Fixed Gas Fire Extinguishing

Systems
1 Principles of Fixed Gas Fire-extinguishing Systems
Fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems typically suppress fires by reducing the available oxygen in the
atmosphere to a point where combustion can no longer take place or by interrupting the chemical
reaction necessary for the progression of the fire.

Advantages of fixed gas systems over water-based systems are that:

• Damage to sensitive equipment can be avoided, especially in the case of electronic equipment.
• Clean up time and equipment down time is substantially reduced.

Disadvantages are that:

• Some gaseous agents are hazardous to personnel.
• Cooling effect of gas systems is significantly less than water-based systems.
• Unlike the unlimited supply of water for fire-fighting systems, the quantity of gas available is
limited to that carried in the cylinders protecting the space.
Due to the above disadvantages, it is essential that fixed gas fire-fighting systems be deployed as
quickly as possible to minimize heat buildup. Also, care should be taken to avoid the possibility of a
fire being restarted due to dissipation of the fire-extinguishing gas and the introduction of fresh air
from protected compartments being prematurely opened after a fire.
In new installations, the most common fixed gas extinguishing systems encountered are either
high/low pressure CO2 systems or those utilizing Halon “alternatives”.

2 CO2 Fire-extinguishing Systems

2.1 Agent Characteristics

CO2 is a compound of carbon and oxygen. At atmospheric pressures and temperatures, CO 2 is a
colorless, odorless and electrically non-conductive gas. It is approximately 50% heavier than air.
CO2 provides a desirable (although very limited) cooling effect. The gas dissipates into the atmosphere
after its discharge and leaves no residue.
Because CO2 reduces the available oxygen in the atmosphere, it will not support life. A concentration
of 6% to 7% is considered the threshold level at which harmful effects become noticeable in humans,
at concentrations below 10%, most people lose consciousness within a short time. Because of the hazard
involved, particular care must be taken to ensure that all personnel are evacuated from the protected space
prior to discharging the system.

2.2 Effectiveness
CO2 gas is an effective agent for class “A” (wood, paper, etc.), class “B” (flammable liquids and
gases) and class “C” (electrical equipment) hazards as it displaces the oxygen necessary for combustion.
The CO2 concentration must be maintained for a sufficient period to allow the maximum temperature to
be reduced below the auto-ignition temperature of the burning material. Reduction of oxygen content to
15% is sufficient to extinguish most fires. Developing a CO2 concentration of 28.5% in the atmosphere
will reduce the oxygen content to about 15%. However, the concentrations required normally exceed this
amount in order to allow for possible escape of gas or infiltration of air, as well as to provide an adequate
margin of safety.
Carbon dioxide cannot be used on Class “D” (reactive metals, metal hydrides and chemicals containing
their own oxygen supply) hazards, such as magnesium, potassium, sodium and cellulose nitrate. These
Class “D” fires can only be controlled by special extinguishing agents and procedures.

2.3 CO2 System Applications

CO2 systems are “total flooding” systems and must displace sufficient amounts of air to reduce the
oxygen concentration to a level which will not support combustion.
2.3.1 Machinery Space Systems
As indicated above, fires in machinery spaces, cargo pump rooms and similar spaces are generally Class
“B” (flammable liquids) type fires. In this type of fire, ignition of flammable sources can spread quickly,
since such fires normally involve pool fires or jet or spray fires from pressurized fuel or lube oil lines.
Accordingly, the heat build-up is rapid. It is important to introduce the required quantities of CO 2 quickly
in order to minimize the growth of the fire. This prevents the build-up of heat from possibly causing
failure of the structural integrity of the space, making it impossible to maintain the CO 2 concentration and
also prevents heat updraft created by the fire from carrying away the carbon dioxide, as well as
allowing for quicker cool-down periods.

2.3.2 Cargo Hold Systems

Fires in ordinary cargo holds normally involve class “A” combustibles and generally start with some
smoldering and production of large quantities of smoke. Only when sufficient heat is developed to reach
the “flash-over” or ignition temperature (temperature at which solid combustibles give off sufficient gases
to support continued rapid burning) will rapid burning occur. Extinguishing a class “A” fire is difficult
due to the thermal insulating properties of the material. Typically, the hold is kept closed until the vessel
reaches a port where the cargo is removed from adjacent spaces not involved in the fire. The cargo hold
involved in the fire is then opened, with charged fire main nozzles at the ready and the cargo is unloaded,
cooled with water or broken open if necessary to extinguish any remaining fire.

Related IMO Resolution

Resolution A.686(17), paragraph 4.2
The fire-extinguishing medium alarm should have a characteristic which can be easily distinguished from
any other audible alarm or call installed in the space(s) concerned, and should not be combined with any
other audible alarm or call.

CO2 Requirements
Specific Volume Quantity of CO2
m3/kg 0.56
ft3/lb 9.00
Note: The above values are based on ambient temperature of 20°C (70°F).

As stated above, machinery spaces with a casing involved are required to have a concentration of at least
35% of the gross volume of the space including casing, or 40% of the gross volume of the space
excluding the casing, whichever is greater. For cargo vessels of less than 2000 gt., the above percentages
may be reduced to 30% and 35%, respectively. Where several spaces are protected by the same system,
the quantity of gas in the system storage need not exceed the amount required for the largest protected
space (considering one space is on fire at any given moment). When machinery spaces are considered
“entirely separate,” the quantity of carbon dioxide may be calculated from the gross volume of the
largest space. If two or more machinery spaces are not entirely separate, then they are to be considered as
forming one space and the gross volumes of these machinery spaces are to be included in determining the
quantity of carbon dioxide to be provided. Typically, the volume of the protected space(s) is specified in
the required calculations.

3.2.2 Discharge Time, CO2 Piping and Nozzle Sizing

The fixed piping systems for machinery spaces is to be such that 85% of the gas can be discharged into
the space within 2 minutes.

3.3.1 Release Arrangements

Two separate controls are to be provided for releasing CO2 into a protected space and to ensure the
activation of the alarm. One control is to be used to discharge the gas from its storage containers. A
second control is to be used to open the valve of the piping that conveys the gas into the protected space.
The two controls are to be located inside a release box clearly identified for the particular space. If the
box containing the controls is locked, a key to the box is to be in a break-glass type enclosure
conspicuously located adjacent to the box.
3.4 Additional Requirements for Low Pressure CO2 Systems
Low pressure CO2 storage systems utilize refrigeration units to maintain the CO 2 at temperatures below
normal atmospheric temperatures. By reducing the temperature of the CO 2, the storage pressure is also
reduced substantially below the equilibrium pressure seen in at atmospheric temperatures [approx. 57 vs.
21 bar (850 vs. 300 psi.)]. This reduction in the pressure makes it feasible to design and construct much
larger CO2 containers, and therefore, provides the ability to store large volumes of CO 2 in a single
container.
The use of refrigerated CO2 as a fire-extinguishing medium will typically be in the pressure range of 18 to
22 bar (260 to 320 psi) in the storage condition, and such systems are to be in accordance with the
requirements discussed above and found in SVR 4-7-3/3.1 and 4-7-3/3.3, as well as the following
additional requirements.
3.4.2(c) Instrumentation and Alarms. Each container is required to be fitted with the following
instruments and alarms at the storage location:
• Pressure gauge
• High pressure alarm set at not more than 22 bar (320 psi) and not within 5% of relief valve setting
• Low pressure alarm, set at not less than 18 bar (260 psi)
• Level indicator, and low level alarm
3.4.2(d) Relief Valves. Two relief valves are to be fitted on each container, such that either one but not
both can be shut off. The relief valves are to be set at not less than 22 bar (320 psi). The capacity of each
valve is to be capable of preventing a pressure rise, due to exposure to fire, in excess of 20% above the
relief valve setting. The discharge from the relief valve is to be led to the open air.
3.4.2(e) Insulation. The containers and piping which are always filled with liquid CO2 are to be insulated
so that the pressure will not exceed the relief valve setting when subjected to an ambient temperature of
45°C (113°F) for a period of 24 hours after the refrigerating plant is out of service. Where porous or
fibrous insulation materials are used, they are to be protected by impervious sheaths from deterioration by
moisture.

Fixed Water Fire Extinguishing

Systems
1 General Principles of Fixed Water Fire-extinguishing
Systems
Water is an ideal extinguishing medium for many shipboard applications. It is readily available, has great
heat absorbing capabilities and can be used on a variety of fires. There are several mechanisms involved
in the extinguishment of a fire with water. First, there is the cooling of the flame temperature when water
passes through the combustion zone and absorbs heat through evaporation. Cooling of the flame
temperature results in a reduction in the amount of radiant heat released by the fire, and therefore, a
reduction in the amount of heat radiated back to the fuel surface. Secondly, there is the cooling effect of
the fuel surface by the direct impingement of water droplets on the surface.
With a reduction of the radiant heat received at the fuel surface and the additional cooling of the fuel
surface by direct contact with the water droplets, there is a reduction in the amount of combustible gases
released. With sufficient cooling of the flame temperature and/or the fuel, the rate of pyrolysis or
vaporization of combustible vapors will be reduced to a point which combustion will no longer be self-
supporting. Water has the important additional effect of when it evaporates it turns into steam. The steam,
which is in the immediate vicinity of the chemical reaction, displaces the air that supplies oxygen for the
combustion process and results in a smothering of the fire.
Fixed water extinguishing systems are normally considered to include water spray, water sprinkler and
water mist systems. These systems utilize fixed piping systems with distributed arrays of nozzles located
in the overhead, which are supplied from dedicated pump(s). However, the particular fire hazards and
safety concerns vary depending on the particular type of space being protected. For example, in a
machinery space, one would anticipate Class “B” combustibles to be involved, while in an
accommodation space, one would anticipate the involvement of Class “A” combustibles. Even the
degree of anticipated supervision has a role. There are many locations in the accommodation spaces and
service spaces that are not continuously supervised (cabins, storage closets, etc.) and a small initial fire
could easily go unnoticed by shipboard personnel. There are also certain differences in the extinguishing
mechanisms at work for a water mist system as compared to those involved in a water spray or water
sprinkler system. Accordingly, the system designs, as well as the requirements, vary depending upon the
space to be protected and the type of system to be installed. The following provides a brief discussion
regarding the individual types of systems.

1.1 Water Spray System

Water spray systems are manually operated, open “deluge” type systems and are typically used to protect
open ro-ro spaces, “Special Category” spaces and cargo pump rooms. Water spray systems are also
permitted for use in protecting machinery spaces, but such arrangements are seldom proposed due to the
hazards involved and the availability of suitable alternatives. Like other types of fixed water
extinguishing systems, the water spray system consists of pump(s), a fixed piping system and a
distributed array of nozzles. However, the one distinctive characteristic of a water spray system is that it
utilizes “open” type nozzles. When this type of system is activated, water will be discharged
simultaneously through all of the branch nozzles, which can result in very high water demand rates.
Also, these systems are normally required to be manually actuated, and therefore, personnel must initiate
the discharge of the system.

1.2 Water Sprinkler Systems

Water sprinkler systems also utilize a distribution system consisting of fixed supply piping and overhead
nozzles. However, unlike water spray systems, water sprinkler systems are designed for automatic
activation. Since these systems are automatically actuated, the distribution system must be pressurized at
all times. To accommodate the automatic release, the sprinkler nozzles used are of the “closed” type and
fitted with individual heat sensitive links or bulbs that allow the nozzle to open when the temperature of
the air in the vicinity of a particular nozzle exceeds a certain “activation” temperature. Since each
individual nozzle has its own activation mechanism, only those nozzles in the immediate vicinity of the
fire will see temperatures sufficient for activation and will open.
Normally, the nozzles located directly above or next to the fire source, as well as the nozzles around the
outside perimeter of the fire base, will be opened. Those nozzles located directly over or near the fire
source serve to control the fire by wetting the flames and fuel source, while the nozzles around the
perimeter of the fire serve to pre-cool any surrounding combustible materials. These systems are normally
used to protect accommodation spaces and service spaces.

