Bachelor of Science in Psychology

Psych Elec_ Theories of Personality

Course Facilitator: Kaiza L. Caballero,
RPm, LPT
Course Description: A survey of the major theories of personality and the theoretical and
practical issues involved in the scientific field and understanding of personality formation and
dynamics.
Course Outcome: Apply and understand the major facets personality theory in understanding
human behavior.
Chapter 6: Learning-Cognitive Theories
Lesson 1: Skinner: Behavioral Analysis

Introduction
➢ Overview of Behavioral Analysis
Behaviorism, a psychological approach, emerged in the early 20th century, focusing on
observable behavior rather than speculative theories. B. F. Skinner, a key figure in
behaviorism, emphasized observable behavior and rejected abstract concepts like free will.
Skinner's radical behaviorism emphasizes studying behavior through environmental stimuli,
disregarding genetic influences. Watson, another behaviorist, went further by proposing that
personality could be shaped solely by controlling the environment, sparking debates within
the field.

➢ Biography of B. F. Skinner
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, born in 1904 in Pennsylvania, grew up in a loving family that
instilled values of hard work and honesty. Despite losing his faith in high school, Skinner
excelled in music and literature. He pursued a career in writing but faced challenges during a
"Dark Year" of identity confusion. Eventually, Skinner turned to psychology, becoming a
dedicated behaviorist. He completed his PhD at Harvard and embarked on groundbreaking
research. Skinner's projects, like the pigeon-guided missile and the babytender for his
daughter, showcased his innovative thinking. Despite facing setbacks, including a second
identity crisis, Skinner continued his influential work. His book "Walden Two" marked a shift
towards applying behavioral analysis to society. Skinner's later years were marked by writing
important books on human behavior until his passing in 1990, leaving a legacy as a
prominent psychologist and advocate of radical behaviorism.

Keep in mind
➢ Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific Behaviorism
Observers of human behavior have long noted that people are inclined to engage in actions
with pleasurable outcomes and avoid those with negative consequences. Edward L. Thorndike
was the first psychologist to systematically study the consequences of behavior, initially with
animals and later with humans. He introduced the law of effect, which posited that learning
occurs primarily due to the consequences that follow a response. The law of effect originally
had two parts: responses followed by satisfiers are reinforced, while responses followed by
annoyers are inhibited. Thorndike later revised the law, emphasizing the significance of
rewards in strengthening the stimulus-response connection over punishments. B.F. Skinner
recognized the importance of the law of effect in behavior control and focused on ensuring
that desired effects occur optimally for learning. He agreed with Thorndike that rewards are
more effective than punishments in shaping behavior.
Another influence on Skinner was John B. Watson, who believed that consciousness and
introspection should not play a role in the scientific study of human behavior. Watson

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argued for the objective study of human behavior, dismissing concepts like consciousness,
instinct, and mental states as beyond the scope of scientific psychology. He advocated for
psychology to focus on predicting and controlling behavior through the objective
examination of habits formed via stimulus-response connections. Scientific Behaviorism
Skinner, like Thorndike and Watson, advocated for the scientific study of human behavior
without considering needs, instincts, or motives. He compared attributing motivation to
behavior to attributing free will to natural phenomena. Skinner believed that internal
drives should not be assumed as explanations for behavior. Instead, he emphasized
observing physical events to understand and predict behavior. Skinner argued that
psychology should focus on observable physical events rather than unobservable mental
conditions to be considered scientific. While he acknowledged the existence of internal
states like hunger and emotions, he stressed that they should not be used as explanations
for behavior. Skinner's scientific behaviorism rejects attributing motives to behavior and
aligns with the approach of other sciences that have abandoned the practice of assigning
motives to living organisms and objects.

Philosophy of Science
Scientific behaviorism focuses on interpreting behavior rather than explaining its causes.
This interpretation allows scientists to generalize from simple learning conditions to more
complex ones. For instance, Skinner extended findings from animal studies to children and
adults. All sciences, including the study of human behavior, start with simple principles
and progress to generalized ones that help interpret complex behaviors. Skinner, in 1978,
applied laboratory-derived principles to understand human behavior, emphasizing that
interpretation should not be mistaken for explaining the reasons behind people's actions.

