Unit 2 • Expressive Macro Skills – Speaking

Unit 2 focuses on the expressive macro skill of speaking, covering a variety of

topics necessary for efficient communication. It begins by investigating the nature and
objectives of speaking, providing insights into the fundamental concepts that underpin oral
communication. The mechanics and method of speaking are then investigated, with a
focus on the physical and cognitive components of speech production. In addition, the unit
investigates speech styles and registers such as frozen, formal, consultative, casual,
intimate, aggressive, passive, and assertive, providing insight into how language varies in
different settings. Austin and Searle's Speech Acts theory is introduced, emphasizing the
differences between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts in speech.
Furthermore, the unit examines segmentals, suprasegmentals, forms of communication,
and speech delivery styles, offering a thorough overview of the linguistic and non-linguistic
components of speech. It also examines speaking formats such as conversation,
transaction, and performance, providing tips for creating engaging and effective speaking
classes. Materials, resources, performance-based assessment methods, and feedback
strategies for teaching and testing speaking skills are also discussed, highlighting the
significance of comprehensive approaches to language instruction and evaluation.

Learning Outcomes

1. simulate different speech acts (locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary)

across various speech styles (frozen, formal, consultative, casual, intimate) to
enhance their understanding of effective communication in different contexts.
2. create and present a semi-detailed lesson plan focused on teaching speaking
skills, addressing key aspects such as pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, and
coherence.

Content

Essentials of Speaking: Nature and Objectives

1. Nature of Speaking
• Interactive: Speaking is inherently interactive, involving the exchange of
information, ideas, and emotions between speakers and listeners. It is a
dynamic process shaped by turn-taking, feedback, and negotiation of
meaning.
• Expressive: Speaking allows people to convey their thoughts, feelings,
and intentions through verbal communication. It is the use of spoken
language to express messages, share experiences, and engage in social
relationships.
• Transactional: Speaking serves transactional purposes, facilitating the
exchange of information, requests, and responses in various contexts,
such as conversations, interviews, and discussions.
 • Performative: Speaking can also be performative, involving the delivery of
speeches, presentations, and performances that entertain, persuade, or
inform an audience.
2. Purposes of Speaking
• Communication: The primary purpose of speaking is to communicate
ideas, information, and emotions to others. Through speaking, individuals
engage in social interactions, express opinions, negotiate meanings, and
build relationships.
• Socialization: Speaking plays a crucial role in socialization, enabling
individuals to establish connections, form bonds, and participate in social
groups and communities. It facilitates the transmission of cultural norms,
values, and traditions through oral discourse.
• Academic and Professional Success: Effective speaking skills are
essential for academic and professional success. In educational settings,
speaking is necessary for class participation, presentations, and
discussions. In the workplace, speaking proficiency is valued for meetings,
negotiations, and public speaking engagements.
• Personal Expression: Speaking allows people to express themselves and
shape their identities. It allows individuals to express their ideas, opinions,
and experiences, which shapes their sense of self and influences how
others see them.
• Entertainment and Performance: Speaking serves entertainment and
performance purposes, as seen in storytelling, stand-up comedy, acting,
and oral literature. Performative speaking engages audiences, evokes
emotions, and conveys narratives through verbal expression.
3. Functions of Speaking
• Informative Function: Speaking conveys information, facts, and
explanations to inform listeners about a particular topic or issue.
Informative speaking aims to increase understanding and knowledge
among listeners.
• Expressive Function: Speaking serves an expressive function by allowing
individuals to express emotions, feelings, and personal experiences.
Expressive speaking can be cathartic, therapeutic, or celebratory.
• Directive Function: Speaking can be directive, involving giving
instructions, commands, or requests to influence the behavior or actions of
others. Directive speaking aims to elicit specific responses or outcomes
from listeners.
• Interactive Function: Speaking facilitates interaction and interpersonal
communication, enabling individuals to engage in dialogues,
conversations, and debates with others. Interactive speaking involves
active listening, turn-taking, and collaborative communication.
• Aesthetic Function: Speaking can have an aesthetic function, as seen in
the use of language for artistic, creative, or poetic purposes. Aesthetic
speaking aims to evoke sensory experiences, imagery, and emotions
through language.

Speaking is a multifaceted aspect of human communication characterized by its

interactive, expressive, and transactional nature. The purposes of speaking encompass
communication, socialization, academic and professional success, personal expression,
and entertainment. Understanding the nature and purposes of speaking is essential for
developing effective speaking skills and using spoken language proficiently in various
contexts and communicative situations.