1.3 Water Mist Systems

Water mist technology has been around for some time. However, only in recent years have appropriate
design and testing criteria been developed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) for water
mist systems in marine applications, permitting their consideration as acceptable alternatives to the
required water spray and sprinkler systems.
Water mist systems have pumping and distribution piping system arrangements similar to those found
with water spray and water sprinkler systems. However, the critical difference between this type of
system and either a water sprinkler or water spray system is in the size of the water droplets discharged
from the nozzles. The water droplets associated with a water mist system are typically much finer than
those discharged from either a water spray or water sprinkler nozzle. For some water mist systems
generating the smaller droplet sizes, the extinguishing medium discharged is similar to a thick fog.
A number of different techniques are used to generate the smaller water mist droplets, including
impingement, pressure jet and twin fluid methods. The impingement method typically involves directing
the water onto a spiral or spinning device which breaks up the stream into small, well-distributed droplets.
The pressure jet method involves the acceleration and dispersion of small water droplets through swirling
chambers or high pressure discharges through very small orifices.
The twin fluid method atomizes the water by injecting the water jet and an atomizing gas together in such
a way as to shear the water droplets into smaller particles, creating a mist. Depending upon the particular
manufacturer’s design, water mist system pressures can range from very low pressure, 3-5 bar (43-72 psi)
to quite high pressures, 100-150 bar (1450-2175 psi).
The actual size of the water mist droplets created will vary depending upon the particular technique used
and the degree of nozzle refinement developed by the individual manufacturer. It is important to note that
the actual size of the water droplet will impact the degree to which the various extinguishing mechanisms
discussed in the first paragraph of this Section will be actively involved. To explore this issue further, one
must note that water spray and sprinkler systems discharge relatively “large” water droplets. Due to the
weight and/or inertia of these “large” droplets, they “fall” into the flames. As these “large” droplets pass
through the flame, a certain amount of the droplet will evaporate. The evaporation absorbs heat from the
flame, which results in a cooling of the flame temperature. A certain amount of steam is also generated.
However, due to the “large” size, often a significant portion of the droplet will pass through the flame
intact and then contact the fuel surface. The cooling of the fuel surface by the water droplet plays a major
role in the control or extinguishment of the fire by a water spray or water sprinkler system.
In contrast to water spray or water sprinkler droplets, water mist droplets are typically much smaller. The
reduced size of the droplet can significantly impact the extinguishing mechanisms at work. First, the
smaller water mist droplets have minimal weight and their flow paths are more strongly affected by the
fire plume convection currents. As a result, the water mist droplets do not typically pass through the flame
due to their own weight and momentum, and in fact, may actually have difficulty reaching the flame due
to the plume convection currents. Typically, the water mist droplets are actually carried into the fire with
the air currents feeding the fire. These air currents normally enter the flame at the lower levels of the
plume and the water mist droplets are pulled directly into the combustion zone with the air. This process
provides a good distribution of the mist droplets within the combustion zone of the fire so long as the
droplets are well entrained in the air currents feeding the fire.
The second impact on the extinguishing mechanisms is that since the water droplets are much smaller, a
much greater surface area per volume of water is presented to the fire. This facilitates greater heat
absorption and a higher evaporation rate for a particular volume of water. That is, for the particular
volume of water actually entering in the flame region, the smaller water mist droplets will typically
absorb more heat than the typical water spray or water sprinkler droplets due to the increased amount of
exposed surface area. This results in a greater degree of cooling for the flame per unit volume of water,
and therefore, a greater reduction in the amount of heat radiated back to fuel surface. This increase in heat
absorption also increases the amount of evaporation and produces greater steam generation, and as a
result, the smothering action of the fire by steam is increased. There are, however, certain negative
impacts associated with the reduced size of the water mist droplets. For spray and water sprinkler
systems, the cooling of the fuel surface, especially in the immediate vicinity of the base of the fire, can
play a very important role in the control and extinguishment of a fire. However, since the water mist
droplets are not as large as the typical water spray or water sprinkler droplets, fewer of the water mist
droplets are able to pass through the flame and impact the fuel surface within the base of the fire while
still intact. Also, the lack of weight or significant inertia of the water mist droplet makes it more difficult
to ensure that water droplets will follow a predictable path. Therefore, more of a “total flooding” effect is
needed for spaces being protected with water mist applications utilizing smaller size droplets. Water mist
systems have been proposed for use in machinery spaces, as well as in accommodation and service
spaces. In order to address such proposals, IMO developed fire test criteria for establishing the
equivalency of a particular water mist manufacturer’s system to the water spray addressed in FSS Code
Chapter 7 and the water sprinkler systems addressed in FSS Code Chapter 8.
IMO MSC/Circular 668, as amended by IMO Circular 728, provides the testing criteria applicable to
establish equivalence for use in machinery spaces and cargo pump rooms, while IMO Resolution
A800(19) provides the testing criteria applicable to establish equivalence to a water mist system for
use in accommodations and service spaces.

Related IMO MSC Circular 847 Interpretation

SOLAS II-2/10.2(FSS Code Chapter 7) Areas for increased application rates
An indication of areas for which increased application rates may be required is given below:
Protected Area Application Rate
Boiler fronts or roof, firing areas, oil fuel units,
centrifugal separators (not oily water separators), oil
purifiers and clarifiers
20 l/min
Hot oil fuel pipes near exhausts or similar heated
surfaces on main or auxiliary diesel engines
10 l/min
In reviewing the nozzle layout and spacing, it is a very important to recognize that the spray density and
distribution pattern for a particular nozzle are functions of the nozzle height, as well as the water pressure
at the nozzle inlet. While the height of the nozzles should be identified in the drawing, pressure drop
calculations are normally necessary to establish pressure at the most hydraulically remote nozzle section.
While it may be possible to calculate the system pressure drops for a simple “tree” water spray system,
more elaborate tree systems, as well as “grid” or “looped” distribution piping systems, are normally used
for larger water spray systems and pressure drop calculations for these systems become very complicated.
Accordingly, the submission of pressure drop calculations from the designer is often necessary for all but
the simplest of designs.
Once received, the pressure drop calculations should be reviewed for the analytical approach used, the
initial criteria and values (e.g., friction factors, flow rates, pipe sizes, etc.), overall completeness of the
analysis and the results. With more complex systems, most analyses will be computer-based. Without the
actual program, it is often very difficult to completely verify all portions of such calculations. Therefore
additional information to substantial the validity of the computer program is also frequently necessary.

2.4 Fixed Water Spray Systems in Ro-Ro Spaces

The protection of ro-ro (roll-on/roll-off) spaces presents a unique challenge. There are frequently low
flash point fuels (e.g., gasoline, etc.) in vehicle fuel tanks, large quantities of category “A” type
combustibles and the possibility of passengers in the area on ferry type passenger vessels. However, to
better understand the challenges, the differing requirements and where fixed water spray systems come
into use, it is important to have an understanding of several important definitions. They are provided as
follows:
2.4.3 Ro-Ro Spaces on Passenger Vessels
As noted above, ferries present the additional concern of possibly having passengers in the ro-ro space
when activation of the fire-extinguishing system is needed. Therefore, SOLAS and the Rules differentiate
between those ro-ro spaces where passengers may have access and those which passengers will not have
access. As defined above, those ro-ro spaces to which passengers may have access are called “Special
Category Spaces”, and 5-10-4/3.3.2 requires that all such spaces be fitted with a pressure water spray
system complying with SOLAS 2000 II-2/20.6.1.2, which refers to IMO Resolution A.123(V).
For those ro-ro spaces on passenger vessels which are not accessible by passengers, SOLAS 2000 II-
2/20.6.1.1 permits the use of fixed fire-extinguishing systems similar to those permitted in cargo vessel
ro-ro, e.g., fixed gas or fixed water spray systems.

2.5 Fixed Water Mist Systems in Machinery Spaces and Cargo Pump Rooms
With the prohibition of Halon-based extinguishing systems and the hazards associated with CO 2 systems,
as well as water spray systems, in machinery spaces and cargo pump rooms, IMO recognized the need for
consideration of alternative fire-extinguishing systems. For this reason, IMO developed MSC Circulars
668 and 728, which provide guidelines for the approval of alternative water-based fire-extinguishing
systems as equivalent to the water spray systems referred to in FSS Chapter 7. It is through compliance
with the design and testing requirements specified in IMO MSC Circulars 668 and 728 that manufacturers
of water mist systems can establish that their system provides an equivalent level of safety, and therefore,
an acceptable alternative to the water spray system discussed in FSS Chapter 7.
2.5.1 General
Water mist systems are specialized systems, and the characteristics of the systems (e.g., required
minimum pressure, droplet size and velocity, minimum required discharge flow rate, etc.) will most likely
vary substantially from manufacturer to manufacturer. As outlined in the general discussion above, there
are a number of different approaches used to generate water mist. Some manufacturers use high pressure
systems, while others low pressure; some use mechanical impingement, while others use jet discharge or
atomization, etc. The design of the various systems’ nozzles differs dramatically depending upon the
approach and they are specially designed to maximize the manufacturer’s particular method of mist
generation. Accordingly, the nozzles are particularly critical to the proper operation and effectiveness of a
water mist system.

2.6 Fixed Water Mist Systems in Accommodation and Service Spaces

2.6.1 General
Water mist systems are specialized systems. The characteristics of these systems (e.g., required minimum
pressure, droplet size and velocity, minimum required discharge flow rate, etc.) can vary substantially
from manufacturer to manufacturer and there are numbers of different approaches used to generate water
mist. The nozzles are particularly critical to the proper operation and effectiveness of a water mist system.
Foam Fire Extinguishing Systems
1 Foam
Foam is produced by the combination of three materials:
• Water
• Air
• Foam making agent
Foam is formed by first mixing the foam-making agent (foam concentrate) with water to create a foam
solution. The actual foam bubbles are created by introducing air into the foam solution through an
appropriate aerating device. The correctly chosen foam concentrate, when properly proportioned with
water and expanded with air through an application device, will form a finished foam.
The foam concentrate is required to be thoroughly mixed with water at a particular concentration to
produce the foam solution needed to create the desired foam. Two of the most common concentrations are
3% and 6% foams. These values are the percentages of the concentrate to be used in making the foam
solution. Thus, if 3% concentrate is used, three (3) parts of concentrate must be mixed with 97 parts of
water to make 100 parts of foam solution. If 6% concentrate is used, six (6) parts of concentrate must be
mixed with 94 parts of water.

2 General Principals of Foam Extinguishing Systems

2.1 Extinguishing Effects of Foam

Firefighting foam is used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming liquids. The blanket prevents
flammable vapors from leaving the surface and prevents oxygen from reaching the fuel. A fire cannot
exist when the fuel and oxygen are separated, and therefore, a properly placed foam blanket will smother
the fire. In addition, the water in the foam also has a cooling effect, which gives foam the ability to cool
surrounding structure to help prevent flash back.
The ideal foam should flow freely enough to cover a surface rapidly, yet have adequate cohesive
properties to stick together sufficiently to establish and maintain a vapor tight blanket. In addition, the
solution must retain enough water to provide a long-lasting seal. Rapid loss of water would cause the
foam to dry out and break down (wither) from the high temperatures associated with fire. The foam
should also be light enough to float on flammable liquids, yet heavy enough to resist winds.

2.2 Foam Characteristics

Foam must contain the right blend of physical characteristics to be effective:
• Knockdown Speed and Flow. The ability of the foam blanket to spread across a fuel surface or around
obstacles and wreckage in order to achieve complete extinguishment is very important. The foam must
have good cohesion properties to maintain the blanket affect yet at the same time not be so viscous to
hinder the ability of the foam to flow over the area and form a self-supporting blanket.
• Heat Resistance. The foam must be able to resist the destructive effects of heat radiated from any
remaining fire from the liquid’s flammable vapor and any hot metal wreckage or other objects in the area.
• Fuel Resistance. An effective foam minimizes fuel pick-up so that the foam does not become saturated
and burn.
• Vapor Suppression. The vapor-tight blanket is a critical function of a foam’s ability to extinguish a fire.
The foam produced must be capable of suppressing the flammable vapors to break the fuel-oxygen-heat
fire triangle and to minimize the risk of re-ignition.
• Alcohol Resistance. Due to alcohol’s affinity to water and because a foam blanket is more than 90%
water, foam blankets that are not alcohol-resistant will be destroyed if used on alcohol-based cargoes.

