deleted.
➔ Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) - EPROM is read-only memory
that can be reprogrammed multiple times using ultraviolet light.
 ◆ The data stored on EPROM can be erased and new data can be written unto it
many times.
◆ EPROM requires special equipment to program and the reprogram.
➔ Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) - EEPROM is
designed to be programmable and erasable by a user repeatedly using electrical signals.
◆ Like EPROM, the data store on EEPROM can be erased and new data can be
written unto it multiple times.
◆ However, EEPROM does not require special equipment to do this.
◆ It allows one byte of data to be erased or written at a time.
➔ Flash ROM - Flash ROM is an enhanced version of EEPROM
◆ Flash ROM allows blocks of data / multiple bytes of data to be erased or written
at a particular time, while EEPROM only allows one byte of data to be deleted or
written at a particular time.
● Hence, Flash Memory is much faster than EEPROM.

These types of non-volatile memories are referred to as programmable ROM as they can be
altered.

RAM is a volatile memory, it is temporary memory. While ROM is non-volatile and holds data
permanently even when the power is turned off.

Secondary / Auxiliary / External Storage - The storage space that is used to store
data/information permanently.
➔ It is long-term storage.
➔ It is non-volatile.
◆ This means that the data is permanently stored even if the power is switched off.
➔ Secondary storage is required because of the need to permanently store some data in a
computer for permanent use.
➔ The CPU does not directly access the data stored in secondary memory.
◆ The contents of secondary storage are first transferred to the main memory, and
then the CPU can access it.
➔ The computer may run without the secondary memory
➔ It is slower than main memory
➔ It is commonly used for backing up data.
➔ Secondary storage is cheaper than main memory.

There are three main types of secondary storage in a computer system today:
➔ Solid State Storage Devices
➔ Optical Storage Devices
➔ Magnetic Storage Devices

Not all computers require secondary storage.

 ➔ Embedded computers do not need to store data when the power is turned off. The
instructions needed to run them are stored in read-only memory (ROM) and any user
data is stored in RAM.

Primary storage and secondary storage often work together to create ideal storage conditions.
For example, when you are typing a document in Word, that data is stored in main memory as
you are currently working on it. When you save your work, the file data moves from primary
memory to a secondary storage device for long term retention.

Output - Information delivered to the user via an output device.

➔ Output Device - An output device is any hardware device used to send data from a
computer to another device or user.
◆ Output devices translate the computer’s output into a form understandable by the
user.
● It transforms computer-readable data into a format that can be
understood by humans

There are two types of output:

➔ Hardcopy - A tangible, permanent output.
➔ Softcopy - A digital, intangible, temporary output
UNITS OF STORAGE IN A COMPUTER
➔ Everything in a computer is stored as 1s and 0s; this is known as binary.
➔ A single 1 or a single 0 in a computer is called a bit.
◆ A bit is short for a binary digit.
◆ Bits are the basic building blocks of both data storage and computers on a whole.
◆ Bits are the smallest possible unit for data storage.
➔ To store a single character in a computer, you need a combination eight 1s and 0s.
◆ Its takes eight bits to store a single character,
➔ The combination of eight bits is a byte.
◆ One bytes is used to store a single character (letter, number, punctuation)
➔ Half a byte or four bits is a nibble.
➔ A computer word is a fixed number of bits that can be processed as a unit.
Computer Word Size - In computing, word size refers to the maximum number
of bits that a CPU can process at a time.
◆ A word is a unit of data of a defined bit length that can be processed.
◆ It is a single unit of measurement.
◆ It is a fixed value for each computer.
◆ A 64-bit computer has a word size of 64 bits.
● It can process up to 64 bits at once.

