Advanced Manoeuvres
Basic Mountain Flying
This training introduces students to the principles As with the previous lesson Terrain and Weather
of basic mountain flying and further develops their Awareness the training should focus, whenever
experience and understanding of operating near the opportunity presents itself, on recognising the
terrain with its associated weather. This is a CPL significance of weather, especially wind relative
level exercise. to the terrain and its impact on flight conditions
The exercises do not require high mountains and flight path.
to establish the basic principles.
Opportunities for scenario based decision making
should be maximised.
Objectives Considerations
To consistently identify a useable The student should experience these exercises
to increase their awareness of mountain flying
horizon and to superimpose it on and their associated weather;
to a variable background. 1. In clean configuration and poor visibility
configuration
To appropriately position an aircraft
2. In both calm and windy conditions (greater
in a valley and to conduct level, than 15 knots, at instructor discretion)
climbing and descending turns. 3. In clear conditions and in conditions of some
precipitation
To safely approach, cross, and
4. Completing turns through 180 degrees and
position after crossing ridges,
360 degrees both clockwise and anticlockwise.
saddles, passes or spurs.
Wind below 15 knots is generally predictable. It
is important that instructor discretion is applied in
Experience real or simulated
wind conditions above 15 knots, when ability to
circumstances of disorientation accurately predict conditions is more challenging
and the strategies for reorienting and affected by the terrain shape, size and
in place and time. presentation of airflow.
Importantly, basic mountain flying requires
To practise emergencies where completion of a ground course, please refer to the
options may be limited. Mountain Flying Training Standards Guide for the
content of this course.
2 Advanced Manoeuvres: Basic Mountain Flying
Superimposed Horizon • escape options,
Revise the definition of the horizon. • use of parallax, and
Identify the real and imaginary horizon. • types of saddles.
Review the illusions associated with inaccurate In increased wind conditions the student will need
horizon definition, most commonly an insidiously to assess the areas of lift and sink, and areas of
climbing terrain gradient which tricks the pilot potential turbulence for all phases of a crossing.
into raising the nose. Potential hazards associated
The student must consider the approach path/angle
with illusions and poor horizon definition include
from well before the crossing. They must assess
inadvertently reaching the stall speed with high
the approach angle (left to right or right to left) for
power and no room, or performance, available to
wind, cloud and turbulence conditions and provide
escape.
for the best escape option at all times.
Operating in a Valley Escape options should be available through a
Review and expand on; shallow angle (45 degrees or less) to minimise the
angle of bank and consequent VS. The best escape
• use of check turns,
option should provide for a downstream, downhill
• positioning in a valley, escape on both sides of the crossing to anticipate
• turning using minimum angle of bank to use all the effects of potential turbulence or sink.
available space, The student should experience as many options
• poor visibility configuration use and as possible, including those that may not be the
considerations, and best, provided that the experience stays within
the instructor’s limitations.
Discuss the considerations of climbing and
descending turns when entering and vacating a
valley. This will help the student to experience Route Finding
the changing horizon perspective and consequent Discuss the importance of good planning and
importance of attitude/speed control. map preparation. The time spent on the ground
significantly reduces workload in the air, especially
Discuss valley gradients – the student should in the mountains where a good lookout is more
experience flying at a constant height above the critical because of the proximity to terrain.
valley floor while descending down a valley to
observe the VSI indications and predict the climb Being able to identify the direction of water flow/
performance necessary for flight in the opposite gradient will help greatly when it is critical to be
direction. The gradient in most valleys far exceeds assured of the aeroplane’s position. The student
the climb performance of the average light should develop the skill of recognising flow
training aeroplane. direction and by assessing the amount of
white water present, gain a clear indication
Discuss the effects of sun and shade – if of valley gradient.
possible, in a controlled dual environment, expose
the student to the sun suddenly appearing/ Being aware of the alignment of the valley being
disappearing behind a ridge. flown in, and of those nearby, will help maintain
situational awareness.
Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs Discuss using the position of the sun to improve
Review and expand on the considerations from the situational awareness and knowledge of
Terrain and Weather Awareness lesson; orientation. For example if the sun was in front
of the right shoulder entering the valley, and if
• consider all aspects of crossing,
insignificant time elapses, it should be behind
• configuration and attitude of aeroplane, the left shoulder exiting the valley.
• effect of wind and terrain,
Advanced Manoeuvres: Basic Mountain Flying 3
Emergencies It is helpful to make position reports both before
Emergency landings, whether forced or and after crossing to assist with traffic awareness.
precautionary, are more of a challenge when flying As with all low flying, more frequent use of
below the ridgeline. SADIE checks is advised.
The lack of a real horizon is the primary problem. The minimum descent altitude for this exercise
There are many variables to consider; height is restated (refer CFI).
available, distance to viable landing sites,
existence of viable sites within reach, wind/
turbulence/precipitation conditions, and light Aeroplane Management
conditions, to name just a few. Revise the poor visibility configuration – considering
Confined spaces will affect the plan. when it is necessary to adopt and the effect it has
on performance.
The wind will also affect the glide range –
avoid the sink and use the lift if possible. It may Review VA, VS, and operating speed range
be possible to take a calculated gamble on the considerations. Review the use of power as
presence of an anabatic or katabatic wind. necessary to remain safely above stall speed,
but in anticipation of potential turbulence, below
The valley being flown over will probably have
the maximum manoeuvring speed.
a gradient – how steep it is? What will be the
elevation of the landing site? Are there any wires? Carburettor heat as required.