The Mechanics and Dynamics of Speaking

1. Physiological Mechanisms
• Respiration: Speaking begins with the initiation of airflow from the lungs
through the trachea and into the oral and nasal cavities. The diaphragm
and intercostal muscles control respiration, allowing for the regulation of
airflow during speech production.
• Phonation: Sound is produced when the airflow from the lungs causes the
vocal folds (vocal cords) in the larynx to vibrate. The pitch and intensity of
the sound are controlled by adjusting the tension and length of the vocal
folds.
• Articulation: The spoken sound is formed and altered as it travels through
the vocal tract, which comprises the pharynx, mouth cavity, and nasal
cavity. The tongue, lips, teeth, and palate articulate spoken sounds by
adjusting the size and form of the vocal tract.
2. Processes of Speaking
• Planning: Before speaking, individuals engage in mental processes to plan
and organize their speech. This involves formulating ideas, selecting
appropriate vocabulary and grammar structures, and organizing the
information in a coherent manner.
• Encoding: Encoding refers to the process of converting linguistic
representations of thoughts into speech sounds. This involves accessing
lexical and grammatical knowledge to produce words, phrases, and
sentences that convey intended meanings.
• Monitoring: While speaking, individuals monitor their speech output for
accuracy, fluency, and appropriateness. Monitoring involves self-correction
of errors, adjusting speech rate, and making modifications based on
feedback from listeners.
• Feedback: Feedback plays a crucial role in the speaking process,
providing information to speakers about the effectiveness of their
communication. Feedback may come from internal sources (self-
monitoring) or external sources (listeners' responses), influencing ongoing
speech production.
• Speech Production: Speech production involves the coordinated
activation of motor processes to produce speech sounds and articulate
words and sentences. This process requires precise coordination of
respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory mechanisms to produce intelligible
speech.
• Interaction: Speaking is inherently interactive, involving the exchange of
verbal and non-verbal cues between speakers and listeners. Interaction
encompasses turn-taking, listening, responding, and adjusting
communication based on situational and contextual factors.
• Adaptation: Speakers adapt their speech production based on various
factors, including the communication context, audience characteristics, and
communicative goals. Adaptation may involve modifying speech rate,
volume, pitch, and language register to meet the needs of the listener and
the situation.
 3. Factors Influencing Speaking
• Language Proficiency: The complexity, correctness, and fluency with
which speech is produced are influenced by one's proficiency in the
language.
• Motivation and Confidence: Motivation and confidence have a
substantial impact on speaking performance, influencing people's
willingness to participate in speaking activities and their ability to express
themselves effectively.
• Communication Context: The communication context, including the
purpose, audience, setting, and topic of the conversation, influences
speaking strategies, language choice, and discourse patterns.
• Cultural and Sociolinguistic Factors: Cultural norms, social conventions,
and sociolinguistic variables such as gender, age, and social status
influence speaking behavior and language use.
• Feedback and Interaction: Feedback from listeners, as well as interaction
dynamics such as turn-taking and conversational repair, impact speaking
processes and outcomes.

Understanding the mechanics and processes of speaking provides insights into

the cognitive, physiological, and social aspects of speech production. By examining the
interplay between linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural factors, educators and learners
can develop effective strategies for improving speaking skills and enhancing
communication proficiency.

Styles and Registers of Speech (Formal, Informal, Consultative, Casual, Intimate,

Aggressive, Passive, Assertive)