2.3 Types of Foams

There are two basic types of foam, chemical and mechanical.
2.3.1 Chemical Foam
Chemical foam is formed by mixing together a solution of an alkali (usually sodium bicarbonate), an acid
(usually aluminum sulfate), water and a stabilizer. The stabilizer is added to make the foam tenacious and
long-lived. When these chemicals react, they form a foam or froth of bubbles filled with carbon dioxide
gas. The carbon dioxide in the bubbles has little or no extinguishing value. Its only purpose is to inflate
the bubbles.
Premixed foam powders may also be stored in cans and introduced into the water during fire-fighting
operations. For this, a device called a foam hopper is used. Or, the two chemicals may be premixed with
water to form an aluminum sulfate solution and a sodium bicarbonate solution. The solutions are then
stored in separate tanks until the foam is needed. At that time, the solutions are mixed to form the foam.
Few chemical foam systems are still in use aboard vessels.
2.3.2 Mechanical (Air) Foam
Mechanical foam is produced by mixing a foam concentrate with water to produce a foam solution. The
bubbles are formed by the turbulent mixing of air and the foam solution. As the name air foam implies
that the bubbles are filled with air. Aside from the workmanship and efficiency of the equipment, the
degree of mixing determines the quality of the foam. The design of the equipment determines the quantity
of foam produced. There are several types of mechanical foams, similar in nature, but each has its own
special fire fighting capabilities.
Types of mechanical foams include the following:
2.3.2(a) Protein Foam. Protein foams were the first types of mechanical foam to be marketed extensively
and have been used since World War I.
These foams are usually produced by the hydrolysis of waste protein material, such as protein-rich animal
waste (i.e., hoofs and horns) and vegetable waste that is hydrolyzed (subjected to a chemical reaction with
water that produces a weak acid). In addition, stabilizing additives and inhibitors, such as mineral salts,
are added to prevent corrosion, resist bacterial decomposition, to control viscosity and increase their
resistance to withering from the heat of a fire.
At the time of a fire, the protein foam concentrates are mixed with fresh or seawater in 3% or 6%
solutions. The foam concentrate can produce foam with all types of water, except water that is
contaminated with oil. When antifreeze is added, foam can be produced in subfreezing temperatures
down to -23.3°C (-10°F).
2.3.2(b) Fluoroprotein Foam (FP). Fluoroprotein foams are formed by the addition of special
fluorochemical surfactants with protein foam (fluorinated compound bonded to the protein). This
enhances the properties of protein foam by increasing foam fluidity (ease to flow) and improves the
properties of regular protein foam by providing faster knockdown and excellent fuel tolerance.
Fluoroprotein foam works well with dry chemical agents, and when the water is mixed with antifreeze, it
produces foam in sub-freezing temperatures.
2.3.2(c) Film Forming Fluoroprotein Foam (FFFP). FFFPs are a combination of fluoro chemical
surfactants with protein foam. They are designed to combine the burn back resistance of a fluoro protein
foam with an increased knockdown power. These foams also release a film on the surface of the
hydrocarbon.
2.3.2(d) Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF). AFFFs are a combination of fluorochemical surfactants
and synthetic foaming agents that create a unique characteristic – an aqueous film.
This film is a thin layer of foam solution with unique surface energy characteristics that spreads rapidly
across the surface of a hydrocarbon fuel causing dramatic fire knockdown. The aqueous film is produced
by the action of the fluorochemical surfactant reducing the surface tension of the foam solution to a point
where the solution can actually be supported on the surface of the hydrocarbon.
AFFFs are more effective on hydrocarbons (fuels) with higher surface tensions, such as kerosene, diesel
oil and jet fuels, and less effective on fuels with lower surface tensions, such as hexane and high octane
gasolines.
AFFF’s may drain foam solution (the water and foam concentrate mixture) rapidly from the foam bubble
to produce optimum film formation for rapid fire extinguishment. To achieve these qualities, long term
sealability and burnback resistance are sacrificed.
2.3.2(e) Alcohol Resistant-Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AR-AFFF). Alcohol resistant foams are
produced from a combination of synthetic stabilizers, foaming agents, fluorochemicals and alcohol
resistant membrane forming additives.
Polar solvents and water miscible fuels, such as alcohols, are destructive to non-alcohol resistant type
foams. Alcohol aggressively mixes with the water in the foam and destroys the foam blanket and its fire-
fighting properties.
Alcohol resistant foams act as a conventional AFFF on hydrocarbon fuels, forming an aqueous film on
the surface of the hydrocarbon fuel. When used on alcohol type fuels, the membrane forming additives
form a tough polymeric (sometimes called mucoloid) membrane which separates the foam from the
alcohol and prevents the destruction of the foam blanket.
While some concentrates are designed for use on alcohol-type fuels at 6% and hydrocarbon fuels at 3%,
today’s newer formulations are designed to be used at 3% on both fuel groups.
These newer formulations provide more cost effective protection of alcohol-type fuels, using half the
amount of concentrate as a 3%/6% agent. The use of a 3 × 3 AR-AFFF also simplifies setting the
proportioning percentage at an incident, since it is always 3%.
Overall, AR-AFFF’s are the most versatile type of foam available today, offering good burnback
resistance, knockdown and high fuel tolerance on both hydrocarbon and alcohol fuel fires.
2.3.2(f) Synthetic Foam. Synthetic detergent-base foam is made up of alkyl sulfonates. This form has less
burnback resistance than protein formulas, but may be used with all dry chemicals. It foams more readily
than the proteins and requires less water. This is important where the water supply is limited.

2.3.3 Low Expansion Foams

Low expansion foams are considered to be those foams with an expansion ratio of 12:1 when mixed with
air. That is one volume if foam concentrate will create 12 volumes of foam. Low expansion foams are
effective in controlling and extinguishing most flammable liquid (Class “B”) fires. Foams typically used
on tanker deck foam systems are of the low expansion foam type.

2.3.4 Mid Low Expansion Foams

Mid expansion foams refer to those foams with an expansion ratio of between about 20:1 to 100:1. Few
applications of mid expansion foams are found in shipboard applications.

2.3.5 High-Expansion Foams

High-expansion foams are those that expand in ratios of over 100:1. Most systems produce expansion
ratios of from 400:1 to 1000:1. Unlike conventional foam, which provides a blanket a few inches over the
burning surface, high-expansion foam is truly three dimensional; it is measured in length, width, height,
and cubic feet.
High-expansion foam is designed for fires in confined spaces. Heavier than air but lighter than oil or
water, it will flow down openings and fill compartments, spaces and crevices, replacing -air in these
spaces. In this manner, it deprives the fire of oxygen. Because of its water content, it absorbs heat from
the fire and cools the burning material. When the high-expansion foam has absorbed sufficient heat to
turn its water content to steam at 100°C (212°F), it has absorbed as much heat as possible, and then the
steam continues to replace oxygen and thus combat the fire.

2.4 Limitations on the Use of Foam

Foams are effective extinguishing agents when used properly. However, they do have some limitations,
including the following:
i) Because they are aqueous (water) solutions, foams are electrically conductive and should not be used
on live electrical equipment.
ii) Like water, foams should not be used on combustible-metal fires.
iii) Many types of foam must not be used with dry chemical extinguishing agents. AFFF is an exception
to this rule and may be used in a joint attack with dry chemical.
iv) Foams are not suitable for fires involving gases and cryogenic (extremely low temperature) liquids.
v) If foam is placed on burning liquids (like asphalts) whose temperatures exceed 100°C (212°F), the
water content of the foam may cause frothing, spattering or slopover. Slopover is different from boilover,
although the terms are frequently confused. Boilover occurs when the heat from a fire in a tank travels
down to the bottom of the tank and causes water that is already there to boil and push part of the tank’s
contents over the side. Certain oils with a high water content, such as crude oil, have a notorious
reputation for boilover. Slop-over occurs when foam, introduced into a tank of hot oil [surface
temperature over 100°C (212°F)] sheds its water content due to the high heat. The water forms an
emulsion of steam, air and the foam itself. The forming of the emulsion is accompanied by a
corresponding increase in volume. Since tanks are three dimensional, the only place for the emulsion to
go is over the sides of open tanks or into the vents of enclosed tanks.
vi) Sufficient foam must be on hand to ensure that the entire surface of burning material can be covered.
In addition, there should be enough foam to replace foam that is burned off and to seal breaks in the foam
surface.

2.5 Advantages of Foam

In spite of its limitations, foam is quite effective in combating Class “B” and some Class “A” fires and
has the following advantages:
i) Foam is a very effective smothering agent, and it provides cooling as a secondary effect.
ii) Foam sets up a vapor barrier that prevents flammable vapors from rising. The surface of an exposed
tank can be covered with foam to protect it from a fire in a neighboring tank.
iii) Foam is of some use on Class “A” fires because of its water content. AFFF is especially effective, as
are certain types of wet-water foam. Wet-water foam is made from detergents, and its water content
quickly runs out and seeps into the burning material. It is not usually found aboard vessels; a more likely
use is in protecting bulk storage in piers or warehouses.
iv) Foam is effective in blanketing oil spills. However, if the oil is running, an attempt should be made to
shut down a valve, if such action would stop the flow. If that is impossible, the flow should be dammed.
Foam should be applied on the upstream side of the dam (to extinguish the fire) and on the downstream
side (to place a protective cover over any oil that has seeped through).
v) Foam is the most effective extinguishing agent for fires involving large tanks of flammable liquids.
vi) Foam can be made with fresh water or seawater, and hard or soft water.
vii) Foam does not break down readily, and it extinguishes fire progressively when applied at an adequate
rate.
viii) Foam stays in place, covers and absorbs heat from materials that could cause re-ignition.
ix) Foam uses water economically.
x) Foam concentrates are not heavy, and foam systems do not take up much space.

2.6 Basic Guidelines for Foam

2.6.1 Storage
If manufacturer recommendations are followed, then protein or synthetic foam concentrates should be
ready for active service even after many years of storage.
2.6.2 Water Temperature and Contaminants
Foams in general are more stable when generated with lower temperature water. Although all foam
liquids will work with water in excess of 37.7°C (100°F), the typical concentrate works best with water in
the temperature range between 1.7°C and 26.7°C (35°F and 80°F). Either fresh or sea water may be used.
Water containing known foam contaminants, such as detergents, oil residues, or certain corrosion
inhibitors, may adversely affect foam quality.
2.6.3 Combustible Products in Air
It is desirable to take clean air into the foam nozzle at all times, although the effect of contaminated air on
foam quality is minor with low expansion foams.
2.6.4 Water Pressures
Nozzle pressures should be held between 3.4 bar and 13.8 bar (50 and 200 psi). If a proportioner is used,
proportioner pressure should not exceed 13.8 bar (200 psi). Foam quality deteriorates at higher pressures.
Range falls off at lower pressures.
2.6.5 Non-ignited Spills
Where flammable liquids have spilled, fires can be prevented by prompt coverage of the spill
with a foam blanket. Additional foam may be necessary from time to time, to maintain the
blanket for extended periods until the spill has been cleaned up.
2.6.6 Electrical Fires
Foam should be considered nearly the same as water when used on electrical fires, and is therefore not
generally recommended for use on electrical fires. However, if the supply of current to the electrical
circuits can be interrupted or broken, then foam can be used to extinguish such fires.
2.6.7 Vaporized Liquids
Foam is not recommended for use on materials that may be stored as liquids, but are normally vapor at
ambient conditions, such as propane, butadiene and vinylchloride. Fire-fighting foam is not recommended
for use on materials that react with water, such as magnesium, titanium, potassium, lithium, calcium,
zirconium, sodium and zinc.

