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C Language

C language notes of code with harry channel

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45 views160 pages

C Language

C language notes of code with harry channel

Uploaded by

rlzar
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© © All Rights Reserved
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WHAT ISA UNION? “Tie CO) day O- VOy @ ml \2-Cison is user defined datatype (very simlar to structures) Urine ference benween structures and unions lis the fact that in structure, each member has its own storage location, whereas members of a union uses a single shared memory location. a raat 5 2 ge red manor leton ea vd sae of largest da member, ay Aah be ployee i + Bed Be Lo ce rgb 7a | fink wei & ce age? = vd romeo" ae DECLARING AND ACCESSING UNION MEMBE! (2 Ghee seructures, we access any member by using the member access operator (.)n unions -_ « L 6 bod, J Wet Ste rman =_ieuse keyword union to define a union. & STATIC VARIABLES IN C LOCAL VARIABLES (RECAP) 2 Scope is region of the program where a defined variable can exist and beyond which it cannot be accessed _2-Griables which are accessed inside a function or a block are called local variables. 2 They can only be accessed bythe function they are declared <3-They are inaccessible to the functions outside the function they are declared in! - oun) 2 fame vk a ink ink ey 4 ink ests Gi whoo 475 GLOBAL VARIABLES (RECAP) 2 These are the variables defined outside the main method. \_2--Gobal variables are accessible throughout the entire program from any function, (f+ local and global varable has the same name, the lea variable wil take preference int 415, aie 3s int Sued 2 int mam) § fink 2 35 11 Soescole prot ("4 5 aehunds z 3 FORMAL ARGUMENT: #_Aifese variables are treated as local variables with in a function. # These variables take precedence over global variables. STATIC VARIABLES IN C \_2-They preserve their value from the previous scope and are not initialized again. \_2-Stfic variable remains in memory throughout the span of the program. _2-SGitic variables are initialized to 0 if not initialized explicitly <2, static variables can only be inialized using constant era Oy P DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION IN G WHAT & WHY DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION? . s$ \o char name [34] 5 hubba \o Arana — E-AiTTatically allocated variable or array has a fixed size in memory. Shyam \o —___ it have learnt to create big enough arrays to fit in our inputs but this doesn’ seem lke an optimal way to allocate memory. te Hremory is a very useful resource __2-CTearly we need a way to request memory on runtime + 1 _Dumatinic Memory Allocation is way in which the size ofa data structure can be changed during the Funtime. STATIC VS DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION ink ¥> Static Memory Allocation J — Dynamic Memory Allocation ~~ = Allocation is done before the = Allocation is done during the program's execution | — program's execution -—~ = There is no memory reusability = There is memory reusability and and the memory allocated cannot the allocated memory can be be freed. Va freed when not required ~ -— = Less efficient ~— = More efficient ~~ MEMORY ALLOCATION IN C PROGRAMS Quik 7 * Memory assigned to a program in a typical architecture can be broken down into four segments: Ao Code ——> Tent eg So nnn a sgn Te Sack Fs seg ( unimregel Zempiter allocates some space for the stack part Ce Bo of the memory [--When this space gets exhausted for some bad g reason, the situation is called as stack overflow | +Afpical example includes recursion with wrong/no base condition. C PROGRAM: USE OF HEAP [- Are are a lot of limitations of stack (static memory allocation) +_Aéme of the examples include variable sized array, freeing memory no longer required etc. | Heap can be used flexibly by the programmer as ‘4 per his needs. = C PROGRAM: USE