Characteristics of Science
According to Skinner (1953), science is characterized by three main features. Firstly, it is
cumulative, meaning knowledge builds upon itself over time. Contrary to art and
literature, scientific knowledge today far surpasses that of ancient civilizations like the
Greeks. Secondly, science values empirical observation above all else. This scientific
attitude requires rejecting authority, maintaining intellectual honesty, and suspending
judgment until clear trends emerge. Scientists must prioritize facts over personal desires
to uphold the integrity of their work. Lastly, science involves a search for order and lawful
relationships. The scientific method includes prediction, control, and description, where
observations lead to the development of hypotheses, controlled experimentation, and
theory modification based on empirical results. Skinner (1953) believed that behaviorism
in science can be understood through identifiable variables and lawful principles, enabling
prediction and control of behavior.

➢ Conditioning
Skinner identified two types of conditioning: classical and operant. In classical
conditioning, a specific stimulus triggers a response from the organism, while operant
conditioning, also known as Skinnerian conditioning, reinforces behaviors to increase their
likelihood of recurrence. One key difference is that classical conditioning elicits a response
from the organism, whereas operant conditioning involves emitted responses that simply
appear. Skinner preferred the term "emitted" because responses are not drawn out from
inside the organism but rather manifest based on individual or evolutionary reinforcement
history.

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
to create a conditioned response. This type of learning is seen in reflexive behaviors like
salivation when food is presented. It can also lead to complex human responses such as
phobias. An example of classical conditioning is the case of Little Albert, a child who was
conditioned to fear a white rat through association with a loud sound. The experiment

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demonstrated that infants can learn to fear objects through conditioning and can
differentiate between stimuli. The key to classical conditioning is pairing a conditioned
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until the former can elicit the latter's response.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning, as proposed by Skinner, plays a significant role in human learning.
Unlike classical conditioning, which focuses on associations, operant conditioning
emphasizes the role of reinforcement in shaping behavior. In this process, an organism
performs an action, followed by immediate reinforcement from the environment. This
reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring in the future. Unlike
classical conditioning, where the response is elicited by a
stimulus, operant conditioning involves the organism actively operating on the
environment to achieve a desired outcome. Through operant conditioning, the frequency
or probability of a behavior occurring can be altered. It is essential to note that while
reinforcement strengthens a behavior, it does not directly cause it; rather, it enhances the
chances of the behavior being repeated.

Shaping Behavior through Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning, shaping is a crucial procedure where the
environment rewards gradual approximations of a desired behavior until
the final behavior is achieved. For example, teaching a child to dress
themselves involves breaking down the task into simple steps and
reinforcing each step until the child can complete the whole task
independently. This process highlights how shaping works by reinforcing
successive approximations towards the target behavior.
Operant conditioning involves three key components: the antecedent
(environment or setting), the behavior itself, and the consequence
(reward). The behavior is shaped by reinforcing responses that move
slightly beyond previously rewarded actions, gradually progressing
towards the desired behavior. Skinner likened shaping behavior to a
sculptor molding a statue, emphasizing the continuous nature of behavior
change.
The environment plays a vital role in shaping and maintaining behavior
through selective reinforcement. Individuals develop operant
discrimination based on their history of reinforcement, where they learn to
respond to certain environmental cues. Stimulus generalization occurs
when a response is elicited in a new situation due to similarities with a
previously reinforced situation. This process demonstrates how behavior
can be shaped and modified through reinforcement and environmental
factors.

Reinforcement
Reinforcement, as explained by Skinner (1987a), serves two main
purposes: it strengthens behavior and rewards the individual. It's
important to note that reinforcement and reward are not interchangeable
terms. Not all reinforced behaviors are necessarily enjoyable or gratifying
to the person involved. For instance, individuals may be reinforced for
their work even if they find their jobs mundane or unfulfilling. Reinforcers
are external stimuli in the environment and do not rely on subjective
feelings. Food, for example, is not reinforcing because it tastes good;
rather, it tastes good because it serves as a reinforcement (Skinner,
1971).

Behaviors that increase the likelihood of survival for a species or an

individual are typically reinforced. Vital necessities such as food,
reproduction, and parental care are crucial for survival, and any actions
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that lead to these outcomes are reinforced. Conversely, factors like injury,
illness, and harsh environmental conditions are harmful to survival,
prompting behaviors that aim to minimize or avoid these adverse
circumstances to be reinforced as well. Reinforcement is categorized into
positive reinforcement, which enhances beneficial environmental
conditions, and negative reinforcement, which diminishes or prevents
unfavorable situations.

Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement refers to any stimulus that, when added to
a situation, increases the likelihood of a specific behavior
occurring. Examples of positive reinforcers include food, water,
money, and social approval. When these stimuli are linked to
behavior, they can boost the frequency of that behavior. For
instance, turning on the kitchen faucet and receiving clear water
reinforces the action. Positive reinforcement plays a significant
role in shaping both human and animal behavior, with Skinner
demonstrating how animals can learn complex tasks through this
method.

Negative Reinforcement
In contrast, negative reinforcement involves removing an
unpleasant stimulus from a situation to strengthen a preceding
behavior. This removal, such as reducing loud noises or hunger
pangs, reinforces the behavior that preceded it. Negative
reinforcement differs from positive reinforcement in that it
requires eliminating an adverse condition rather than introducing
a beneficial stimulus. Despite this distinction, both negative and
positive reinforcement serve the same purpose of strengthening
behavior. For example, some individuals eat because they enjoy
the food (positive reinforcement), while others eat to alleviate
hunger (negative reinforcement), both resulting in reinforced
behavior due to the rewarding consequences.

Punishment
Negative reinforcement is distinct from punishment. Negative
reinforcement involves removing or avoiding aversive stimuli, while
punishment entails presenting an aversive stimulus or removing a
positive one. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response, whereas
punishment does not necessarily weaken it. Skinner and Thorndike noted
that the effects of punishment are less predictable than those of reward.

Effects of Punishment
Positive and negative reinforcement are more effective in shaping
behavior than punishment. Punishment suppresses behavior
without providing clear guidance on preferred actions, leading to
unpredictable outcomes. For example, spanking a child to stop
teasing may temporarily halt the behavior but does not improve
their relationship with the sibling. Punishment can also condition
negative emotions and lead to avoidance behaviors or
maladaptive responses. Additionally, punishment may spread its
effects to associated stimuli, impacting behavior in unintended
ways.

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 Punishment and Reinforcement Comparison
Punishment shares similarities with reinforcement, including two
types: presenting an aversive stimulus or removing a positive
reinforcer. Examples include experiencing pain from falling on ice
due to walking too fast (natural consequence) and receiving a
heavy fine for speeding (human intervention). Both punishment
and reinforcement can arise from natural outcomes or human
decisions, serving as methods to control behavior either
intentionally or inadvertently. Skinner advocated for deliberate
behavior control in his work, emphasizing the importance of
understanding these principles for managing human behavior
effectively.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Behavior that is immediately followed by a positive reinforcer or the

removal of an aversive stimulus tends to happen more often. The
frequency of this behavior depends on the training conditions, specifically
the schedules of reinforcement. Reinforcement can be continuous, where
the organism is reinforced for every response, or intermittent. Continuous
reinforcement increases response frequency but is inefficient. Intermittent
schedules, favored by Skinner, make more efficient use of reinforcers and
lead to responses that are resistant to extinction. Skinner started using
intermittent schedules when he had a shortage of food pellets.
Intermittent schedules are based on organism behavior or elapsed time
and can be fixed or randomized. There are four basic intermittent
schedules: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval,
as identified by Ferster and Skinner in 1957.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule
In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given based on the
number of responses made by the organism. For instance, a
pigeon may receive a grain pellet for every fifth peck at a disc,
known as a fixed-ratio schedule of 5 to 1 (FR 5). These schedules
start with continuous reinforcement but can shift to intermittent
reinforcement, with high ratios requiring gradual increase in
response rates. Human pay scales rarely follow fixed-ratio
schedules, but a similar concept can be seen in bricklayers being
paid per brick laid.

Variable-Ratio Schedule
In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement is provided after an
average number of responses, rather than a fixed ratio. This
schedule also transitions from continuous to intermittent
reinforcement, with responses becoming resistant to extinction at
high averages. An example is playing slot machines, where
payoffs are variable to prevent predictability.

Fixed-Interval Schedule
Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a set
time interval. For instance, FI 5 indicates reinforcement after
every 5-minute interval. Human workers receiving salaries align
with this schedule, although their work distribution differs from
pigeons due to various motivators such as supervision, job
security, and personal goals.