1. Frozen Style
• Definition: Frozen style refers to highly formalized and ritualistic language
used in fixed or predetermined situations where there is little room for
variation or spontaneity.
• Characteristics: Language in frozen style tends to be highly formal,
standardized, and impersonal. It often follows strict conventions and
formulaic expressions.
• Examples: National anthems, religious ceremonies, legal documents, and
ceremonial speeches are examples of frozen style.
2. Formal Style
• Definition: Formal style is used in professional, academic, and official
contexts where there is an expectation of professionalism and adherence
to social norms and conventions.
• Characteristics: Language in formal style is characterized by complex
vocabulary, elaborate syntax, and standard grammatical structures. It
avoids slang, colloquialisms, and contractions.
• Examples: Business meetings, academic presentations, job interviews,
and official documents often employ formal style.
3. Consultative Style
• Definition: Consultative style is used in semi-formal settings where there
is a need for respectful communication and consideration of the other
person's status or expertise.
 • Characteristics: Language in consultative style is polite, respectful, and
attentive to the needs and preferences of the listener. It may involve using
titles, honorifics, and polite expressions.
• Examples: Professional consultations, formal requests, customer service
interactions, and academic discussions often use consultative style.
4. Casual Style
• Definition: Casual style is used in informal, relaxed, and familiar settings
where there is a sense of intimacy and informality among participants.
• Characteristics: Language in casual style is characterized by
conversational tone, colloquial expressions, slang, and informal
vocabulary. It may involve humor, personal anecdotes, and shared cultural
references.
• Examples: Conversations among friends, family gatherings, social
outings, and informal emails or texts often use casual style.
5. Intimate Style
• Definition: Intimate style is used in private and personal interactions
between individuals who share a close relationship or emotional bond.
• Characteristics: Language in intimate style is characterized by familiarity,
affection, and emotional expressiveness. It may involve using
endearments, pet names, and intimate gestures.
• Examples: Conversations between romantic partners, close friends, and
family members in private settings use intimate style.
6. Aggressive Style
• Definition: Aggressive style is characterized by assertive and
confrontational language used to dominate, intimidate, or attack others.
• Characteristics: Language in aggressive style is assertive, hostile, and
provocative. It may involve insults, sarcasm, threats, and verbal attacks.
• Examples: Verbal arguments, confrontations, bullying, and hostile
communication often employ aggressive style.
7. Passive Style
• Definition: Passive style involves language characterized by passivity,
indecision, and avoidance of responsibility or confrontation.
• Characteristics: Language in passive style is hesitant, evasive, and
submissive. It may involve using qualifiers, hedges, and vague language
to avoid direct communication or conflict.
• Examples: Indirect requests, vague statements, apologies, and passive-
aggressive communication are examples of passive style.
8. Assertive Style
• Definition: Assertive style involves confident, direct, and respectful
communication that expresses one's needs, opinions, and boundaries
while respecting the rights of others.
• Characteristics: Language in assertive style is clear, direct, and self-
assured. It involves expressing thoughts, feelings, and preferences
assertively without aggressiveness or passivity.
• Examples: Assertive communication involves stating opinions, making
requests, setting boundaries, and expressing feelings in a respectful and
confident manner.

Understanding the various speech styles and registers enables individuals to adapt
their language use effectively to different communication contexts, social relationships,
and cultural norms. By recognizing the appropriate style for a given situation, speakers
can enhance communication effectiveness, build rapport with others, and navigate social
interactions successfully.

Austin and Searle’s Speech Acts (Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary)

Austin and Searle's Speech Acts Theory examines the several layers of meaning
embedded in utterances. It divides communication into three stages: locutionary acts,
illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. Let's explore each of these components:

1. Locutionary Acts
• Definition: Locutionary acts refer to the literal meaning or the basic
linguistic aspects of an utterance, including the words used, their
arrangement, and their grammatical structure.
• Characteristics: Locutionary acts focus on what is said explicitly through
the utterance, such as the information conveyed, the syntax employed, and
the linguistic form of the statement.
• Example: In the sentence "It is raining," the locutionary act involves the
statement about the current weather condition, with the words "it," "is," and
"raining" forming the basic structure of the utterance.
2. Illocutionary Acts
• Definition: Illocutionary acts refer to the speaker's intended meaning or the
speech act performed by making the utterance. They convey the speaker's
purpose, intention, or illocutionary force behind the words spoken.
• Characteristics: Illocutionary acts emphasize what the speaker wishes to
accomplish with the utterance, such as making a request, delivering a
command, asking a question, making a commitment, expressing an
opinion, or apologizing.
• Example: In the sentence "Could you please pass the salt?" the
illocutionary act is a request, where the speaker intends to elicit the action
of passing the salt from the listener.
3. Perlocutionary Acts
• Definition: Perlocutionary acts refer to the effect or influence that an
utterance has on the listener, as well as the hearer's reaction to the speech
act. They focus on the consequences or outcomes of the communication
beyond the speaker's intention.
• Characteristics: Perlocutionary acts involve the listener's interpretation,
understanding, or reaction to the utterance, which may include complying
with a request, providing information, feeling persuaded, becoming
amused, or feeling offended.
• Example: In response to the statement "You look great in that dress," the
perlocutionary act could involve the listener feeling flattered, smiling, or
feeling pleased by the compliment.