OF HEAP C int 2M can create a pointer in our main function and point to a memory block in the heap <|eThe address is stored by the local variable in the main function, [Te memory consumed will not get freed automatically in case we overwrite the pointer FUNCTIONS FOR DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION —>_Inpse DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION: RECAP (LAFF szatically allocated variable or array has a fixed size in memory. f_Dimamic Memory Allocation isa way in which the sie of a data structure ‘ean be changed during the runtime _Liemony assigned to a program ina typical architecture can be broken dawn into four segment . _ Code . int ore Lo]; — — Seack ued Statie/global variables = 3) 3 io] Heap FUNCTIONS FOR DYNAMIC MEMORY CATION IN C (OT Dynamic memory allocation, the memory is allocated at runtime from the heap segment * We have four functions that help us achieve this task: rao Cp aloe = Dynan mamory ley Ub raalloc Ue bee C MALLOC() n int” pes . we J! 2¥> mam \_2-They are same as global variables (U2-Beope: Global to the program they are defined in (f-Pefaule initial Value: 0 UJ itotime: These variables are deciared outside any function. They are avaiable throughout the Mfetime of the program 2K tlobal variable canbe changed by any function inthe program. _Z-int hamry written outside any function will ell compiler that harry is a global variable. > #8 recommended to minimize the use of unnecessary global variables ina program. EXTERNAL VARIABLES: EXTERN VARIABI ‘extern keyword is used to inform our C compiler that a given variable is declared somewhere else. Ising extern will not allocate space for the variable definition = Brample Acclarvhon fad ory C = Mare +c int main() { int harry = 90; prinei("%d", harry); IC VARIABLES: STATIC STORAGE CLASS fume tOS4 [giahe int «=85 (pBeope: Local to the block they are defined in 7 Befaute Initial Value: 0 Lifetime: They are available throughout the lifetime of the program. LZ Aisa variable remains under existence for use within the function for entire program run T-Taatic int harry written inside any function wil tell compiler that harry isa static variable. ee recommended to minimize the use of unnecessary static variables in a program. a REGISTER VARIABLES: REGISTER STORAGE CLASS \c pu Reqiskr func xd, {27Scope: Local to the function they are declared in 2 Default Initial Value: Garbage value _ZAifetime: They are available til the end of the function block, in which the variable is defined 2A variables requests the compiler to store the variable inthe CPU register instead of storing in the ‘memory to have faster access abel 2 Fenlly this is done for the variables which are being used frequently ore cane ry om Se Ce rr Coat roy * oy r (em) o VOID POINTER IN C | WHAT IS AVOID POINTER? {2-7 Fold pert ple hat hat po data ype assocaned wth THE 5A void pointer can be easily typecasted to any pointer type © In simple language it is 2 “4 purpose pointer variable Void fuel farel (D4 e -] | PROGRAMMING pet ~\s LANGUAGE io] VOID POINTER: C PROGRAM 2K void pointer is a pointer that has no data type associated with it. Ftd pana an bu ely pecan tle Pcl . as ai! THE To] int x = 10; 7 char y = 'x'; —B [8 ° _/ void *p = &; // void pointer stores address of int ‘x* Wp = &y; // void pointer now holds address of char ‘y" PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE USES OF VOID POINTERS THE \2ATaynamic memory allocation, malloc() and ond rants *) type pointer Tris allows hese dynamic memory functions tobe used to allocate memory of any datatype. This is because these pointers can be typecasted to any pointer typ PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE MORE ON VOID POINTERS \oid- a a ml 34 ae (+ pe) i THE (27 Fis not possible to dereference void pointers (UL Pointer arithmetic no allowed in C standards with void pointers \e-Hice ic is not recommended to use pointer arithmetic with void pointers. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE Ss float b void *ptr; da b; 8 (onli ptr = Sa; i¢ CF} a ey a8 PA PNY ((float *)ptr)); Cet ae] 1) DF WHAT ISA NULL POINTER? *_DiatT pointer is a pointer which has a value reserved for indicating that the pointer or reference does not refer to a vahd object THE 2K il poater is guranteed to compare unequal to any pointer that points toa valid object. Oy creche ing a null pointer is undefined behavior in C, and a conforming implementation is allowed to assume that any pointer that is dereferenced is not null —+ poinkas PROGRAMMING 3 Void rindi, LANGUAGE Null povidor fy WHAT IS A NULL POINTER? oid NULL 2 -AGull poincer is a pointer which has a value reserved for indicating that the THE pointer or reference does not refer to a valid object. ud ull pointer is guaranteed to compare unequal to any pointer that points to a Valid object. (I PHULL pointer sa spect pointer whichis mentioned in € standard and it has ‘specific purposes. LANL poreer gras trctoey 10 € programmes to check whether a pointer PROGRAMMING —— LANGUAGE LL POINTER: C PROGRAM 2A pointer sa pointer that points to NULL (nothing) 2 Friuil pointer should not be dereferenced THE pt Rreck must be run by the c programmer to know whether a pointer is null before dereferencing it —— Cannot be deveferente int x = 10; A . int *p = NULL; // null pointer PROGRAMMING p = &x; // null pointer now holds address of int ~ LANGUAGE Cam be. darsferonced os MORE ON NULL POINTERS nul or prt rd . [Par THE implementations LEANGLL pointer vs Uninitializ = pointer ~ An uninitialized pointer contains an “undefined value. {Ziti pointer stores a defined valve, which isthe one decided by the environment to not be a valid memory address for any object. CAL pointer vs Void Pointer — Null pointer is a value where as void pointer is a ope aes PROGRAMM mt” per LANGUAGE *btr WhO hot oe (GN irs (6) int a = 34; Tee tule %d\n", ptr); ar O int a = 34; int * ptr = NULL; ( ber ( Kd\n", *pte); Cire ( Seas int ) r bad ey nt © ptr; Come nay ( Xd\n", ptr); r Sa Td WHAT ISA DANGLING POINTER? Pointer pointing to a freed memory location or the location whose content has been deleted is called a dangling pointer. THE Daring pointers arise during object destruction when an object that has an incoming reference is deleted or deallocated, without modifying the value of the pointer, so that the pointer still e f0 the memory location of the deallocated mano ink @ vw r .- PROGRAMMING Vert LANGUAGE = CAUSES OF DANGLING POINTER po TA 2 Cralocation of memory THE 2 -Rtturning local variables in function calls . a Aiiable going out of scope * PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE io] | DEALLOCATION OF MEMORY When memory is deallocated, the pointer keeps pointing to the freed space. = Example: IS DANGLING POINTER A GOOD THING TO HAVE? eo @r LPGirg pointers can introduce nasty ug in our C programs. 2 Aiialing pointer bugs frequently become security holes at times 5G can avoid issues caused by dangling pointers by initializing pointer to NULL FF dealocaing rere, pobeer il be wo looger dungingzg=) THE 2 Assigning NULL value means pointer is a null poincer now PROGRAMM ptr = NUL; LANGUAGE VARIABLE GOING OUT OF SCOPE WHAT IS AWILD POINTER? * * wiles, ing” por 5 [wilde trivialized pointers are known as wild pointers — THE i Titese pointers point some abierary location in memory and may cause a . ‘program to crash or behave badly. Links “rhe finctio © fred mt Inploutlonse © brn ~ ‘Sole ~*~ aioe a rather tole WHAT IS A C PREPROCESSOR? xy {2 preprocessor comes under action before the actual compilation process 4 THE EC preprocessor is not a part of the ¢ compiler a (2 Wis a text substitution tool UT preprocessor commands begin with a hash symbol (#) Juda OK? Gene PROGRAMMING Le mt LANGUAGE wk By * rit @ Jv y +r" a ow PREPROCESSOR COMMANDS EXAMPLES o Wo Vy define N tinelude we #undef det Wort gt Fine Undid is hoe Helse ~ te rtd In, H Wed ACRTIMP Pavee ACRTIMP on yea! (rr a a Coyle sa