Unit Symbol Description

Bit b 1 or 0

Nibble - 4 bits

Byte B 8 bits

Kilobyte kB 1024 bytes

Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes

Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes

Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
Secondary Storage - The storage space that is used to store data/information for future use.
Secondary Storage Device - Any non-volatile storage device that holds data until it is
deleted or overwritten.
◆ It can be any storage device beyond main memory that enables permanent data
storage.
◆ It can be internal or external to the computer.
➔ Secondary storage is required because of the need to permanently store some data to a
computer.
◆ Without secondary storage, if you were working on a document and the power is
turned off, everything would be lost because primary memory is temporary.
However, a computer with secondary storage that saved the file before the power
turned off would be able to recover the last saved version of the file.
➔ Secondary storage may not be constantly or directly accessible by the computer system.
➔ Secondary storage is commonly used for backup and archival purposes.
➔ Secondary storage is non-volatile storage.

There are three main types of secondary storage devices:

➔ Magnetic Storage Devices
➔ Optical Storage Devices
➔ Solid State Storage Devices

Magnetic Storage Devices - Magnetic devices use magnetic fields to magnetise tiny individual
sections of a medium.
➔ Magnetic storage media and devices store data in the form of tiny magnetised dots.
◆ These dots are created, read and erased using magnetic fields created by very
tiny electromagnets.
◆ In the case of magnetic tape, the dots are arranged along the length of a long
plastic strip which has been coated with a magnetisable layer.
● Audio and video tapes use a similar technology
◆ In the case of magnetic discs (e.g. floppy discs or hard-drive), the dots are
arranged in circles on the surface of a plastic, metal or glass disc that has a
magnetisable coating.
➔ They are fairly cheap.
➔ They are high in capacity.
➔ They are durable.
➔ They are susceptible to damage if dropped.
➔ They are vulnerable to magnetic fields
◆ A strong magnet might possibly erase the data the device holds.
Magnetic Tape
● Magnetic tape is a large capacity, serial access medium.
○ Serial access is where data records are stored one after the other with no regard
to the order. This is usually an unprocessed file.
■ Data is accessed by starting at the beginning and then searched through,
in the order/sequence it was stored, until the required information is
found.
■ To read a particular record/file from a serial access medium, all of the
data that comes before the record/file must be scanned through.
■ The tape head cannot move to a particular record/file on the tape without
reading through all of the other records that come before it.
● As it is a serial access medium, accessing individual files on a tape is slow.
● The tape lives inside cassettes and cartridges.
● Tapes are used where large amounts of data need to be stored, but where quick access
to individual files is not required.
○ A typical use of magnetic tape is for data back-up.
■ In today’s modern market, magnetic tape is not used in homes but it is still
used as backups for main servers.

Hard Disk Drive

Videos explaining the hard disk drive:

Hard Disk Drive Explained 1
Hard Disk Drive Explained 2

● Hard drives have a very large storage capacity.

● Data is stored on tracks and sectors
● Hard drives are direct access devices
○ Direct access allows the retrieving of data immediately from any part of a
computer file, without having to read the file from the beginning.
■ Direct access is the ability to obtain data from a storage device by going
directly to where the data is located on the device rather than by having to
sequentially look for the data at one physical location after another.
● The hard drive is the main device used for secondary storage in computers. However, it
is slowly being replaced by Solid State Drives.
Types of Hard Drives:
● Moving Head Hard Drive
○ A moving head hard drive has one read/write head per platter.
■ This means that the read/write head must move from track to track in
order to read or write data.
○ Read/write heads are mounted on a movable arm
● Fixed Head Hard Drive
○ A fixed head hard drive has one read/write head per track per platter.
■ This means the read/write head would not have to move for reading and
writing data to the disc.
○ Read/write heads are mounted in a fixed rigid arm,
● The fixed head hard drive is more expensive but faster than the moving head hard drive.
● The moving head though is more popular.

Track Concentric rings that run from the innermost to the outermost part of the
disc.

Sector A wedge-like section of the disk.

- Disk Sector A wedge-like section of the disk that runs in a straight line from the centre
for the disk to the end of the disk.

- Track Sector A wedge-like section of the disk that runs in a straight like from the
innermost edge of the track to the outermost edge of the track

Platter A flat shiny surface of a disk.