2.7 Foam System Equipment

As mentioned above, finished foam is a combination of foam concentrate, water and air. When these
components are brought together in proper proportions and thoroughly mixed, foam is produced. The
following is a discussion of the typical types of equipment used in the production of foam.
2.7.1 Proportioning Devices
All foam proportioners are designed to introduce the proper percentage of foam concentrate into the water
stream. There are several varieties of proportioning systems available to the fire service today. The
choices range from the more commonly-used and economical in-line eductors to Around-the-Pump
systems to the sophisticated and more expensive Balanced Pressure systems.
2.7.1(a) Eductors. Eductors are the most common form of proportioning equipment. They are used for
dedicated foam discharges and around-the-pump systems.
Eductors work on the Venturi principle. Water is introduced, under pressure, at the inlet of the eductor.
The eductor reduces the orifice available for the water to pass through, so it must speed up to get through.
This creates a pressure drop that, in turn, puts suction on the pick-up tube. As the foam concentrate is
pulled up the tube, it passes through a metering valve that allows the correct percentage to be introduced
into the water stream. In most cases, the metering valve can be adjusted to select a 1, 3, or 6% foam
solution.
Eductors are extremely reliable and simple pieces of equipment. However, they do have certain
limitations.
• Educator GPM Flow Rate Restrictions. All eductors have liters per minute (gallons per minute)
solution flow rating. Typically, 227, 360, 473, 946 L/min (60, 95, 125, 250 gpm) models are available.
The eductor must be matched with a nozzle that has the same flow rating. Eductor/Nozzle mismatches are
the most common cause of fire service proportioning problems. Mismatches can result in a weak solution
or a complete shutdown of foam concentrate pick-up.
• Inlet Pressure Requirements. Eductors establish their pressure drop at a fairly high energy cost. The
loss between the inlet and outlet pressure of an eductor can be 40% or more. In order to accommodate this
loss and still provide adequate nozzle pressure, relatively high eductor inlet pressures are necessary. Most
manufacturers recommend inlet pressures at the eductor in the range of 12.4-13.8 bar (180-200 psi).
Most eductors will continue to pick up at lower inlet pressures. However, at these lower pressures, the
solution flow drops. Under these conditions, it becomes impossible to accurately know the concentration
of the foam solution being delivered to the fire.
• Back Pressure Restrictions. Too much back pressure on an eductor can shut down foam concentrate
pick up.
Therefore: The nozzle and eductor must be matched.
The nozzle must be fully opened or fully closed. It cannot be in-between.
Prevent kinks in the hose line between nozzle and eductor.
The nozzle should not be elevated above the eductor.
The hose lay can not exceed manufacturer’s recommendation.
Following these simple rules helps to eliminate excessive back pressure on the eductor.
• Eductors Must Be Kept Clean. Eductors must be thoroughly cleaned after each use. Failure to clean an
eductor can result in clogging and blockage due to hardening foam concentrate residue. If this occurs, the
eductor will not function properly, if at all. When eductors are properly understood and maintained, they
can accurately and reliably proportion foam at relatively low cost.
2.7.1(b) Around-the-Pump Systems. Another method of proportioning is the Around-the-Pump type
system. In this case, an eductor is installed on the discharge side of the water pump. As before, water flow
causes a vacuum that picks up and introduces the foam concentrate into the pump suction. An adjustable
metering valve controls the flow of the foam concentrate.
Around-the-pump systems offer several advantages when compared to an in-line eductor:
• Variable Flow Rate. The discharge rate can be adjusted for the specific application. The rate is
infinitely variable up to the maximum flow of the unit.
• Variable Pressure. The system operates at any pressure above 8.6 bar (125 psi). The pump operation is
the same with foam or water.
• No Back Pressure Restrictions. The unit is not affected by hose length or elevation loss.
• No Nozzle Restrictions. The unit operates with any size or type of nozzle.
However, Around-the-Pump systems have their own limitations:
• Pump inlet pressure is limited to 0.7 bar (10 psi) to prevent a back pressure condition that will shut the
system down.
• There is no choice of simultaneous flow of foam solution and plain water.
• An operator must continually calculate, set and monitor the foam proportioning metering valve to
correspond with the volume [L/min (gpm)] being flowed.
• Clean-up time can be long since ALL discharges must be flushed, whether or not they were opened
during the operation.
2.7.1(c) Balanced Pressure Foam Proportioners. Balanced pressure systems are extremely versatile and
accurate. Most often these systems are associated with fixed systems and specialized mobile equipment.
Their design and operation are complex.
The principle of operation is based on the use of a modified venturi proportioner commonly called a ratio
controller. As water passes through a jet at the inlet of the ratio controller, it creates a reduced pressure
area between the jet and a downstream section called a throat or receiver. This reduction in pressure
causes foam concentrate to flow through a metering orifice and into the reduced pressure area.
As the water flow through the ratio controller jet increases, so does the level of pressure reduction,
thereby affecting a corresponding pressure drop across the foam liquid metering orifice. This
corresponding pressure drop results in a foam liquid flow which is proportionate to the water flow
through the ratio controller. As both the water and foam liquid flow into a common reduced pressure area,
it is necessary only to maintain identical water and foam liquid pressures at the inlets of the ratio
controller.
Pressure sensing lines lead from the foam liquid and water lines upstream of the ratio controller water and
foam inlets to the diaphragm valve. This valve automatically adjusts the foam liquid pressure to
correspond to the water pressure. A duplex gauge monitors balancing of foam liquid and water pressures
on a single gauge.
For manual operation, the diaphragm valve is not required. The pressure of the foam liquid is adjusted to
correspond to the water pressure by means of a manually operated valve in the foam liquid bypass piping.
The pressure loss across the proportioner is approximately 1.7-2.1 bar (25-30 psi) at maximum flow,
depending on the ratio controller size selected. The minimum flow for which this device will proportion
correctly is approximately 15% of the maximum flow for which it is designed.
Balanced proportioning allows for a wide range of flows and pressures without manual adjustments,
while placing no limitations on inlet pressure during foam operation.
2.7.2 Foam Nozzles
For the most effective and economical use, the foam solution must be properly expanded.
Standard fog nozzles generally do not provide optimum expansion, and therefore, do not
provide for the best, most cost effective application of the foam supply. In the case of Polar
Solvent fuels, these standard fog nozzles may not deliver a foam quality that is able to
extinguish the fire.
Foam nozzles are specifically designed to air aspirate (expand) the foam solution and form
finished foam. There are three main types of foam nozzles.
2.7.2(a) Low Expansion. Low expansion nozzles expand foam solution up to 12:1, i.e., for
every 3.8 liters (1 gallon) of foam solution that enters the base of the nozzle, approximately
45.6 liters (12 gallons) of finished foam is produced. These nozzles draw air at the base of the
nozzle, the air and the solution mix travel up the foam tube (this is called residence time) and
the properly-expanded foam exits the nozzle.
2.7.2(b) Medium Expansion. Medium expansion nozzles can have expansion characteristics
as high as 100:1, although expansions of 50:1 are more common. They operate in much the
same way as low expansion nozzles. However, the diameter of the nozzle is much larger.
2.7.2(c) High Expansion. High expansion foam nozzles can expand foam in excess of 100:1,
when high expansion foam concentrates are used.
2.7.3 Foam Monitors
The foam monitors or turrets are permanently-installed foam discharge units capable of being
aimed and projecting large quantities of foam substantial distances. They normally are
mounted on a rotating base that allows the projection of foam in a 360-degree circle around
the monitor platform. The angle of throw from the horizon can also be adjusted to facilitate
flexibility in directing the foam to the fire. The foam solution is supplied to the monitor
through a hard-piped foam main system that incorporates an expansion nozzle to aspirate the
foam.
Foam applicators are portable foam discharge devices supplied with foam solution through a
hose from the hard-piped foam main. The applicators provide the flexibility to apply foam
directly to specific locations or in a manner that the monitors may not be effective.
2.7.5 Valves and Piping
The foam solution is distributed from the proportioning device to the monitors or applicators
through a system of pipes and valves. The piping system must be adequately designed to
match the flow rates of the equipment, and a thorough understanding of the system control
valves is critical for quick and effective operation of the system. A diagram of the piping
system and control valves is typically posted in the foam supply room and identifies which
valves are to be opened in the event the system must be activated. The diagram normally
explains thoroughly and clearly all the steps necessary to put the system into operation. Color
coding of the valves is also frequently used and aids in identification (e.g., all valves that are
to be opened when a fire alarm is received might be painted some distinctive color). Each
valve is also normally labeled as to its function, which helps in operating, restoring and
maintaining the system.
2.7.6 Foam Concentrate Storage
The foam-concentrate is stored in tanks ready to supply the proportioning system. The
concentrate tank should be kept filled with liquid halfway into the expansion dome to ensure
prolonged storage life of the concentrate. The tank should be kept closed to the atmosphere,
except for the pressure-vacuum vent. When a tank is partially empty, there is a larger liquid
surface area to interact with air. This allows excessive evaporation and condensation, which
degrade the foam concentrate and permit corrosion of the tank shell.

2.8 Foam Fire Fighting Application Techniques

2.8.1 Bounce-off Technique
When foam nozzles are used, particular care should be taken to apply the foam as gently as
possible. For straight stream use, the foam should be bounced or banked off of a wall or other
obstruction when available.
2.8.2 Bank-in Technique
Foam can also be rolled onto the fuel surface by hitting the ground in front of the spill, and
allowing the foam to “pile up” in front of the spill. The velocity of the stream will roll the
foam onto the fuel.
2.8.3 Rain-down Technique
The foam nozzle is directed almost straight up and the foam stream is allowed to reach its
maximum height and break into small droplets. The nozzle operator must adjust the altitude
of the nozzle so the fallout pattern matches that of the spill area. This technique can provide a
very fast and effective knockdown. However, if the fuel has had a significant preburn and a
thermal column has developed, or if the weather is severe (high winds), the Raindown method
may not be practical or effective.
2.8.4 Never Plunge
Plunging the stream directly into the fire can splash the fuel causing the fire to spread. If a
foam blanket exists, plunging can break the existing blanket allowing vapors to escape. This
usually results in spreading the fire, reignition or flare ups. Usually, the fire will lessen in
intensity or self-extinguish once the plunging stream is removed.
If the foam nozzle is equipped with a spray stream attachment, it should be used to provide
the gentlest application possible and reduce the mixing of foam and fuel. Only as a last resort
should a straight stream be directed into the center of a pool or spill. Under this condition, the
efficiency of the foam will be 1/3 or less than when applied by the recommended methods.
Conventional AFFFs may be used effectively with standard water spray nozzles under some
conditions although a very unstable foam with relatively poor reignition resistance is formed
from such devices.
Do not use water streams in such a way as to physically disrupt a foam blanket. Water
streams may be used for cooling adjacent areas or as a fine spray to reduce flame radiant heat.
However, do not direct water streams where a foam blanket has been or is being applied.
Related IACS Unified Interpretation
UI SC131 re. SOLAS Chapter II-2, Regulation 55.2 (SOLAS 2000 II-2/1.6.2)
A liquid cargo with a flashpoint not exceeding 60°C for which a regular foam fire fighting
system complying with Regulation 61 is not effective, is considered to be a cargo introducing
additional fire hazards in the scope of Regulation II-2/55.2 (SOLAS 2000 II-2/1.6.2) The
following additional measures are required: The foam should be of an alcohol resistant type.
The capacity and application rates of the foam extinguishing system should comply with
Chapter 11 of the IBC Code, except that lower application rates may be accepted based on
performance tests. For tankers fitted with inert gas systems a quantity of foam concentrate
sufficient for 20 min. of foam generation may be accepted.
For determining which cargoes require the use of an alcohol-resistant foam, the
MSC/Circular 553 may be used for guidance.
Liquid cargoes with a flashpoint above 60°C other than oil products or liquid cargoes subject
to the Chemical Codes’ requirements are considered to constitute a low fire risk not requiring
the protection of a foam extinguishing system.

Gas Carrier Cargo Area Fire Extinguishing

Systems
1 Unique Hazards of Fires Onboard Gas Carriers
Gas carriers present a number of unique fire hazards. Therefore, the fire-fighting systems used must
be carefully reviewed to ensure they are adequate for the dangers involved. The unique hazards
associated with gas carriers include:
• Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs)
• Vapor release of cargo, leading to creation of gas clouds
• Liquid pool fires, where discharge of water would only increase the evaporation rate and intensify
the fire
• Jet fires

1.1 Flammability
When a gas is released to the atmosphere, it will burn if within its flammable range or if exposed to a
source of ignition. Depending upon the conditions under which combustion takes place, some degree
of overpressure will also occur due to the rapid expansion of the heated gas. A liquid spill or vapor
cloud burning over open water will develop little overpressure due to the unconfined nature of its
surroundings. However, ignition of vapor within an enclosed space rapidly creates an overpressure
sufficient to burst the boundaries.
In cases of partial confinement, such as what might occur among shore plants and equipment, ignition
may produce an overpressure sufficient to cause substantial damage, thus escalating the hazard and its
consequences. If a leakage of liquid or vapor occurs from a pipeline under pressure, it will burn as a
jet and continue to burn as long as fuel is supplied.

1.1.1 BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion)

A particularly destructive form of vapor burn, BLEVE is associated with the storage of
liquefied gas in pressurized containers. The BLEVE is a phenomenon associated with the
sudden and catastrophic failure of a pressurized containment vessel when subjected to
surrounding fire. This is one of the most devastating of liquefied gas accident scenarios.
In all BLEVE incidents, the pressure vessel is subjected to flame impingement. BLEVEs
occur when the fire increases internal tank pressure, and particularly at that part of the vessel
not cooled by the internal liquid, the structure can be weakened to the point of failure. As a
result, the tank can suddenly split, throwing pieces of the vessel’s shell a considerable
distance, and concave sections such as end caps, being propelled like rockets if they contain
liquid. Upon rupture, the sudden decompression produces a blast and the pressure
immediately drops. At this time, the liquid temperature is well above its atmospheric boiling
point, which then spontaneously boils off, creates large quantities of vapor that travels upward
along with the liquid droplets.
When the gas/air mixture is within its flammable limits, it will ignite from the tearing metal of
the surrounding fire, creating a fireball that can reach gigantic proportions. A sudden release
of gas provides further fuel for the rising fireball. The rapidly expanding vapor produces a
further blast and intense heat radiation.