Cee ts eat valid parameter_handler _cdecl _set Come Cees invalid_parameter_handler __cdecl _ge POR am rot SRC Cen een nti opt_ _{nvalid_parameter_handler _Hand) Pog #INCLUDE & #DEFINE PREPROCESSORS IN C THE # INCLUDE DIRECTIVE = Aho #tinclude directive causes the preprocessor to fetch the contents of some other file to be included in the present file 17 1E tu ey nar Schapira which rag in tare bo se. (£1T cement te Heke es hve 3" extending ta they ae ear les * —_ per My \0 Giles TWO COMMON #INCLUDE FORMATS At C programming there are two common formats for #includes: # tinclude < headerFileh > // The angle brackets say to look in the standard system directories © tinclude * myfile.h/ The quotation marks say to look in the current directory, _3-Disk drive full path is allowed, but discouraged since it is not portable: |2--#include /! Too specific | -— 2 tinclude < Relative and porable path to the standard locations. . E # DEFINE DIRECTIVE Ddpe PEPE - eas 4 Ode T il es (Ua The fidefine directive is used to “define” preprocessor “variables” (27 The fdefine preprocessor directive can be used to globally replace a word with a number 2 Tipets as an editor did a global search-and-replace edit of the file etnies USING #DEFINE FOR DEBUGGING gr bye DEG uv G arith DEBS ‘ <2 aetine directive can be used for debugging 2-We can have printing statements that we only want active when debugging swe printing statements that ly want acti oak (2A fe can “protect” them in a "def" block as follows ss ae wo} DEY MACROS USING #DEFINE 2A can also create macros using define [orcs operate much ike functions but becauze they are expanded in place and are general faster 4 doje PL 3l4 + dsjine cavart (¢) xk] .* SQvARE (wes) to = ak C sae? OM win Ten © oy float var = PI OTHER DIRECTIVES AND PREDEFINED MACROS PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES \2-Preprocessor is a kind of automated editor that modifies a copy of the original source code #_-Fite include directive causes the preprocessor to fetch the contents of some other file to be included in the present file LZ-HIC programming there are two common formats for #includes: \L2—This file may in turn #include some other file(s) which may in turn do the same. test commonly the included files have a "1h" extension, indicating that they are header fils * Tha,jidefine directive is used to "define" preprocessor "variables" OTHER C PREPROCESSORS. Si {Ae Ft unde — Undafives @ macro ve fd —> # ifndal —> aif deo + lf > H Pryna DB isee Some shecid Conmnads 40 she Couahiben a=) NSP Cel Ot ROE cL S.No. ee 2 Macro & Description DATE Jom 3 209 e current date as character literal in "MMM DD YYYY™ format. TIME This contains the current time as a character literal in "HH:MM:SS" format. FILE The current filename as a string literal _LINE_ The current line number as a decimal constant. sTDC Defined as (one) when the compiler complies with the ANSI standard. ( %d\n", __LINE__); ( %d\n", __STOC__); FILE VO INC | WHY DOWE NEED A FILE? les are used to read & access data anytime from the hard disk Ee" used to store data and information (2 iles make it easy for a programmer to access and store content without losing it on program temination xy VOLATILE VS NON VOLATILE MEMORY wats DSK Volatile Memory --~ RW, Non Volatile Memory + 6tuile memory is computer storage that only 1 Gn-volatile memory is computer memory that can maintains its data while the device is powered retain the stored information even when not ‘The RAM will hold data, programs, and information Powered, as long as it has a constant power supply but tPrt pe of memory i aso refered to a immediately the power is interrupted all that permanent memory since data stored within it can content is cleared. be retrieved even when there is no constant power ee vere pM memory ln ld aa temporal UA ised forthe long-term storage of data. WHY DO WE NEED FILES? 