Austin and Searle's Speech Acts Theory distinguishes between three levels of
meaning in communication: locutionary acts (what is said), illocutionary acts (what is
meant or intended by saying it), and perlocutionary acts (the effect or response elicited by
saying it). Understanding these components helps in analyzing the complexities of
language use and the various functions of utterances in communication.
Reviewing Segmentals, Suprasegmentals, Communication Modes, and Speech
Delivery Types

1. Segmentals
• Definition: Segmentals refer to individual speech sounds or segments of
speech that make up the phonetic and phonological units of language.
These include consonants and vowels.
• Characteristics: Consonants and vowels are the basic building blocks of
spoken language, distinguished by their articulatory features such as place
and manner of articulation, voicing, and duration.
• Importance: Segmentals serve an important function in communicating
meaning and identifying words in a language. They contribute to phonetic
and phonemic contrasts that differentiate words, such as the distinction
between "pat" and "bat."
2. Suprasegmentals
• Definition: Suprasegmentals refer to prosodic features of speech that
extend beyond individual segments and encompass aspects such as
stress, intonation, rhythm, and tempo.
• Characteristics: Suprasegmental features influence the overall melody,
rhythm, and expressive qualities of speech. They contribute to the prosodic
structure of utterances and convey linguistic and paralinguistic information.
• Importance: Suprasegmentals play a vital role in conveying emphasis,
emotional tone, syntactic structure, and pragmatic meaning in speech.
They help convey nuances of meaning and contribute to effective
communication and comprehension.
3. Modes of Communication
• Verbal Communication: Verbal communication refers to the use of
spoken or written language to express messages, ideas, and information
between people or groups. It covers in-person chats, phone calls, written
texts, emails, and other types of linguistic engagement.
• Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal communication includes
gestures, facial expressions, body language, eye contact, posture, and
other nonverbal cues. It enhances verbal communication by conveying
emotional states, attitudes, and social signals.
• Visual Communication: Visual communication involves the use of
pictorial elements such as images, symbols, charts, graphs, and
multimedia presentations to convey information and ideas. It is often used
in conjunction with verbal and nonverbal communication to enhance
understanding and engagement.
• Digital Communication: Digital communication refers to communication
mediated through digital technologies such as computers, smartphones,
social media platforms, and online messaging services. It includes text
messages, emails, video calls, social media posts, and other forms of
electronic communication.
4. Types of Speech Delivery
• Impromptu Speech: Impromptu speech is delivered spontaneously,
without prior preparation or rehearsal. It requires the speaker to think on
their feet and respond quickly to a given topic or situation.
• Extemporaneous Speech: Extemporaneous speech is delivered with
some preparation and planning but without memorization of a script. The
 speaker outlines key points or ideas and delivers the speech in a natural
and conversational manner.
• Manuscript Speech: Manuscript speech involves reading a written text or
script verbatim. The speaker reads from a prepared manuscript or
teleprompter, following the written text closely.
• Memorized Speech: Memorized speech is delivered from memory, with
the speaker memorizing the entire speech or significant portions of it
beforehand. It requires careful memorization and rehearsal of the content
to ensure accuracy and fluency.
• Expository Speech: Expository speech is informative in nature, aiming to
explain, describe, or clarify a topic or concept to the audience. It presents
information, examples, and evidence to educate and inform the audience.
• Persuasive speaking involves offering arguments, appeals, and evidence
to persuade the audience of a specific opinion or action. Its goal is to
persuade or convince the audience to embrace the speaker's point of view
or take a specified action.

Segmentals and suprasegmentals are fundamental elements of spoken language,

influencing phonetic and prosodic aspects of speech. Modes of communication
encompass verbal, nonverbal, visual, and digital channels through which messages are
conveyed. Types of speech delivery vary in terms of spontaneity, preparation, delivery
style, and communicative purpose, providing speakers with flexibility in addressing
different audience needs and contexts.