1.1.2 Jet Fires

Small leaks from pump glands, pipe flanges or from vent risers will initially produce vapor.
This vapor will not ignite spontaneously. However, if the escape is large, then there may be a
risk of the vapor cloud spreading to a source of ignition. If ignition does occur, it will almost
certainly flash back to the leak. Leaks from pipelines are likely to be under pressure and, if
ignited, will give rise to a jet flame. While arrangements for the emergency shutdown of the
pumps and remote closure of ESD valves are required, pressure may remain in a closed
pipeline until the liquid trapped within has been expelled through the leak. In such a case, the
best course of action is often to allow the fire to burn out. The alternative of extinguishing the
fire has a high risk of producing a vapor cloud and having a flash back from re-ignition of the
vapor. While the fire is being allowed to burn itself out, the surroundings should be protected
with cooling water.

1.1.3 Liquid (Pool) Fires

Significant pool fires are not likely on the vessel’s decks because the amount of liquid which
can be spilled in such a location is limited. The arrangement of the vessel’s deck, with its
camber and open scuppers, will allow liquid spillage to flow quickly and freely away over the
vessel’s side. Prompt initiation of ESD procedures further limits the availability of liquid
cargo. However, any spillage of flammable gases in a liquefied state will result in a gas vapor
cloud as the liquid evaporates. The gas generation rate will be large due to the low
liquefication storage temperature and the large amount of heat available from the surrounding
structure and environment. Water should never be applied to a burning liquefied gas pool,
which would provide a heat source for more rapid vaporization of the liquid and increase the
rate of burning.
Any ignition of the ensuing vapor cloud would then result in a pool fire. The emissive power
of a flame surface increases with pool diameter. LNG vapors burn in the initial stages with a
comparatively clear flame; LPG, however, burns with a greater production of soot and,
therefore, maximum surface emissive powers are lower than for LNG. Heat radiation levels
from both LNG and LPG pool fires dictate that unprotected personnel must escape form the
immediate vicinity as quickly as possible. Because of the damage which radiation can inflict
on surrounding tanks and structure, such items are required to be protected by a water deluge
system.

General Principles of Cargo Deck Dry Chemical

Extinguishing System
Vessels carrying liquefied gases in bulk are required to be fitted with a dry chemical fire extinguisher
conforming to IMO Regulations. The system is used to protect the cargo deck area and all loading station
manifolds on the vessel. A deck system is typically made up of several independent skid-mounted units.
The units are self-contained fire-fighting systems that use a dry chemical extinguishing agent propelled
by a high-pressure inert gas such as nitrogen.
Dry chemical extinguishing agents are chemicals in powder form. Dry chemical powders, such as
sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and urea potassium bicarbonate can be very effective in
extinguishing small LNG or LPG fires. Dry chemical powders are effective in dealing with gas fires
on deck or in extinguishing jet fires from a holed pipeline. They have been used successfully in
extinguishing fires at vent risers.
2.1 Extinguishing Effects of Dry Chemical
Dry chemical agents extinguish fire to the greatest extent by breaking the combustion chain. Minor
amounts of cooling, smothering and shielding of radiant heat are also present.
2.1.1 Chain Breaking
As discussed in Section 1 of these Guidance Notes, chain reactions are necessary for
continued combustion. In these chain reactions, fuel and oxygen molecules are broken down
by heat, and they recombine into new molecules, giving off additional heat. This additional
heat breaks down more molecules, which then recombine and give off still more heat. The
fire thus builds, or at least sustains itself, through reactions that liberate enough heat to set off
other reactions.
Dry chemical (and other agents such as the halogen) attacks this chain of reactions. It does so
by reducing the ability of the molecular fragments to recombine and form additional radicals.
It also combines with the fragments of fuel and oxygen molecules so that the fuel cannot be
oxidized. Although the process is not completely understood, chain breaking is the most
effective extinguishing action of dry chemical.
2.1.2 Cooling
No dry chemical exhibits any great capacity for cooling. However, a small amount of cooling
takes place simply because the dry chemical is at a lower temperature than the burning
material. Heat is transferred from the hotter fuel to the cooler dry chemical when the latter is
introduced into the fire.
2.1.3 Smothering
When dry chemical reacts with the heat and burning material, some carbon dioxide and water
vapor are produced. These dilute the fuel vapors and the air surrounding the fire. The result
is a limited smothering effect.
2.1.4 Shielding of Radiant Heat
Dry chemical produces an opaque cloud in the combustion area. This cloud reduces the
amount of heat that is radiated back to the heart of the fire, i.e., the opaque cloud absorbs
some of the radiation feedback that is required to sustain the fire. Less fuel vapor is
produced, and the fire becomes less intense.
Fixed Monitor Requirements
Capacity of fixed monitor 10 kg/s 25 kg/s 45 kg/s
Maximum permitted coverage distance 10 m 30 m 40 m
Hand hose lines have a maximum effective distance of coverage that is equal to the length of
hose. The location of fixed monitors and hand line stations, as well as the hose lengths,
should be re-evaluated to ensure compliance with the above requirements.
3.1.2 Dry Powder Units
vessels with a cargo capacity of 1,000 m3 (35,315 ft3) or more require a
dry chemical fire extinguishing system. This system must consist of at least two (2)
independent and self-contained, dry chemical powder units, which include the associated
controls, pressurizing medium fixed piping, monitors and/or hand hose lines.
For vessels with a cargo capacity of less than 1,000 m3 (35,315 ft3), only one (1) unit is
necessary. This system must be activated by an inert gas such as nitrogen, used exclusively
for this purpose and stored in pressure vessels adjacent to the powder containers. Details of
the powder units should be requested and compliance with the same confirmed.
3.2 Cargo Area Water Spray Systems
Fixed water deluge systems are required to be provided to protect surfaces such as vessel’s structures,
cargo tanks and piping, which can be exposed to liquefied gas fires. Such systems are designed to
provide a layer of water over the exposed surfaces, and by this means, the radiant heat from the fire is
absorbed by the water. Provided a water layer of some thickness can be maintained, the surface
temperature usually will not exceed 100°C (212°F).
3.2.1 Areas to be Protected
vessels carrying flammable or toxic products, should have a water spray system for cooling, fire
prevention and crew protection equipment that can cover the following:
• Cargo tank domes and any other exposed parts of cargo tanks
• Exposed on-deck storage containers of flammable or toxic products
• Cargo liquid, vapor discharge and loading manifolds and the area surrounding the control
valves or any other areas where essential control valves are situated
• Boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses that are normally manned
• Cargo compressor and pump rooms, storerooms containing high fire risk items and cargo
control rooms, which all face the cargo area
Note: Boundaries of unmanned forecastle structures that do not contain high fire risk items or equipment do
not require water spray protection.