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 Variable-Interval Schedule
In a variable-interval schedule, reinforcement occurs after random
time intervals. An example is VI 5, where reinforcement happens
after intervals averaging 5 minutes. This schedule leads to more
responses per interval compared to fixed-interval schedules.
Humans are more influenced by their efforts than time passage,
making variable-interval schedules less common than ratio
schedules.

Extinction in Learning
Extinction in learning can occur for several reasons. Firstly, responses may
simply be forgotten over time. Secondly, interference from prior or
subsequent learning can lead to their loss. Thirdly, responses can vanish
due to punishment. Finally, extinction occurs when a previously learned
response gradually weakens without reinforcement.

Operant extinction involves withholding reinforcement of a learned

response until its probability diminishes to zero. The rate of operant
extinction is influenced by the reinforcement schedule. Responses learned
on an intermittent schedule are more resistant to extinction compared to
those on a continuous schedule. Behavior under intermittent schedules
can be self-perpetuating and closely resembles functionally autonomous
behavior.

The rate of responses per reinforcement affects the speed of extinction.

More responses per reinforcement lead to slower extinction, while fewer
responses or shorter intervals between reinforcers result in quicker
extinction. This highlights the importance of using praise and other
reinforcers sparingly in child training.

Extinction is rarely applied to human behavior outside therapy or behavior

modification. In unpredictable environments, behaviors often persist due
to intermittent reinforcement, even if the nature of reinforcement is
unclear to individuals.
➢ The Human Organism
Skinnerian theory focuses on the technology of behavior, primarily studied in animals. Skinner
believed that principles of behavior from animals can be applied to human behavior, similar to
how physics explains outer space and genetics aids in understanding evolution. Psychology,
according to Skinner and Watson, should scientifically study observable behavior, starting with
simple forms and progressing to more complex ones. Skinner saw no issue with beginning with
animals before moving on to study human behavior. He proposed that human behavior and
personality are influenced by natural selection, cultural practices, and an individual's history of
reinforcement. Ultimately, he argued that natural selection plays a significant role, with operant
conditioning being an evolved process where cultural practices are specific applications.
Natural Selection and Human Behavior
Human personality is influenced by both genetic factors and personal experiences, but at a
broader level, it is shaped by the process of natural selection. This evolutionary mechanism has
favored behaviors that contribute to survival over time. For instance, traits like pupils dilating in
response to light changes or infants instinctively turning towards a gentle touch on the cheek
have persisted because they enhance survival chances. While some behaviors like sexual arousal
are individually rewarding, they also have evolutionary value by promoting the reproduction of
individuals with similar traits. However, not all behaviors shaped by natural selection remain
advantageous today. For example, overeating, once beneficial for survival in times of scarcity,
has now become a health issue in modern societies with abundant food. Despite its influence on

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certain behaviors, natural selection is believed to explain only a fraction of human actions, with
most behaviors attributed to the complex social reinforcements found in cultures. Understanding
the interplay between natural selection and reinforcement contingencies is crucial in unraveling
the complexities of human behavior.
Inner States
Skinner acknowledged the existence of internal states like love, anxiety, and fear, which can be
studied as behaviors despite being limited in observation. He believed it was possible to discuss
private events accurately, bringing non-observables within reach. The role of inner states such as
self-awareness, drives, emotions, and purpose was questioned.
Self-Awareness
Skinner posited that humans are not only conscious but also aware of
their consciousness and their place in the environment. Each person is
subjectively aware of their thoughts, feelings, and intentions, which can
be scientifically analyzed. For example, a statement like "I almost quit my
job" involves verbal behavior and private events that can be studied.
Drives
In radical behaviorism, drives are seen as explanatory fictions rather than
causes of behavior. Deprivation and satiation affect the probability of
responses, like eating, but are not the only factors. Understanding
antecedents, behavior, and consequences can reveal the drives related to
specific behaviors, but explanations based on drives are currently
untestable hypotheses.
Emotions
Skinner recognized emotions but cautioned against attributing behavior to
them. Emotions are accounted for by survival and reinforcement
contingencies. Behaviors followed by pleasant emotions tend to be
reinforced, increasing their recurrence probability over time.
Purpose and Intention
While Skinner acknowledged purpose and intention, he advised against
attributing behavior to them directly. Purpose and intention exist
internally but are not directly observable. They can act as reinforcing
stimuli, influencing behavior. Intentions and purposes are physically felt
stimuli within the organism, not mental events driving behavior.
Complex Behavior
Human behavior, according to Skinner, is intricate and influenced by various factors such as
natural selection, cultural evolution, and an individual's history of reinforcement. Despite this
complexity, Skinner acknowledged the presence of higher mental processes like cognition,
reason, and recall. He also recognized and studied complex human behaviors including
creativity, unconscious behavior, dreams, and social interactions. Skinner's perspective on
behavior emphasized the importance of understanding the interplay between biological,
environmental, and cognitive factors in shaping human actions and experiences.
Higher Mental Processes
Skinner (1974) discusses human thought as covert behaviors such as
thinking, problem solving, and reminiscing. These behaviors take place
within the skin, not inside the mind, and are influenced by contingencies
of reinforcement. For instance, searching for misplaced items or recalling
information are behaviors shaped by past reinforcement. Problem solving
involves covert manipulation of variables until a solution is found, with