Various Speaking Formats (Interactional, Transactional, Performance-Oriented)

Speaking formats refer to the various modes or styles of spoken communication

that individuals use in different contexts to achieve specific purposes or goals. These
formats encompass interactional speaking, transactional speaking, and performance
speaking. Let's delve into each of these formats in detail:

1. Interactional Speaking
• Definition: Interactional speaking involves informal, conversational
exchanges between individuals in everyday social interactions. It focuses
on building relationships, establishing rapport, and engaging in reciprocal
communication.
• Characteristics
• Informal Tone: Interactional speaking typically adopts an informal
tone and conversational style, allowing participants to engage in
relaxed and spontaneous communication.
• Turn-Taking: Interactional speaking involves turn-taking, where
speakers alternate roles as speakers and listeners, engaging in
back-and-forth exchanges.
• Social Functions: Interactional speaking serves social functions,
such as greeting, expressing emotions, sharing personal
experiences, and maintaining social bonds.
 • Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal clues, including facial
expressions, gestures, and body language, enhance verbal
communication during interactions.
• Examples
• Conversations with friends and family members
• Casual chats with acquaintances
• Informal discussions in social settings
2. Transactional Speaking
• Definition: Transactional speaking involves goal-oriented communication
aimed at exchanging information, making requests, giving instructions, or
completing tasks. It focuses on achieving specific objectives through
effective communication.
• Characteristics
• Purposeful Communication: Transactional speaking is purpose-
driven, with participants focused on achieving specific outcomes,
such as providing information, making inquiries, or solving
problems.
• Clarity and Precision: Transactional speaking emphasizes clarity,
precision, and coherence in communication to ensure that
messages are understood accurately and efficiently.
• Directive Language: Transactional speaking frequently involves
the use of directive language, such as giving orders, making
requests, and providing feedback, to steer the conversation toward
the desired outcome.
• Professional Tone: Depending on the context, transactional
speaking may adopt a more formal or professional tone, particularly
in business, academic, or institutional settings.
• Examples
• Business negotiations and meetings
• Customer service interactions
• Classroom instruction and academic presentations
• Interviewing for a job or conducting job interviews
3. Performance Speaking
• Definition: Performance speaking involves formal presentations or
speeches delivered to an audience for entertainment, persuasion, or
informational purposes. It focuses on engaging and captivating the
audience through effective delivery and presentation skills.
• Characteristics
• Prepared Speeches: Performance speaking typically involves
preparing and rehearsing speeches or presentations in advance to
ensure coherence, structure, and effectiveness.
• Audience Engagement: Performance speaking aims to captivate
and engage the audience through compelling storytelling, rhetorical
devices, humor, and persuasive techniques.
• Expressive Language: Performance speaking often utilizes
expressive language, vivid imagery, and rhetorical devices to evoke
emotions, create impact, and leave a lasting impression on the
audience.
• Delivery Techniques: Performance speaking emphasizes
effective delivery techniques, including voice modulation, gestures,
 eye contact, and use of visual aids, to enhance the effectiveness of
the presentation.
• Examples
• Public speeches and presentations
• TED talks and motivational speeches
• Stand-up comedy performances
• Theatrical monologues and recitations

Speaking formats encompass interactional speaking, transactional speaking, and

performance speaking, each serving distinct purposes and employing specific
communication strategies. Understanding these formats enables individuals to adapt their
speaking style and communication techniques effectively to different contexts, audiences,
and purposes. Whether engaging in casual conversation, conducting business
negotiations, or delivering a formal speech, mastering these speaking formats enhances
one's ability to communicate confidently and successfully in various situations.

Designing Speaking Lessons

Designing effective lessons for teaching speaking involves careful planning and
consideration of various factors, including learning objectives, learner characteristics,
instructional strategies, assessment methods, and materials/resources. Here's a detailed
overview of the components involved in lesson design for teaching speaking:

1. Provide Clear out Purposes

• Define the learning ideas for the speaking lesson. These objectives should
state what students are expected to achieve in terms of speaking abilities,
such as fluency, accuracy, vocabulary utilization, pronunciation, or
communicative competence.
2. Know Your Learners
• Understand the proficiency level, interests, preferences, and learning
styles of your students. Adapt your lesson design to cater to the diverse
needs and abilities of learners, providing appropriate support and
challenges as needed.
3. Select Appropriate Topics
• Choose topics that are relevant, interesting, and meaningful to the learners.
Consider their background knowledge, cultural experiences, and personal
interests when selecting speaking prompts or discussion topics.
4. Choose Engaging Activities
• Incorporate a variety of speaking activities that engage learners and
promote active participation. Examples include role-plays, debates,
discussions, presentations, storytelling, problem-solving tasks, information
gap activities, and collaborative projects.
5. Provide Clear Instructions
• Clarify the objectives, procedures, and expectations for each speaking
activity. Provide examples, models, and demonstrations as needed to
ensure that students understand what is expected of them.
6. Foster Interaction
• Create opportunities for meaningful interaction and communication among
students. Encourage pair work, group discussions, and collaborative tasks
 that allow students to practice speaking in authentic communicative
contexts.
7. Offer Feedback
• Provide constructive feedback to assist students improve their speaking
performance. Concentrate on both strengths and areas for improvement,
including pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary utilization, fluency, and
communication techniques.
8. Use Authentic Materials
• Use authentic materials, such as real-life texts, videos, audio recordings,
and multimedia tools, to help students understand natural language and
cultural contexts. Authentic materials increase motivation and provide
useful language input.
9. Integrate Technology
• Utilize technology tools and resources to enhance speaking instruction.
Video conferencing platforms, speech recognition software, multimedia
presentations, and online discussion forums can facilitate speaking
practice and feedback.
10. Assessment and Evaluation
• Create effective evaluation methods to measure students' speaking skills.
To measure progress and achievement, use a combination of formative
and summative assessments, such as oral presentations, role plays, peer
evaluations, self-assessments, and performance rubrics.
11. Reflect and Adapt
• Reflect on the effectiveness of the lesson design and teaching strategies
used. Gather feedback from students and colleagues, and adjust your
approach based on their input and observations. Continuously refine and
adapt your lesson plans to better meet the needs of your learners.

By following these guidelines and incorporating best practices in lesson design,

teachers can create engaging and effective speaking lessons that promote language
development, foster communicative competence, and empower students to become
confident and proficient speakers.

Teaching Speaking: Materials and Resources

Materials and resources play a crucial role in teaching speaking skills as they
provide the necessary input, support, and opportunities for practice. When selecting
materials and resources for teaching speaking, it's essential to consider their relevance,
authenticity, appropriateness, and effectiveness in facilitating speaking practice and
language development. Here's a detailed overview of the types of materials and resources
commonly used in teaching speaking:

1. Authentic Texts and Media

• Authentic texts, such as articles, interviews, podcasts, speeches, and
videos, provide real-life language input and expose learners to natural
spoken discourse. These materials offer opportunities for listening
comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and modeling of pronunciation,
intonation, and conversational strategies.
2. Visual Aids and Multimedia
• Visual aids, such as pictures, photographs, illustrations, charts, graphs,
and infographics, enhance comprehension and stimulate discussion by
 providing visual support for speaking activities. Multimedia resources,
including audio recordings, video clips, interactive simulations, and online
platforms, engage learners and create dynamic speaking opportunities.
3. Role-Play and Simulation Materials
• Role-play scenarios, scripts, and simulation activities provide structured
contexts for students to engage in simulated real-life communication
situations. These materials encourage interaction, negotiation of meaning,
and application of speaking skills in practical contexts, such as job
interviews, customer service interactions, or social encounters.
4. Conversation Starters and Discussion Prompts
• Conversation starters, discussion prompts, and topic cards provide
prompts or questions to initiate and guide speaking activities. These
materials stimulate conversation, elicit opinions, and encourage critical
thinking and idea exchange among learners. They can cover a wide range
of topics, including current events, cultural issues, personal experiences,
and hypothetical scenarios.
5. Task-Based Activities and Project Materials
• Task-based activities and project materials involve collaborative tasks,
problem-solving activities, and project-based learning projects that require
students to engage in spoken communication to achieve specific
objectives. These materials promote meaningful interaction, task
engagement, and language use in authentic contexts.
Dorathy (2019) evaluated the efficacy of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)
in improving the English-speaking skills and attitudes of a diverse sample of engineering
students towards language learning. It emphasizes the role of language learning styles
and tactics in determining students' proficiency in second or foreign languages. With
English being the medium of instruction in college-level education across disciplines, the
study addresses the necessity for students to develop English communication skills to
navigate a competitive global environment effectively. The changing landscape of
liberalization and globalization emphasizes the significance of communication skills in the
workplace, with employers expressing concerns about graduates' inadequate English-
speaking competency. In response, the study proposes a program of intervention based
on TBLT principles and procedures. The study's goal is to determine the effectiveness of
TBLT in increasing students' speaking ability and overall perceptions of language learning.
6. Textbooks and Coursebooks
• Textbooks and coursebooks designed for teaching speaking skills often
include speaking activities, conversation practice, and communicative
tasks aligned with language learning objectives and proficiency levels.
These materials provide structured lesson plans, communicative tasks,
language input, and assessment tools to support speaking instruction.
7. Visual aids and Props
• Visual aids, props, and realia enhance speaking activities by providing
tangible objects, visual stimuli, or physical representations that support
comprehension and communication. These materials can include maps,
charts, flashcards, props related to the topic or context of the speaking
activity, and authentic artifacts.
8. Online Resources and Digital Tools
• Online resources and digital tools offer a wide range of interactive speaking
activities, video tutorials, virtual simulations, language learning apps, and
web-based platforms for practicing speaking skills. These resources
 provide anytime, anywhere access to speaking practice and offer
personalized feedback and assessment options.
9. Authentic Interlocutors and Conversation Partners
• Authentic interlocutors, such as native speakers, language exchange
partners, conversation tutors, and guest speakers, offer important
possibilities for learners to interact and receive feedback in real-time.
These resources offer cultural insights, language modeling, and authentic
communication experiences outside the classroom.
10. Teacher-Made Materials and Adaptations
• Teachers can create their own materials, adapt existing resources, and
tailor speaking activities to meet the specific needs, interests, and
proficiency levels of their learners. Teacher-made materials may include
custom worksheets, role-play scenarios, conversation guides, and
speaking task cards designed to address learners' language goals and
learning objectives.