3.2.2 Coverage Rate

the system is to be capable of covering all areas mentioned with a uniformly distributed water spray of at
least 10 L/min/m2 (0.24 gpm/ft2) for horizontal
projected surfaces and 4 L/min/m2 (0.096 gpm/ft2) for vertical surfaces. For structures having
no clearly defined horizontal or vertical surfaces, the capacity of the water spray system
should be the greater of the projected horizontal surface multiplied by 10 L/min/m 2
(0.24 gpm/ft2) or the actual surface multiplied by 4 L/min/m2 (0.096 gpm/ft2). On vertical
surfaces, spacing of nozzles protecting lower areas may take into account anticipated
rundown from higher areas.
Portable/Semi-portable Fire Extinguishers
Because a fire starts small, most fires that are discovered early and attacked quickly are usually
controlled and extinguished before they can grow out of control. The ready availability of suitable
portable and semi-portable fire extinguishers is therefore very important. Although limited in
capacity, portable extinguishers are easy to transport and can be used to engage a fire quickly.
Semi-portable extinguishing systems bring larger amounts of extinguishing agent to the fire but are
more difficult to transport. When used properly, both can be very effective in controlling and
extinguishing a small, localized fire.
Not all extinguishers are the same. Fire extinguishers can vary in size, as well as the extinguishing
medium that they use. Therefore, not all extinguishers are suitable for use on various types of fires.
The usual types of extinguishing agents found in portable extinguishers onboard a vessel include:
• Water
• Foam
• Carbon-dioxide
• Dry chemical
• Dry powder
Portable extinguishers using Halon as the extinguishing agent have also been very popular. However,
with the Montreal Protocol and the restrictions developed regarding the manufacturer and use of
Halon, such extinguishers are being phased out and will not be covered in this Section.
Within the various types of extinguishing mediums, there are differences between the specific
extinguishing medium and the methods by which the medium is expelled. Extinguishers also vary
significantly in size ranging from very small portables, which can be transported to the fire quickly
and easily, to large semi-portable units, which the container must basically remain in place and the
extinguishing medium discharged through a long hose.
Note: This Section examines portable and semi-portable fire extinguishers only. For more information about other types
of portable fire-fighting appliances required by the Rules (e.g., portable foam applicators, fire axes, fireman’s
outfits, etc.), refer to Section 10.
1 Portable and Semi-portable Fire Extinguishers
The following Paragraphs discuss the types of portable extinguishers available and their differences
within the individual categories of extinguishers. A general description of the various types of
portable extinguishers (including individual comparisons, characteristics, and limitations) is provided
in IMO Resolution A.602(15). For more information, refer to FSS Code Chapter 5, and Appendix C –
IMO Resolution A.602(15).
1.1 Water-type Fire Extinguishers
Extinguishers that use water or water solution as the extinguishing agent are suitable only for class
“A” fires (refer to Section 2 for more information about fire classifications.). There are typically three
types of water extinguishers used onboard, including soda-acid, cartridge-operated and stored
pressure water extinguishers. Manufacturing of the soda-acid and cartridge-operated extinguishers
has generally been discontinued. However, since large numbers of these types of extinguishers are
still in use, they will be discussed along with the currently produced type, the stored pressure water
extinguishers.
Water extinguishers may be filled with either water or a water/antifreeze solution. Accordingly, water
extinguishers could be subject to freezing and adherence to the manufacturer’s recommendations
regarding the environmental conditions of the storage locations is important.
1.1.1 Soda-Acid Extinguishers
The soda acid extinguisher normally comes in a 9.5 liter (21/2 gallon) size and weighs about
13.6 kg (30 lb) when charged. It has a typical reach of 10.7 to 12.2 meters (30 to 40 feet) and
expends itself in about 55 seconds. The shell of the extinguisher is filled with a solution of
0.7 kg (11/2 lb) of sodium bicarbonate in 9.5 liters (21/2 gallons) of water. The screw-on cap
contains a cage that holds a 0.23 kg (8-oz) bottle, half filled with sulfuric acid, in an upright
position. A loose stopper in the top of the acid bottle prevents acid from splashing out before
the extinguisher is to be used.
The extinguisher is carried to the fire by means of the top handle. At the fire, the extinguisher
is inverted; the acid mixes with the sodium bicarbonate solution, which then forms carbon
dioxide gas. The pressure of the CO2 can then propel the water out through the nozzle.
The stream should be directed to the seat of the fire and then moved back and forth to hit as
much of the fire as possible. Typically, there is no discharge control mechanism; the nozzle
should be directed at the fire until the entire content of the extinguisher is discharged.
IMPORTANT! The extinguishing agent, sodium bicarbonate solution mixed with acid is
corrosive and it should be recognized that care should be taken to avoid contact with the agent
on the skin or face, as this acid can cause burns.
Also, soda-acid extinguishers must be properly maintained. This type of extinguisher is not
normally under pressure. Therefore, when the extinguisher is inverted for use, a pressure of
896 kilopascals (130 psi) or more is suddenly generated. If the extinguisher was not properly
maintained, and the container is corroded or otherwise damaged, then the sudden pressure
could be sufficient to burst the container.
1.1.2 Cartridge-Operated Water Extinguisher
1.1.2(a) Rupture Disc-type, Cartridge-Operated Extinguisher. The cartridge-operated water
extinguisher is similar in size to the soda-acid extinguisher. The most common size is
9.5 liters (2.5 gallons) and has a range of about 10.7 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet). The
container is filled with water or an antifreeze solution. The screw-on cap contains a small
cylinder of CO2, and when the CO2 cylinder is punctured, the gas provides the pressure to
propel the extinguishing agent.
For use, the extinguisher is carried to the fire, then inverted and bumped against the deck.
This ruptures the CO2 cylinder and expels the water. Once again, the stream should be
directed at the seat of the fire. The nozzle should be moved back and forth to quench as much
of the burning material as possible in the short time available. The discharge time is less than
one minute and the entire content of the extinguisher will be discharged, since like the sodaacid
extinguisher, typically the flow cannot be shut off.
As with the soda-acid extinguisher, the container is not subjected to pressure until it is put to
use. Thus, any weakness in the container may not become apparent until the container fails.
1.1.2(b) Pin-Type Cartridge-Operated Extinguisher. A newer version of the cartridgeoperated
water extinguisher is the pin-type cartridge operated extinguisher that does not need
to be inverted for use. Instead, a pin is pulled out of the cartridge, with the extinguisher
upright. A lever is squeezed to discharge the extinguishing agent (water or anti-freeze
solution).
1.1.3 Stored-Pressure Water Extinguishers
The stored-pressure water extinguisher typically comes in a 9.5 liter (2.5 gallon) size and
weighs about 13.6 kg (30 lb). It has a horizontal range of about 10.7 to 12.2 meters (35 to 40
feet). In continuous operation, it will expend its water in about 55 seconds. However, stored
pressure water extinguishers are typically fitted with means to control the discharge, and
therefore, they may used intermittently, to extend their operational time.
The container is filled with water or an antifreeze solution, to within about 15 cm (6 in.) of the
top. (Most extinguishers have a fill mark stamped on the container.) The screw-on cap holds
a lever-operated discharge valve, a pressure gauge, and an automobile tire-type valve. The
extinguisher is pressurized through the air valve, with either air or an inert gas such as
nitrogen. The normal charging pressure is about 690 kilopascals (100 psi). The gauge allows
the pressure within the extinguisher to be checked at any time. Most gauges are color coded
to indicate normal and abnormal pressures.
The extinguisher is carried to the fire, and the ring pin or other safety device is removed. The
operator aims the nozzle with one hand and squeezes the discharge lever with the other hand.
The stream should be directed at the seat of the fire and moved back and forth to ensure
complete coverage of the burning material. Short bursts can be used to conserve the limited
supply of water.
1.2 Foam-type Fire Extinguishers
Foam extinguishers typically have greater range of extinguishing capability than water extinguishers.
The most common size is a 9.5 liter (2.5 gallon) unit and may be used on both class “A” and class “B”
fires. On class “A” fires, the foam serves to cool the fire and fuel source, while on class “B” fires the
foam serves to act as a barrier to exclude oxygen from the fuel surface below the ignition surface.
Foam extinguishers typically have a range from 6.1 to 7.7 meters (20 to 25 feet) and a discharge
duration of slightly less than one (1) minute.
There are two different types of foam extinguishers available:
• Chemical foam
• Mechanical foam
Note: Chemical foam extinguishers are being phased out, but may still be found onboard.
Like water extinguishers, foam extinguishers may also be subject to freezing and adherence to the
manufacturer’s recommendations regarding the environmental conditions of the storage locations is
important.
1.2.1 Chemical Foam Portable Fire Extinguishers
The chemical foam extinguisher is charged by filling it with two solutions that are kept
separated (within the extinguisher) until it is to be used. These solutions are commonly called
the “A” and “B” solutions, but their designations have nothing to do with fire classifications.
The foam extinguisher is carried to the fire right side up and then inverted. This mixes the
two solutions, producing a liquid foam and CO2 gas. The CO2 acts as the propellant and also
as the gas for the foam bubbles. The liquid foam expands to about 8 times its original
volume, so this means that the 9.5 liter (2.5 gallon) extinguisher will produce approximately
68 to 76 liters (18 to 20 gallons) of foam.
The foam should be applied gently on burning liquids (Class “B” fires). This can be done by
directing the stream in front of the fire. The stream also may be directed against the back wall
of a tank or a structural member to allow the foam to run down and flow over the fire.
Chemical foam is stiff and flows slowly. For this reason, the stream must usually be directed
to the fire from several angles, for complete coverage of the burning materials.
For fires involving ordinary combustible materials (Class “A” fires), the foam may be applied
in the same way (as a blanket) or the force of the stream may be used to get the foam into the
seat of the fire.
Once activated, these extinguishers will expel their entire foam content; which should be
directed onto the fire. As with other pressurized extinguishers, the containers are subject to
rupture when their contents are mixed, and are a possible cause of injury to the operator.
1.2.2 Mechanical Foam Extinguishers
Mechanical foam portable extinguishers contain a pre-mixed solution of film-forming foam
surfactant and water. The solution is stored under a pressurized charge of carbon dioxide or
other gas which serves as the expelling force. The discharge hose is fitted with an air
aspirating nozzle which expands the solution into foam as it is discharged through the nozzle.
Mechanical foam extinguishers closely resemble the pressurized water extinguishers except
for the air aspirating nozzle.
Like the chemical foam extinguisher, the foam should be applied gently on burning liquids.
This can be done by directing the stream in front of the fire. The stream also may be directed
against the back wall of a tank or a structural member to allow the foam to run down and flow
over the fire.
1.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Extinguishers
Carbon dioxide extinguishers are used primarily on class “B” and “C” fires. The most common size
of portable extinguisher for shipboard use contains 6.8 kg (15 lb) of CO2.
Note: This weight does not include that of the relatively heavy shell.
The CO2 is mostly in the liquid state and is at a pressure of 5860 kPa (850 psi) at 21°C (70°F). The
range of the CO2 varies between 1.8 to 2.4 meters (3 to 8 feet), and the duration from 8 to 30 seconds.
The extinguisher is carried to the fire in an upright position. (The short range of the CO 2, extinguisher
means the operator must get fairly close to the fire.) The extinguisher is placed on the deck and the
locking pin is removed. The discharge is normally controlled either by opening a valve or by
squeezing two handles together.
The operator must grasp the hose handle and not the discharge horn. The CO2 expands and cools very
quickly as it leaves the extinguisher. The horn gets cold enough to frost over and cause severe
frostbite. When a CO2 extinguisher is used in a confined space, the operator should guard against
suffocation by wearing breathing apparatus.
For use on class “B” fires, the horn should be aimed first at the base of the fire nearest the operator.
The discharge should be moved slowly back and forth across the fire. At the same time, the operator
should move forward slowly. The result should be a “sweeping” of the flames off the burning
surface, with some carbon dioxide “snow” left on the surface. Whenever possible, a fire on a weather
deck should be attacked from the windward side. This will allow the wind to blow the heat away
from the operator and to carry the CO2 to the fire. Generally, CO2 extinguishers do not perform well
in a wind. The blanket of CO2 gas does not remain on the fire long enough to permit the fuel to cool
down.
For use on Class “C” fires, the discharge should be aimed at the source of a fire that involves
electrical equipment. The equipment should be de-energized as soon as possible to eliminate the
chance of shock and the source of ignition.
CO2 extinguishers need not be protected against freezing. However, they should be stowed at
temperatures below 54°C (130°F) to keep their internal pressure at a safe level. At about 57°C
(135°F), the safety valves built into CO2 extinguishers are activated at approximately 18620 kPa
(2700 psi), to release excess pressure.
Note: IMO Circular 847 indicates that CO2 extinguishers should not be placed in accommodations areas, as the
inadvertent or undetected release of the CO2 could suffocate unsuspecting personnel.
1.4 Dry Chemical-type Fire Extinguishers
Dry chemical extinguishers are available in several sizes, with any of five different extinguishing
agents.
The different dry chemical agents have different extinguishing capabilities. If sodium bicarbonate is
arbitrarily given an extinguishing capability of 1, then the relative capabilities of the other dry
chemical agents are as follows:
• Mono-ammonium phosphate (ABC) 1.5
• Potassium chloride (BC) 1.8
• Potassium bicarbonate (BC) 2.0
• Urea potassium bicarbonate (BC) 2.5
Dry chemical extinguishers typically extinguish fires by inhibiting the chemical reaction of the fire
process. All five dry chemicals mentioned above are suitable for extinguishing Class “B” and Class
“C” fires. However, one dry chemical-extinguishing agent, mono-ammonium phosphate (ABC,
multi-purpose) is also approved for use on Class “A” fires. This agent extinguishes a fire by chain
breaking (as do the other dry chemical agents). As a by-product of this chemical reaction, a residue is
created that coats and clings to the surfaces of burning materials. This coating deprives solid fuels of
air and has therefore been found acceptable for use on Class “A” fires.
Since dry chemical extinguishers extinguish fires mainly through the breaking of the chemical chain
reaction, there is little or no cooling of the flame or fuel surface. Thus, a reflash is possible if fuel