Be aware of the illusions and mindsets that can Review leaning the mixture for engine
be experienced. considerations, performance and economy.
Make an early MAYDAY call, possibly on 121.5, Revise control coordination to ensure smooth,
set 7700 and activate the ELT. balanced handling to reduce unnecessary
stress on the aeroplane, passengers and pilot.
Look for habitation and head for it.
Consider the positioning of the aeroplane in
Before takeoff, there should be an appropriate
relation to the terrain while taking into account
survival kit on board and the pilot should have
wind direction and speed, so as to mitigate the
knowledge of its contents and use. See the
effects of turbulence.
Survival Gap for more information.
Airmanship Human Factors
The illusions experienced when flying without a
In this lesson the student must be doing more
horizon have been discussed earlier, but expand
than just thinking ahead, they must anticipate the
on the other illusions the student may experience,
environment they cannot yet see, in order to ensure
for example, whiteout and disappearing ridgelines.
they are not left in a situation where reacting quickly
is the only option left open to them. Workload, stress, fatigue and effect on
performance – employ sound planning
It is important that they learn to recognise threats
techniques, good training and currency to reduce
and develop appropriate strategies to mitigate
any degrading effect on performance
those threats.
Hypoxia and dehydration factors – be knowledgeable
It is much better to have sound decision making
and aware of effects on performance
than rely on inadequate aeroplane performance to
provide escape options. Direct the student towards more reading on this
subject, there are a number of GAP booklets that
The student must remain aware of their situation
deal with flying in mountains, Mountain Flying,
at all times, in particular remaining aware of the
Survival, the In, Out and Around series, as well as
changing weather, nearby terrain, other traffic in
the Mountain Flying DVD.
the area, and the student’s own performance.
4 Advanced Manoeuvres: Basic Mountain Flying
Air Exercise Start with complete 360 degree level turns both
left and right, in the cruise configuration, using the
Review the previous lesson and the skills
full width of the valley. Then the same level turns
developed there.
in the poor visibility configuration.
This lesson should start approaching any terrain.
Note the difference in appropriate aeroplane
Discuss horizon, wind, gradient and potential lift/
position when in a narrow valley compared to
sink well in advance of the arrival in any valley.
a large one.
Superimposed Horizon Make steep descending turns into a valley, the
Fly a constant altitude while maintaining a student should correctly anticipate the location
constant wingtip distance from terrain. the aeroplane should roll out, and notice the
changing horizon perspective and reduced
By using outside reference as the primary
space available.
source, and only confirming performance with
instruments, this exercise will help to develop The student should be able to make efficient
the skill of accurately superimposing the horizon climbing turns, to enable the aeroplane to either
onto varied backgrounds. climb out of a valley or to position for a saddle
crossing using the available lift to assist, and
This exercise should be flown smoothly and with
avoiding sudden sun strikes.
coordinated control movements. While flying
smoothly and maintaining a constant altitude and If the valley has a vertical face, experience the
distance from terrain, encourage the student to turning radius through 180 degrees in both
develop an awareness of the area around them the cruise and poor visibility configurations to
and their position in it. They should also be gaining appreciate the effects of illusions.
an appreciation of inertia when they make turns,
be consistently aware of their escape options, Crossing Ridges, Saddles, Passes or Spurs
be applying the right of way rules, and using an Apply a CPL standard to the previously
appropriate lookout technique. established principles of assessing the appropriate
flight path for approach, crossing and after
Next, fly a constant height above a descending
crossing, that applies the safest compromise of
valley floor to give the student an appreciation
the options and principles involved.
of gradient and shifting horizon perspective.
This exercise will be carried out in wind conditions
Turn around and fly a constant height above a
that may exceed 15 knots.
rising valley floor to appreciate the same things.
The student should be able to demonstrate a
Operating in a Valley saddle crossing, while taking into account, the
This is ideally carried out in a valley that provides approach, the effect of wind, the turbulence, their
a variety of slopes, valley sides, background height, their speed, an efficient crossing, and
terrain, and weather conditions. This may not be be able to show you where they would escape
practical so a variety of valleys and conditions to at any point. A safe airspeed must be
should be used. maintained at all times and the aeroplane flown
smoothly. Where compromise may be required,
Turns should be made while level, climbing,
assessment of the best option should be made.
and descending.
The student should apply sound decision making
When either unsure of the radius required,
to all of their decision-making processes,
approaching the entrance to a valley, in a narrowing
and be able to discuss these. Their consideration
valley, or part of the valley, make check turns
of suitable escape options in conditions of
to evaluate the turn radius of the aeroplane, exit
unexpected sink or turbulence should be
options and the space available for an escape.
of primary concern.
Advanced Manoeuvres: Basic Mountain Flying 5
Route Finding
While conducting mountain flying training, or during
dual cross country training and operating below
the ridge line, allow the student to experience their
own real disorientation and guide them through
strategies for reorientation. If this is not possible
you may need to simulate the exercise.
Emergencies
Take opportunities to simulate forced or
precautionary landings whenever the aeroplane
is below a ridge line. Emphasise the need to
recognise and mitigate any threats.
The student may have difficulty adjusting to a
situation where the standard pattern cannot be
flown, including a forced landing without power
where the only option is straight ahead.
Airborne Sequence
Develop local simulated scenarios so you can
assess a student’s entry into and exit from a valley
system, climb into and out of a valley system
or crossing from one valley system into another.
When conducting cross country training consider
routes and altitudes that facilitate practical
application of principles learned.