A diverse range of materials and resources can be used effectively in teaching

speaking skills, providing learners with authentic input, structured practice opportunities,
and meaningful communication experiences. By selecting and integrating appropriate
materials and resources into speaking lessons, teachers can create engaging, interactive,
and effective learning environments that promote language development and foster
communicative competence.

Evaluating Speaking Skills: Performance-Based Assessment

In teaching speaking, performance-based assessment is examining students' real

performance in communicative tasks, presentations, and interactions to evaluate their
speaking skills. This technique focuses on evaluating students' abilities to utilize spoken
language effectively and appropriately in authentic settings. Here's a detailed overview of
performance-based assessment in teaching speaking:

1. Clear Learning Objectives

• Establish clear and specific learning objectives that define the speaking
skills and competencies students are expected to demonstrate. These
objectives should align with curriculum standards, language proficiency
benchmarks, and instructional goals.
2. Authentic Tasks and Activities
• Design authentic speaking tasks and activities that replicate real-life
communication situations and require students to engage in meaningful
spoken interaction. Examples include role-plays, debates, discussions,
presentations, interviews, and problem-solving tasks.
3. Rubrics and Criteria
• Develop assessment rubrics and criteria that clearly outline the
performance expectations and criteria for evaluating speaking proficiency.
Rubrics should include observable criteria related to fluency, accuracy,
pronunciation, vocabulary usage, grammatical control, coherence, and
communicative effectiveness.
4. Performance Scoring
• Use holistic or analytic scoring methodologies to assess pupils' speaking
abilities. Holistic scoring assigns an overall score based on the student's
 performance as a whole, whereas analytic scoring assesses and scores
distinct components of speaking proficiency separately.
5. Feedback and Self-Assessment
• Give students critical criticism on their speaking performance, identifying
strengths and areas for improvement. Encourage students to self-assess
and reflect by comparing their own speaking skills to the assessment
criteria and creating goals for growth.
6. Peer Evaluation
• Incorporate peer evaluation and feedback into the assessment process,
allowing students to examine and provide feedback on one another's
speaking performance. Peer evaluation promotes collaborative learning,
peer engagement, and a better comprehension of the speaking standards.
7. Performance Tasks
• Administer performance tasks that require students to demonstrate their
speaking skills in authentic contexts. Performance tasks may include
individual presentations, group discussions, role-plays, oral interviews,
problem-solving scenarios, and collaborative projects.
8. Authentic Contexts
• Create authentic contexts for speaking assessment by situating tasks
within real-life scenarios or contexts relevant to students' lives, interests,
and experiences. Authentic contexts enhance the validity and authenticity
of the assessment, providing students with meaningful opportunities to
apply their speaking skills.
9. Multiple Opportunities for Assessment
• Provide multiple opportunities for speaking assessment throughout the
instructional period, allowing students to demonstrate their progress and
growth over time. Variation in assessment tasks and contexts ensures a
comprehensive evaluation of students' speaking proficiency.
10. Formative and Summative Assessment
• Use formative and summative evaluation approaches to evaluate students'
speaking skills. Formative assessment takes place during the learning
process to monitor progress and provide ongoing feedback, whereas
summative assessment assesses students' overall speaking performance
at the end of a learning unit or course.
11. Reflection and Goal Setting
• Encourage students to evaluate their speaking skills, examine feedback,
and develop goals for improvement. Reflection enables students to identify
areas for improvement, develop metacognitive awareness, and take
ownership of their learning.