continues to remain in contact with hot surfaces. Additional dry chemical extinguishers or other
appropriate extinguishers should be available as backup, until all sources of ignition are eliminated.
Dry chemical extinguishing agents may be used along with water and some dry chemical
extinguishers are filled with an extinguishing agent that is compatible with foam.
There are basically two different types of dry chemical extinguishers: the cartridge-operated
extinguisher and the stored-pressure extinguisher. The following provides a description of each:
Section 8 Portable/Semi-portable Fire Extinguishers
140 ABS GUIDANCE NOTES ON FIRE-FIGHTING SYSTEMS . 2005
1.4.1 Cartridge-Operated Dry Chemical Extinguisher
Portable cartridge-operated, dry chemical extinguishers range in size from 2.25 to 13.6 kg
(5 to 30 lb), and semi-portable models contain up to 22.7 kg (50 lb) of agent. An extinguisher
may be filled with any of the five agents, and its rating will be based on the particular agent
used. A small cylinder of inert gas is used as the propellant. Cartridge-operated, dry
chemical extinguishers have a range from 3 to 9.1 m (10 to 30 ft). The 2.25 kg (5 lb)
extinguisher will have a discharge duration of approximately 8 to 10 seconds, while the larger
extinguishers provide up to 30 seconds of discharge time.
The extinguisher is carried and used upright. The ring pin is removed and the puncturing
lever is depressed. This releases the propellant gas, which forces the extinguisher agent up to
the nozzle. The flow of dry chemical is controlled with the squeeze-grip On-Off nozzle at the
end of the hose. The discharge is directed at the seat of the fire, starting at the near edge. The
stream should be moved from side to side with rapid motions, to sweep the fire off the fuel.
On a weather deck, the fire should be approached from the windward side if possible. The
initial discharge should not be directed onto the burning material from close range, 0.91 to
2.4 m (3 to 8 ft), as the velocity of the stream may scatter the burning material. However, the
agent may be applied in short bursts by opening and closing the nozzle with the squeeze grips.
If the propellant gas cylinder is punctured but the extinguisher is not put into use or is only
partially discharged, the remaining gas may leak away in a few hours. Thus, the extinguisher
must be recharged after each use or activation.
1.4.2 Stored-Pressure Dry Chemical Extinguishers
Stored-pressure dry chemical extinguishers are available in the same sizes as cartridgeoperated
types. They have the similar ranges and duration of discharge and are used in the
same way. The only differences are that the propellant gas is mixed in with the dry chemical
in the stored-pressure type and the extinguisher is controlled with a squeeze-grip trigger on
the top of the container. A pressure gauge indicates the condition of the charge.
Many stored-pressure extinguishers have pressure gauges that indicate whether the internal
pressure is within the operating range. The gauge is located on the bottom of some
extinguishers.
1.5 Dry Powder-type Fire Extinguishers
Frequently the terms “Dry Powder” extinguisher and “Dry Chemical” extinguisher have been
incorrectly considered as interchangeable. The two terms actually represent different types of
medium, and it is important to understand that there is a difference between the two types of
extinguishers. Dry chemical extinguishers and their mediums, as discussed above, are typically
suitable for use on “B” and “C” Class fires, or in the case of mono-ammonium phosphate, suitable for
use on “A”, “B” and “C” fires. However, the extinguishing medium in a “Dry Powder” extinguisher
is a special type of dry chemical agent that is specifically suitable for use on combustible metal (class
D) fires. Accordingly, the term “Dry Powder” extinguisher is intended to specifically refer to that
extinguisher which has an extinguishing agent suitable for use on combustible metal (class D) fires.
The extinguishing agent typically found in “Dry Powder” extinguishers is sodium chloride, which
forms a crust on the burning metal.
1.6 Portable Fire Extinguishers
Portable extinguishers are smaller extinguishers that can easily be transported to the fire. The Rules
consider a 13.5 liter (3.5 gallon) fluid extinguisher (or smaller) to be a portable extinguisher.
Extinguishers utilizing other extinguishing mediums must provide an equivalent degree of portability
to that of a 13.5 liter (3.5 gallon) fluid extinguisher. IMO Resolution A.602(15) defines a portable
extinguisher as one which is designed to be carried and operated by hand and which in working order
has a total weight of not more than 23 kg (50.6 lbs). For more information, refer to Appendix C –
IMO Resolution A.602(15).
Although portable fire extinguishers provide only a limited quantity of fire extinguishing agent, their
ability to be transported easily to a fire and used to quickly engage a fire before it spreads plays a vital
role aboard a vessel. Many large scale fires have been avoided simply due to the availability and use
of small portable fire extinguishers.
1.7 Semi-portable Fire Extinguishers
Semi-portable extinguishers provide a larger amount of extinguishing agent to a fire rapidly, which
allows the operator to make a sustained attack. However, semi-portable fire extinguishers are much
larger, which results in a restriction of mobility. Semi-portable units may be wheeled units or may be
semi-fixed and typically utilize a discharge hose which can be run out to engage the fire. The hose
must be of sufficient length to reach all portions of the protected area.
Semi-portable systems typically utilize foam, carbon dioxide dry chemical or dry powder, depending
upon the requirements of the hazard to be protected. They are often required to be provided at high
fire risk areas within spaces which may already be fitted with a fixed fire extinguishing system. The
purpose of the semi-portable units is to provide the means to quickly engage a fire with larger
volumes of extinguishing agent. If this attack controls or extinguishes the fire, then the large fixed
system need not be activated. Semi-portable systems may also be used as primary extinguishing
systems.
1.8 Fire Extinguisher Designations
Portable and semi-portable extinguishers are typically classified with one or more letters and with a
numeral. The letter or letters indicate the classes of fires on which the extinguisher may be used.
These letters correspond exactly to the four classes of fires (refer to Section 2). Thus, for example,
class “A” extinguishers may be used only on class “A” fires – those involving common combustible
materials. Class “AB” extinguishers may be used on fires involving wood (class “A”) or diesel oil
(class “B”) or both. The numeral indicates either the relative efficiency of the extinguisher or its size.
The particular size and classification ratings for a specific manufacturer’s extinguisher should be
established through appropriate testing conducted by a recognized testing agency or laboratory.
In the method of designation used by the Rules, Roman numerals are used to indicate the sizes of
portable extinguishers. The numeral “I” indicates the smallest size, and “V” the largest. The ratings
of the different types of extinguishers are provided in the following table.
Fire Control Plans
The Fire Control Plan provides vital information that is crucial for the rapid and efficient action of the
vessel’s crew during a fire. Accordingly, it is very important that the Fire Control Plan accurately
reflects the fire-fighting arrangements installed onboard and is consistent with the arrangements
approved for the vessel.
The following discussion is limited to the “active” fire-fighting arrangements and equipment for the
vessel to be depicted on the Fire Control Plan. This discussion does not address requirements
associated with the passive fire protection, such as structural fire protection, or any additional
requirements associated with electrical systems or arrangements. However, other requirements for
“passive” fire protection arrangements (e.g., structural fire protection arrangements, escape routes,
etc.), as well as electrical system requirements (e.g., electrical control arrangements, emergency
generator location, etc.), exist and should be shown on the Fire Control Plan.
The Fire Control Plan is frequently submitted as part of the Safety Plan, which also indicates life
saving equipment, etc. While the Bureau is authorized to review the requirements associated fire
control and safety plans by most Flag Administrations, the review for life saving equipment is also
outside the scope of this discussion.
1 Standardized Symbols
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has issued IMO Resolution A.654(16) which
provides a standardized set of symbols to be used on a Fire Control Plan. The use of a standardized
set of symbols assists the vessel’s officers and crew in quickly identifying and locating equipment;
and is very helpful in making the Fire Control Plan “User Friendly”. However, the resolution was
issued as guidance only and its use is not mandated by SOLAS. Accordingly, while there are certain
Flag Administrations that require the use of the standardized symbols identified in Res. A.654(16), its
use is not mandatory insofar as Classification requirements are concerned.
Related IMO MSC 847 Interpretation
SOLAS Reg. II-2/20 (SOLAS (2000 Amendments) II-2/15). Reference to Resolution A.654(16)
Reference is made to resolution A.654(16) - Graphical symbols for fire control plans and resolution
A.765(18) - Guidelines on the information to be provided with fire control plans and booklets
required by SOLAS regulations II-2/20 (SOLAS (2000 Amendments) II-2/15).
Minimum Number of Required EEBDs
A. In machinery spaces for category A containing internal combustion machinery used for main
propulsion (1):
a) One (1) EEBD in the engine control room, if located within the machinery space
b) One (1) EEBD in workshop areas. If there is, however, a direct access to an escape way from the
workshop, an EEBD is not required; and
c) One (1) EEBD on each deck or platform level near the escape ladder constituting the second means of
escape from the machinery space (the other means being an enclosed escape trunk or watertight door at
the lower level of the space).
B. In machinery spaces of category A other than those containing internal combustion machinery used
for main propulsion,
One (1) EEBD should, as a minimum, be provided on each deck or platform level near the escape ladder
constituting the second means of escape from the space (the other means being an enclosed escape trunk or
watertight door at the lower level of the space).
C. In other machinery spaces
The number and location of EEBDs are to be determined by the Flag Administration.
Note:
1 Alternatively, a different number or location may be determined by the Flag Administration
taking into consideration the layout and dimensions or the normal manning of the space.
2.1.12(c) EEBD Specification
i) General. An EEBD is a supply-air or oxygen device only used for escape from a
compartment that has a hazardous atmosphere and is to be of an approved type.
EEBDs are not to be used for fighting fires, entering oxygen deficient voids or tanks,
or worn by fire-fighters. In these events, a self-contained breathing apparatus, which
is specifically suited for such applications, is to be used.
ii) EEBD Particulars. The EEBD is to have a duration of service of 10 minutes. The
EEBD is to include a hood or full face piece, as appropriate, to protect the eyes, nose
and mouth during escape. Hoods and face pieces are to be constructed of flame
resistant materials and include a clear window for viewing. An inactivated EEBD is
to be capable of being carried hands-free.
iii) EEBD Storage. An EEBD, when stored, is to be suitably protected from
environment.
iv) EEBD Instructions and Markings. Brief instructions or diagrams clearly illustrating
their use are to be clearly printed on the EEBD. The donning procedures are to be
quick and easy to allow for situations where there is little time to seek safety from a
hazardous atmosphere. Maintenance requirements, manufacturer’s trademarks and
serial number, shelf life with accompanying manufacture date and name of approving
authority are to be printed on each EEBD. All EEBD training units are to be clearly
marked.
2.5 Additional Requirements for Vessels Carrying Bulk Oil
In addition to the requirements discussed in 10/2.1 through 10/2.4 of these Guidance Notes, vessels
carrying oil in bulk present certain additional fire hazards due to the flammability of the cargo, and
therefore, certain additional requirements, as discussed below, are required. The review of the Fire
Control Plan should verify the same are properly indicated and are consistent with the approved
system arrangements.
2.5.1 Fixed Fire-extinguishing Systems
Vessels intended to carry oil in bulk are required to be provided with the following additional
fixed fire-extinguishing systems:
i) A deck foam system covering the cargo deck area is typically required to be fitted, in
accordance with SVR 5-1-7/27. The specific arrangements required are discussed in
Section 6. The Fire Control Plan should be reviewed to verify that the foam system
control station, monitors, applicators, foam main isolation valves, etc., are indicated
and that the locations of this equipment comply with the details of the deck foam
system approved for the vessel.
ii) The cargo pump room is required to be provided with a fixed fire-extinguishing
system, as per SVR 5-1-7/29.1, and the controls and arrangements for the system
should be indicated on the Fire Control Plan.
2.5.2 Fire Main System
Isolation valves are required, in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.7, to be fitted in the fire main
at the poop front in a protected position and on the tank deck at intervals of not more than
40 m (131 ft). While not specifically mentioned in SVR 4-7-1/9, the arrangements indicated
on the Fire Control Plan should indicate the isolation valves and the same verified during plan
review.
Section 10 Fire Control Plans
ABS GUIDANCE NOTES ON FIRE-FIGHTING SYSTEMS . 2005 167
2.5.3 Firefighter’s Outfits
In addition to the two firefighter’s outfits normally required for any cargo vessel, SVR
5-1-7/23.7 requires that vessels intended to carry oil in bulk be provided with two additional
firefighter’s outfits and the same indicated on the Fire Control Plan.
2.6 Additional Requirements for Gas Carriers
Gas carriers also present additional fire hazards due to the flammability of the cargo being
transported. Accordingly, in addition to the requirements discussed in 10/2.1 through 10/2.4 of these
Guidance Notes, gas carriers are also required to be provided with certain additional fire-fighting
systems, as discussed below. The review of the Fire Control Plan should verify the same are properly
indicated and are consistent with the approved system arrangements.
2.6.1 Additional Required Fixed Systems
In accordance with SVR 5-8-11/3, gas carriers transporting flammable or toxic products are
required to be provided with a water spray system for covering:
• Exposed cargo tank domes and any exposed parts of cargo tanks.
• Exposed on-deck storage vessels for flammable or toxic products.
• Cargo liquid and vapor discharge and loading manifolds and the area of their control
valves and any other areas where essential control valves are situated and which should
be at least equal to the area of the drip trays provided.
• Boundaries of superstructures and deckhouses normally manned, cargo compressor
rooms, cargo pump rooms, storerooms containing high fire risk items and cargo control
rooms, all facing the cargo area. Boundaries of unmanned forecastle structures not
containing high fire risk items or equipment do not require water spray protection.
If a water spray system is required, the indicated arrangements should be consistent with the
system details approved for the vessel and review of the Fire Control Plan should verify the
same.
In accordance with SVR 5-8-11/4, if a gas carrier is to transport flammable products, a fixed
dry chemical powder type extinguishing systems for the deck in the cargo area and bow or
stern cargo handling areas is required and the Fire Control Plan should indicate the same. If
required, the indicated arrangements should be consistent with the system details approved for