There is a platter on both sides of a disc.

Spindle A central point that allows platters to spin and remain separate from each
other.

Read/Write Head The mechanism that reads and writes data from the disk via magnetism.

Cylinder A cross section of the hard disk in which each read/write head lines up
with the same track on different platters.

EG: A cylinder would be made up of track 1 on platter 1, track 2 on platter

2, track 3 on platter 3, etc.
Optical Storage Devices - Optical storage mediums save data as patterns of dots. They read
and write data using light. A laser beam is the usual light source.
● Optical devices use a laser to scan the surface of a spinning disc made from metal and
plastic.
● The disc surface is divided into tracks, with each track containing many flat areas and
hollows.
○ The flat areas are known as lands.
○ The hollows are known as pits.
● When the laser shines on the disc surface, lands reflect the light back, whereas pits
scatter the laser beam. A sensor looks for the reflected light.
○ Reflected light (land) represents a binary ‘1’.
○ No reflection (pit) represents a binary ‘0’.
● Data is read by bouncing a laser beam on the surface of the storage medium.
● Data is also written using the laser beam.
○ The beam is used in high-power mode to actually mark the surface of the
medium, making a pit.
○ This process is known as ‘burning’ data onto a disc.

There are different types of optical media:

● Read-only memory (ROM) media have data pre-written on them.
○ The data cannot be overwritten.
○ Music, films, software, and games are distributed this way.
● Read (R) media are blank. An optical device writes data to them by shining a laser onto
the disk.
○ The laser burns pits to represent ‘0’s.
○ The media can only be written to once, but read many times.
○ Copies of data are often made using these media.
● Read/Write (RW) media work in a similar way to R, except that the disk can be written to
more than once.

Compact Disc (CD) - Compact Discs can hold 700MB of data.

Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) - Digital Versatile Discs can hold 4.7 GB of data.
Blu-Ray - Blu-Ray Discs can hold 25GB of data.
● The dual-layer disc can hold 50GB of data.
Solid State Storage Devices - A type of computer storage media that stores data electronically
by using integrated circuit devices to store data and has no moving parts.
● Solid state storage is a special type of storage made from silicon microchips.
● Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts.
○ Because there are no moving parts, SSDs require less power and produce far
less heat than spinning hard disk drives or magnetic tape. Less heats means that
components last longer.
● Solid state storage is also faster than traditional hard disk drives because the data is
stored electronically in silicon chips called cells.
○ Within the cells, the binary data is stored by holding an electrical current in a
transistor with an on / off mode.
■ Unlike RAM which uses a similar technique, solid state storage retains the
data even when the power is switched off by using a technology known as
flash memory.
● Solid-state storage devices store data using a special type of memory called flash
memory.
○ Flash Memory - A type of Electronically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only
memory.
■ Flash memory is non-volatile (like ROM) but the data stored in it can also
be erased or changed (like RAM)
● It can be written and rewritten like RAM. However, unlike RAM, it is non-volatile, which
means that when the computer’s power is switched off, solid state storage will retain its
contents.

Examples of Solid State Storage Devices and Flash Memory:

● USB Flash Drive - A lightweight portable storage device.
○ It is also known as a USB thumb drive, USB stick or Pen drive
○ These days, USB flash drives have made many other types of forms of portable
storages almost obsolete.
○ Each of these small devices has some flash memory connected to a USB
interface.
○ You can plug it into the USB port of the computer system and it appears as a
drive.
○ You can then add files, erase files etc
○ You can use it to move any type of file between computers
● Memory Card - It is the storage medium of different types of data such as images, video
or text.
○ It is also known as Flash Memory Cards
○ Memory cards are mostly used in several devices such as digital camcorders,
digital cameras, smartphones and MP3 players.
● Solid-State Drive - It is a data storage medium.
○ It does not contain any moving parts, so it delivers faster access times, noiseless
operation, higher reliability, and lower power consumption.
○ It is now replacing the hard disk drive as the internal secondary storage device in
computers today.