7 Rondon . teen nena _2AGringin a fle will preverve our data even after the program terminates 2AM is notable to handle quite large amount of data due to its smal size relative to the hard disk pA cay ants éta2 e WHY DO WE NEED FILES? RAM = g. don ACCESS Memory po Crees nope oe es odie oa bm _2A2Gringin a fle wil preverve our data even after the program terminates _2-RAM isnot able to handle quite large amount of data due to its small size relative to the hard disk. GAC cay antral TYPES OF FILES Sem Plow et \ os 2-1" C we can perform these high level operations on files: a = | _S—Creaung new fle 3 Opening 2 fle —_——> (Jo Closing a fe — FILE I/O FUNCTIONS IN C | WORKING WITH FILES IN C Le fl 2 fen working with files, we have to declare a pointer of type FILE. sls) RAM * \t_Drteclaration helps us to work with files through C program. FILE * per= Nvlls OPENING A FILE — CREATING OR EDITING A FILE dak tb a function called & Te pening 2 fei 400 is file CLOSING A FILE —. open ( ‘ + Ae eich is opened in 2C program neds to be closed =, Closing file accomplished by the library function ° * felosefper: per isthe fle pointer associated with file to be READING A FILE tr, 2A rder to read a file, we can use fscanf function Asian Cr — ts function is file version of scanf function “eAeant expects 2 file pointer in addition tothe other arguments which scanf expects = Wewill have to open the file in read mode in order to use this function * WRITING TOA FILE Sim print int ps’ pen vintf( per "Ss (2 order to write to fle, we can use fprintf function, 4p ( orig) ; LEAT function is file version of printf funetion (2 frtintt expects a file pointer in a 27% wt ave to open she fe fodelin order to use this function * to the other arguments which printf expects this is some content in this file A this is a good file 3 this file is by harry od nt oO 3 ee aie i es U ess a ( 5 5 ope certs oe r Po Cee main() ie er ae esr) coal ra fprintf(ptr, " UC ee ee ee et TCL fopen(“myfile.txt", “w"); Presto Pe emt oo Perr a) a This content was produced by Tutorial64.¢ ro r a oy) Hire Ree E SF ee Ce re a Cy CaM eee ee ery eee Mae ee eM aR co eC) MORE ONIFILE I/O IN C} WORKING WITH FILES IN C Coo) _Fofem (“man kat", "ve # stdioh contains a function called fopen() for opening files in C a * When working with files, we have to declare a pointer of type FILE FILE * pes * This declaration helps us to work with files through C program. ® The syntax for opening a file in standard V/O is: ptr + (emecteager ese trond to rendre to le. we an use ani fneion © icant "Ks" bully printer, "Marks= "salary cSoniggs ‘ptr is the file pointer associated with file to be closed MODE & DESCRIPTION cro CS ‘Opens an existing text file for reading wor ‘Opens a fle for writing. If it doesnt exist then a new file is created. Writing starts from the beginning ofthe file. as ‘Opens a text fle for writing in appending mode. If it does not ‘exist then a new fle i created. The program wil stat appepding content to the existing file content. ne ‘This mode will open a text file for both reading and writing we ‘Opens a text fle for both reading and writing fe frst truncates, the file to zero length iit exists, otherwise creates afl fit ~ does not exist. a ‘Opens a text fle for both reading and writin, It creates the fle . if it does not exist. The reading wil start from the beginning but ‘writing can only append to file. pe He 2-Sfplest function to wrive characters to 3 file is fue 2 Afitax of fpute goes as follows: nt fpute( character. FILE pointer ): = ‘Ie returns the written character written on success, © On faire t recurns EOF = The EOF isa constant defined in the header file stdio.h OTHER FILE I/O FUNCTIONS IN C a vere are various functions provided by C standard library to read and write a file, character by character, or in the form of a fixed length string Some of them are: fpute Spurs fgete = fers the rele a Choy") de L2-Simplest function to write characters to a file is fpute 2 Afitax of fpute goes as follows: tnt fpute( character, FILE potter Jee Ie returns the written character written