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 environmental factors playing a crucial role. Skinner emphasizes that
techniques of recall aim to increase the probability of responses, not
searching a memory store.
Creativity
Skinner addresses creativity as accidental variations in behavior selected
by reinforcing consequences, akin to natural selection in evolution.
Creative behavior is shaped by environmental conditions and previous
experiences, rather than a creative mind. The concept of mutation is key,
where random or accidental behaviors can lead to novel responses that
are reinforced. Creativity is viewed as a
result of rewarded accidental behaviors, influenced by genetic endowment
and past experiences.
Unconscious Behavior
Skinner rejects the idea of a storehouse of unconscious ideas but
acknowledges unconscious behavior driven by genetic and environmental
factors. Behavior can be labeled unconscious when suppressed through
punishment, leading to denial and avoidance of aversive consequences.
Examples include suppressing sexual behavior due to punishment and
replacing hateful actions with positive behaviors through reinforcement.
Dreams
Skinner views dreams as covert behaviors subject to reinforcement
contingencies, similar to other behaviors. Dreams may serve a wish-
fulfillment purpose, allowing expression of repressed stimuli without
punishment. Symbolic expressions in dreams provide an outlet for
repressed desires without facing punitive effects.
Social Behavior
Skinner highlights that groups are formed by individuals seeking
reinforcement, whether for protection, belonging, or other reasons.
Membership in social groups may not always be reinforcing, but
individuals may stay due to reinforcement from some group members,
lack of means to leave, or intermittent reward schedules.
Membership in groups is influenced by the reinforcement received, even
in abusive situations.
Control of Human Behavior
Behavior is primarily influenced by environmental contingencies rather than free will. These
contingencies can be established by society, other individuals, or oneself. In essence, the
environment plays a crucial role in shaping and controlling human behavior.
Social Control
Individuals naturally form social groups as it is rewarding. These groups
establish laws, rules, and customs that extend beyond individual lives,
exerting control over members. An amusing example involves Skinner and
Fromm, where Skinner shaped Fromm's behavior through reinforcement at
a professional meeting. Social control includes operant conditioning,
describing contingencies, deprivation/satiation, and physical restraint.
Society uses operant conditioning techniques like positive/negative
reinforcement and punishment for control. Describing contingencies
informs individuals of consequences, while deprivation, satiation, and
physical restraints also influence behavior. Despite attempts at control,

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 behaviors may not always align. Skinner believed behavior is shaped by
survival needs, reinforcement, and social environment, suggesting
physical restraint is just another form of control, not a denial of freedom.
Self-Control
Self-control is discussed in relation to personal freedom and the ability to
manipulate variables within one's environment to influence behavior.
Skinner suggests that individuals can exercise self-control by using
techniques such as physical aids, altering the environment, creating
escape mechanisms from aversive stimuli, using drugs like alcohol, or
engaging in substitute behaviors. These methods allow individuals to
avoid undesirable behaviors or thoughts by changing their environment or
responses. The key idea is that self-control involves manipulating external
variables rather than relying on internal willpower.