the vessel and review of the Fire Control Plan should verify the same.
2.6.2 Firefighter’s Outfits
In accordance with SVR 5-8-11/6, every gas carrier that transports flammable products is to
be provided with the following firefighter’s outfits:
Total cargo capacity Number of outfits
5,000 m3 and below 4 Firefighter’s outfits
Above 5,000 m3 5 Firefighter’s outfits
In addition, any breathing apparatus required as part of a firefighter’s outfit should be a
self-contained air-breathing apparatus having a capacity of at least 1,200 liters (317 gallons)
of free air, in accordance with SVR 5-8-11/6.3. If these additional firefighter’s outfits are
required, the provisions for the same should be indicated on the Fire Control Plan and verified
during plan review.
Section 10 Fire Control Plans
168 ABS GUIDANCE NOTES ON FIRE-FIGHTING SYSTEMS . 2005
2.6.3 Gas Detection System
Depending of the cargo to be carried, a gas detection system may be required, in accordance
with SVR 5-8-13/6.7. Where required, the control station and locations monitored are
typically indicated on the Fire Control Plan, and if indicated, the arrangements should be
reviewed to confirm that they are consistent with the arrangements approved for the vessel.
2.6.4 Personnel Protection and First Aid Equipment
While not specifically associated with fire-fighting, SVR Section 5-8-14 discusses certain
protective equipment for personnel and first aid equipment required to be carried onboard,
depending of the cargoes to be carried. This equipment is frequently indicated on the Safety
Plan of gas carriers and compliance with the Classification requirements should be verified if
indicated.
2.6.5 Fire Main System
Isolation valves are required, in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.7 and SVR 5-8-11/2.3, to be
fitted in the fire main at the poop front in a protected position and on the tank deck at intervals
of not more than 40 m (131 ft). While not specifically mentioned in SVR 4-7-1/9, the
arrangements indicated on the Fire Control Plan should indicate the isolation valves and the
same verified during plan review.
2.7 Additional Requirements for Chemical Carriers
Chemical carriers may present additional hazards depending upon the cargoes to be transported.
Accordingly, in addition to the requirements discussed in items 10/2.1 through 10/2.4 of these
Guidance Notes, chemical carriers are also required to be provided with certain additional fire and
safety systems, as discussed below. The review of the Fire Control Plan should verify the same are
properly indicated and are consistent with the approved system arrangements.
2.7.1 Fixed Fire-extinguishing Systems
In addition to the fixed fire-extinguishing systems discussed above, vessels intended to carry
chemicals in bulk are to be provided with the following additional fixed fire-extinguishing
systems:
• Vessels intended to carry chemicals in bulk are typically required to be fitted with a deck
foam system covering the cargo deck area, as well as any bow or stern loading areas, in
accordance with SVR 5-9-11/3. The specific requirements and arrangements required are
discussed in Section 6. The Fire Control Plan should be reviewed to verify that the foam
system control station, monitors, applicators, foam main isolation valves, etc., are
indicated and that the locations of this equipment comply with the details of the deck
foam system approved for the vessel, as necessary.
• The cargo pump room is required to be provided with a fixed fire-extinguishing system,
as per SVR 5-9-11/2, and the controls and arrangements for the system should be
indicated on the Fire Control Plan.
2.7.2 Vapor Detection System
Depending of the cargo to be carried, means for flammable and/or toxic vapor detection, in
accordance with SVR 5-9-13/2 and 5-9-13/3, may be required. Where required, such
equipment is typically indicated on the Safety Plan, and if portable devices are to be used, the
Safety Plan may be the only place where such equipment is indicated. Accordingly, if
required for the vessel, the arrangements should be reviewed to confirm with the Rules.
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2.7.3 Personnel Protection and Safety Equipment
While not specifically associated with fire-fighting, SVR Section 5-9-14 discusses certain
protective and safety equipment for personnel, depending of the cargoes to be carried. This
equipment is frequently indicated on the Fire Control Plan or Safety Plan of chemical carriers
and compliance with the Classification requirements should be verified, if indicated.
2.7.4 Fire Main System
Isolation valves are required, in accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.5.7, to be fitted in the fire main
at the poop front in a protected position and on the tank deck at intervals of not more than
40 m (131 ft). While not specifically mentioned in SVR 4-7-1/9, the arrangements indicated
on the Fire Control Plan should indicate the isolation valves and the same verified during plan
review.
2.8 Additional Requirements for Passenger Vessels
Passenger vessels present unique dangers and safety concerns. This is due to the large number of
untrained people onboard who will not be familiar with emergency procedures and may in certain
cases have reduced agility and mobility. Accordingly, there are certain fire and safety requirements
that are uniquely applicable to passenger vessels. These requirements are in addition to or in lieu of
the requirements discussed in 10/2.1 through 10/2.4 of these Guidance Notes and should be verified
during review of the Fire Control Plan.
2.8.1 Fire Main System
The number and location of the main fire pumps are to be indicated on the Fire Control Plan
and indicate that the location(s), as well as the separation and access arrangements, are in
compliance with PVG 6/5.1.2.
The number and position of the hydrants are to be in compliance with PVG 6/5.1.7 and
consistent with the arrangements indicated on the approved fire main system diagram. In this
regard, if the Fire Control Plan does not indicate the maximum coverage areas possible from
each hydrant, verification of compliance will to be left to the attending Surveyor. However,
the locations of the hydrants should still be reviewed and any questionable area brought to the
attention of the submitter and the Surveyor.
PVG 6/5.1.8(b) requires that at least one fire hose is to be provided for each required hydrant.
For vessels carrying more than 36 passengers, each interior hydrant is to have a hose attached.
Category “A” machinery spaces on passenger vessels are to be provided with at least two
water fog applicators, as per PVG 6/5.1.9(e).
2.8.2 Additional Fixed Fire-extinguishing Systems Required on Passenger Vessels
Depending upon the construction methods utilized, vessels carrying 36 passengers or less may
be required to be provided with an automatic sprinkler system (or equivalent) for
accommodations, controls and service spaces, in accordance with PVG 6/5.5.1(a). And all
passenger vessels carrying more that 36 passengers are required to have automatic sprinkler
system for such spaces, as per PVG 6/5.5.1(b). The Fire Control Plan should indicate the
spaces being protected and review of the Fire Control Plan should verify consistency with the
approved details of the sprinkler system plans and ensure that all required spaces are being
protected.
2.8.3 Fire Detection and Fire Alarm Systems
In addition to any previously discussed fire detection and alarm system component location
requirements, the location of the fire detectors, fire alarms, manual call points, indicating
stations and control stations required by PVG 6/5.7, are to be shown on the Fire Control Plan
and verified during review.
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2.8.4 Firefighter’s Outfits
PVG 6/5.15.3(b) requires that in addition to the two firefighter’s outfits required by PVG
6/5.15.3(a), every passenger vessel be provided with two additional firefighter’s outfits and
two additional sets of personal equipment at every 80 m (263 ft), or part thereof, of the
aggregate of the lengths of all passenger spaces and service spaces, or if there is more than
one such deck, on the deck which has the largest aggregate of such lengths. Each set of
personal equipment is to comprise non-conducting boots and gloves, a rigid helmet and
protective clothing.
2.8.4(a) Vessel Carrying More than 36 Passengers. In accordance with PVG 6/5.15.3(c),
two additional firefighter’s outfits are to be provided for each main vertical zone. No
additional firefighter’s outfits are required, however, for stairway enclosures which constitute
individual main vertical zones and for the main vertical zones in the fore or aft end of a vessel
that do not contain spaces of the following categories, as defined in Regulation
II-2/9.2.2.3.2.2 of SOLAS 2000:
i) Accommodation spaces of minor fire risk
ii) Accommodation spaces of moderate fire risk system
iii) Accommodation spaces of greater fire risk
iv) Machinery spaces and main galleys
There is also to be provided for each pair of breathing apparatus one water fog applicator
which is to be stored adjacent to such apparatus.
2.8.4(b) Storage Arrangements. PVG 6/5.15.5 specifies that the firefighter’s outfits are to be
stored so as to be easily accessible and ready for use. They are also to be stored in widely
separate locations, but at least two firefighter’s outfits and one set of personal equipment is to
be available at any one position.
For vessels carrying more than 36 passengers, at least two firefighter’s outfits are to be stored
in each main vertical zone. Also, vessels carrying more than 36 passengers are to carry at
least two spare charges for each breathing apparatus in lieu of the one spare charge required
by SVR 4-7-3/15.5.1(b), and all air cylinders for breathing apparatus are to be interchangeable,
as per PVG 6/5.15.7.
2.8.5 Additional Marking Requirements
In conducting the review of the Fire Control Plan, the Engineer should note that SOLAS
Regulation II-2/13.3.2.5.1 requires all fire equipment location markings to be of
photoluminescent material or marked by lighting. Compliance with this requirement should
be verified during plan review as a classification requirement.
2.9 Additional Requirements for Ro-Ro Spaces
Vessels intended to carry vehicles present certain additional hazards due to the low flash point fuels
normally used and the increased amount of class “A” combustibles. Accordingly, SVR Section
5-10-4 provides certain requirements for cargo spaces intended for the carriage of vehicles that should
be verified in addition to those specified in 10/2.1 through 10/2.4 of these Guidance Notes. In
addition, the requirements outlined in 10/2.8 of these Guidance Notes would also be applicable if the
ro-ro spaces are on a passenger vessel.
2.9.1 Fire Detection 5-10-4/3.1
In accordance with SVR 5-10-4/3.1, ro-ro spaces are required to be provided with a fixed fire
detection and fire alarm system complying with the requirements of SVR 4-7-3/11. The
locations of the fire detection and alarm system components, including the locations of the
fire detectors, fire alarms, manual call points, indicating stations and control stations should
be shown on the Fire Control Plan and verified during review.
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2.9.2 Fixed Fire-extinguishing Systems
In addition, the location of the system release controls, as well as storage arrangements for the
fire-extinguishing medium, as specified in SVR 4-7-3/3.1.6, 4-7-3/3.3.5, 4-7-3/3.5.5 and
4-7-3/5.3.2, as applicable, should be verified.
2.9.2(a) Ro-Ro Spaces Capable of Being Sealed. In accordance with SVR 5-10-4/3.3.1(a),
ro-ro cargo spaces capable of being sealed are to be fitted with a fixed gas fire-extinguishing
system. As an alternative, SVR 5-10-4/3.3.1(b) allows the installation of a fixed pressure
water-spray system for such spaces. Indication that such systems are provided and
appropriate details regarding the locations of the control valves and actuating station(s) should
be indicated on the Fire Control Plan and their compliance with the appropriate requirements
verified during plan review.
2.9.2(b) Ro-Ro Spaces Not Capable of Being Sealed. In accordance with SVR 5-10-4/3.3.2,
ro-ro cargo spaces not capable of being sealed are to be fitted with a fixed pressure waterspray
system. Indication that such systems are provided and appropriate details regarding the
locations of the control valves and actuating station(s) should be indicated on the Fire Control
Plan and their compliance with the appropriate requirements verified during plan review.
2.9.3 Fire Hydrants
In accordance with SVR 4-7-3/1.9, any ro-ro cargo space or any vehicle spaces are to be
provided with sufficient hydrants to ensure that at least two jets of water, each from a single
length of hose are capable of reaching any part of the space and that hydrants are to be
positioned near the accesses to the spaces.
2.9.4 Portable Extinguishers
SVR 5-10-4/3.3.3 requires at least one portable extinguisher is to be provided at each access
to any ro-ro cargo space. In addition, at each vehicle deck level where vehicles with fuel in
their tanks are carried, sufficient portable extinguishers suitable for fighting oil fires are to be
provided such that they are not more than 20 m (65 ft) apart on both sides of the vessel. The
one located at the access may be credited for this purpose. These extinguishers should be
indicated on the Fire Control Plan and verified during plan review.
2.9.5 Water Fog and Foam Applicators
SVR 5-10-4/3.3.4 requires that each ro-ro cargo space intended for the carriage of motor
vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion is to be provided with the following:
• At least three (3) water fog applicators
• One (1) portable foam applicator unit complying with SVR 4-7-3/15.3 (provided that at
least two such units are available in the vessel for use in such ro-ro cargo spaces)
These items should be indicated on the Fire Control Plan and verified during plan review.
2.10 Additional Requirements for Cargo Spaces, Other Than Ro-Ro Cargo
Spaces,
Intended to Carry Vehicles with Fuel in Their Tanks
SVR 5-10-4/5 indicates that cargo spaces, other than ro-ro cargo spaces, intended for the carriage of
motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion are to comply with the provisions of
SVR 5-10-4/3, except that in lieu of SVR 5-10-4/3.1 a sample extraction smoke detection system
complying with the provisions of SVR 4-7-3/13 may be permitted and SVR 5-10-4/3.3.4 may be
omitted. Accordingly, items 10/2.9.1, 10/2.9.2 and 10/2.9.4 of these Guidance Notes would be
applicable with the exception that a sample extraction smoke detection system may be installed in lieu
of the fire detection system. Details verifying that the appropriate systems and equipment are
provided for such spaces should be indicated on the Fire Control Plan and verified during plan review
in association with the review of requirements outlined in items 10/2.1 through 10/2.4 of these
Guidance Notes.
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2.11 Vessels Under 500 Gross Tons
For vessels under 500 gross tons, certain alternative arrangements are permitted, as discussed in
SVR(L<90m) 4-5-3/1 through 4-5-3/9. Where the Fire Control Plans for such vessels are being
reviewed, the alternative requirements SVR(L<90m) 4-5-3/1 through 4-5-3/9, as discussed below,
should be considered in association with the requirements stated in 10/2.1 through 10/2.10 of these
Guidance Notes, as applicable.
2.11.1 Fire Pumps
SVR(L<90m) 4-5-3/1 addresses the number and type of fire pumps required. Separation
arrangements for the fire pumps as referenced in 10/2.1 of these Guidance Notes are not
applicable.
2.11.2 Machinery Space Fixed Fire-extinguishing Systems
Fixed fire-extinguishing systems are not required for machinery spaces of vessels below
500 gross tons, unless a space contains an oil fuel unit, as per SVR(L<90m) 4-5-3/3.
2.11.3 Carbon Dioxide Systems
Alternative storage arrangements for the CO2 system, as discussed in SVR(L<90m) 4-5-3/5.1,
are permitted.
2.11.4 Fire Axe
A fire axe is required to be carried on all such vessels over 20 meters (65 feet) in length.
Firefighter’s outfits are not required.
2.11.5 Oil Carriers
The cargo tank protection for oil carriers less than 30.5 meters (100 feet) in length may be
provided with two “B-V” extinguishers.