on success. ~~ © On faire ie reruns EOF + The EOF isa constant defined in the header file stdio-h FGETC FUNCTION IN C ® Simplest function to read characters from a file is fgete = Syntax of fgete goes as follows: © tnt fgete( FILE "fp ) Ie returns the read character on success. © On failure t pews EOF The EOF isa constant defined in the header file stdio.h, ut harry = Syntax of fgete goes as follows: Fe geet FILE" fp) Gn failure ic recurns EOF The EOF isa constant defined in the header file stdio.h, . ate fh ts function is used to write a null terminated string to a file in ¢ tn fgets( const char *s, FILE “fp ) ts function is used to eek null terminated string to a file in ¢ © st tgetst const cha 26 5EM pI E wnt fyi (Lor dan’, ink, FILe “tp QO a oe Peet re Oe Pe Cn aot pee ea ee ke Le Pee ee this is good i ee ome ed = ptr ( 1 5 hal oy ( % oy} ce co rea bi » str); or O ron ee (char [2})*w a i » “W")5 OC er aca i ptr); rae) [3 er en ptr ¢ AE wer oF De ee ee ce eee ence eet near nceeee nen rceet een COMMAND LINE ARGUMENT IN C Miele OO) Miley PHAN ASE E NUS) fnmand line argument is an important concept in C programming netimes we need to pass arguments from the command line to the program a set of inputs. TGmmand line arguments are used to supply parameters to the program when itis invoked we mostly used when you need to control your program from the console (LAG & ments are passed to the main) method = men TER melt 4 ee, COMMAND LINE EXAMPLE oe # EF mpeg is a free and open-source project consisting of a vast software suite of libraries and programs for handling video, audio, and other multimedia files and streams. 5_-Fimpeg.exe is a command line utility written in ¢ language. ine examples include git, brew, apt-get ete. f b a Vet ope qe » = SAMPLE PROGRAI "| ys (int Pao ) ( PL << Tae ca ee ee Tet @a RTC ae iy aed for (int i=@5 ic arge; iv+){ print€("This argument at index number Xd has a value of %: cop » argc); Sead | |FUNCTION POINTERS IN C POINTERS Pears er j _ CR (L2-A Pointer isa variable which stores address of another variable 2B symbol is used to get the address ofthe variable (27 srmbol is used to get the value of the variable thatthe pointer is pointing ta. ZAC. we can create generic pointers to0 % Sepiar C varlable stores the value whereas pointer stores the ares ofthe vara. uw FUNCTION POINTERS Hwa Hbygeer 2 an re ptr pon nen wll Ass: Twn il \(e-#tction pointers are useful to implement callback functions LL Seroiter takes one or more source files and converts them to machine code eds dafrten peo [imi aD De IT43 ue ‘ ) > i PCED} _ [USING FUNCTION POINTERS IN C FUNCTION POINTERS (2PM can have pointers pointing to functions as well Pr Fiinction pointers point to code and not data <3Finetion pointers are useful to implement callback functions =_Untlike normal pointers, we do not alloate/de-allocate memory using function pointers. Ca CALLBACK FUNCTIONS Teal _2-Pinction pointers are used to pass a function to a functon foc ¢ Oe passed function can then be called again (hence the name callback function). his provides programmer to write less code to do more stuff. Fe \ & alway 7 3 —— — ! ba ‘ ast “ ea = |MEMORY LEAK IN C | Niel 0),0 a aoa Bord mamic Memory Allocation is a way in which the size of a data structure an be changed during the runtime, = Memory assigned to a program in a typical architecture can be broken down into four segments: — Code 2 Staticglobal variables Or Sack i time let wen WHAT CAUSES MEMORY LEAK IN C? 2A grese power comes great esponsbilty e--rremory leaks caused when we dont use namic memory properly Lb *ifien we keep on allocating memory in the heap without freeing, the overall memory usage keeps on increasing, This situation is the cause of memory leak ie the programmer creates a memory block in the memory and forgets to delete it. = To avoid these memory leak situations, memory allocated on heap should dha eae when to eed . vee a on

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