➢ The Unhealthy Personality

Social control and self-control methods, while intended to regulate behavior, can
sometimes backfire, leading to negative outcomes. This can manifest as inappropriate
behavior and contribute to the development of an unhealthy personality. It is essential to
be mindful of how these techniques are employed to avoid such adverse consequences.
Counteracting Strategies
When faced with excessive social control, individuals can employ three
primary strategies to counteract it: escape, revolt, or passive resistance.
Escaping involves withdrawing either physically or psychologically from
the controlling agent, leading to difficulties in forming close relationships
and a preference for isolation. Revolting against societal controls involves
more active behaviors such as vandalizing public property or
overthrowing established organizations. Passive resistance, a subtler
approach, is characterized by stubbornness and can manifest as
procrastination or undermining others' work. Inappropriate behaviors
often stem from unsuccessful attempts at self-control or counteracting
social control, shaped by reinforcement and punishment effects. These
behaviors include excessively vigorous or restrained actions, blocking out
reality, self-delusion like boasting, and self-punishment either self-inflicted
or orchestrated by others.
Inappropriate Behaviors
Inappropriate behaviors stem from counteracting social control or
unsuccessful selfcontrol, often accompanied by strong emotions. These
behaviors are learned through positive and negative reinforcement, as
well as punishment. Examples include excessively vigorous or restrained
behavior, blocking out reality to avoid negative stimuli, self-delusion like
boasting or rationalizing, and self-punishment either through self-infliction
or arranging punishment by others. These behaviors serve as coping
mechanisms to avoid unpleasant consequences or feelings of inadequacy.

➢ Application
Skinner (1987b) viewed psychotherapy as a hindrance to psychology's scientific progress,
but his concepts on shaping behavior significantly influenced behavior therapy. Therapists,
regardless of their approach, act as controllers, distinguishing between harmful authority
figures and supportive therapists. Therapy involves gradual reinforcement of positive
changes. Traditional therapists rely on fictional constructs to explain behaviors, while
Skinner emphasized learning principles. Behavior therapists employ techniques based on
operant conditioning, actively guiding patients towards positive behaviors through
reinforcement and discouraging negative behaviors. Skinner's focus on observable
behaviors and learning principles underpins behavior therapy, emphasizing the
importance of the individual's history in shaping behavior.

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 ➢ Related Research
Operant conditioning, initially used with animals, has evolved to study complex human
behaviors. Studies explore how conditioning impacts personality, how personality
influences conditioning, and the mutual relationship between them. Skinner's theory
highlights behavior stability as key to personality, with therapy aiming to change
behaviors for lasting effects. Reinforcement plays a crucial role, as seen in treating drug
addiction where stimuli like nicotine can lose reinforcing value over time. Research on
psychomotor stimulants and smoking behavior shows how reinforcement values can
change.

Personality's impact on conditioning is also significant. Studies reveal individual

differences in responses to reinforcement, indicating that personality traits influence how
conditioning affects behavior. For instance, research on d-amphetamine and smoking
behavior highlights how different individuals respond differently to the same reinforcers.

Moreover, there is evidence of a mutual influence between personality and conditioning.

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory explores how emotional-motivational systems like
the behavioral approach system and the avoidance systems shape personality traits.
Research on perfectionism and reinforcement sensitivity further demonstrates how
personality traits are reinforced differently based on emotional responses. Understanding
these interactions can provide insights into behavioral patterns and individual differences
in response to conditioning.

➢ Critique of Skinner
Hans J. Eysenck criticized Skinner for overlooking individual differences, intelligence,
genetic factors, and personality. While Skinner acknowledged genetic factors and offered a
definition of personality, his theory's usefulness is evaluated based on criteria such as
research generation, falsifiability,
organization of knowledge, practical applications, and internal consistency. Skinner's
deterministic view of human behavior emphasizes environmental control over concepts like free
will and individual choice. Despite the complexity of human behavior, Skinner believed that
behavior is governed by the same principles as animals and machines. His theory on humanity,
while deterministic, is viewed optimistically as adaptable and shaped by reinforcement
principles. Skinner's blueprint for a utopian society in "Walden Two" suggests that arranging
environmental variables can lead to more satisfying solutions. He believed that people can be
taught to behave in positive ways based on reinforcement history. Skinner's theory focuses on
causality, the unconscious dimension of personality, and the significant role of environmental
factors in shaping human behavior and personality.

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