Performance-based evaluation in speaking education offers a complete and

authentic approach to evaluate students' speaking abilities, encouraging language growth,
communicative competence, and real-world application of speaking skills. By
incorporating authentic tasks, clear criteria, meaningful feedback, and opportunities for
self-assessment and reflection, teachers can effectively assess and support students'
speaking proficiency development.

Results from Research Studies

 Angelini and Carbonell (2021) reported their findings on the efficacy of simulation-
based education for improving English speaking skills among university engineering
students. The authors wanted to see if incorporating simulations into English language
instruction would lead to significant improvements in students' oral language production.
The quantitative study found significant advances in four language-related areas:
vocabulary, pronunciation, variety of expression, and grammar. These findings suggest
that simulation-based instruction can be a valuable tool for improving English speaking
skills among learners.
The study of Bashir et al. (2015 highlights that most teachers and students prefer
using English as the medium of instruction, with both parties actively engaging in
interactive teaching-learning methods. Teachers often incorporate the students' mother
tongue but also encourage English usage, particularly in questioning and answering
sessions. Additionally, teachers employ supplementary materials to enhance their
teaching effectiveness. As for recommendations, the study suggests that teachers should
place more emphasis on using English as the primary language of instruction in English
classes and promote interactive teaching techniques. To improve English speaking skills,
teachers should establish an English communication culture inside their schools,
encouraging pupils to interact in English with their classmates. Furthermore, organizing
refresher courses for teachers to improve their English proficiency and training institutions
limiting courses to professional English teaching programs are suggested for creating a
more conducive English-speaking environment within schools.
The study conducted by Bhaskar (2014) on rural college students in Tamil Nadu
sheds light on several critical aspects of second language learning, particularly English, in
rural educational settings. It cites a few issues that both students and teachers confront in
this setting, including students' lack of basic English competence, weak communication
skills, and flaws in teaching approaches. However, specific findings indicate that certain
teaching strategies, such as topic-based discussions, role-playing, and story descriptions,
contribute positively to improving students' speaking skills. Remedies suggested including
greater teacher attention to below-average students, increased student speaking time in
class, and encouragement for English-only communication. Furthermore,
recommendations emphasize the need for competent English teachers, equal focus on
speaking skills alongside reading and writing, and the implementation of oral tests to
assess proficiency accurately. The study concludes by stressing the importance of
revamping traditional teaching methods to meet the demands of modern language
learning, particularly in rural areas, where English proficiency is increasingly crucial for
academic and professional success. It calls for a concerted effort from educators,
policymakers, and institutions to address the challenges and ensure that rural students
receive adequate support and training in second language acquisition, thereby enabling
them to thrive in an increasingly globalized world.
Gudu (2015) explored how teachers use classroom activities to increase learners'
active participation in speaking skills sessions in secondary schools in Eldoret
Municipality, Kenya. The study selected schools, students, and English language teachers
using a mixed methods design and simple random sampling, based on Krashen's Monitor
Model, which emphasizes the significance of motivation and active participation in
language learning. Questionnaires were distributed to instructors and students, and direct
observations were made during Form 3 speaking skills courses. Descriptive statistics were
employed to examine the data, which revealed that discussion was the most used
classroom activity, whereas oral drill was the least used. Due to limited oral proficiency,
students frequently code-switched to Kiswahili or Sheng during conversations, and
teachers seldom integrated many activities within a single session, restricting learners'
opportunity to speak authentic English in context. The study suggests giving students
opportunity to practice actual English in context, incorporating varied activities into
sessions to match learners' requirements, and recognizing learners' cultural backgrounds
in the curriculum to improve learning outcomes. This study has implications for language
educators and English language teachers, emphasizing the necessity of successful
classroom activities in increasing speaking skills among students.

Providing Feedback in Speaking Assessment

Feedbacking, also known as providing feedback, in assessing speaking plays a
critical role in guiding students' language development, addressing areas for
improvement, and promoting communicative competence. Effective feedback provides
students with valuable information about their speaking performance, highlighting
strengths and areas needing further development. Here's a detailed overview of
feedbacking in assessing speaking:

1. Timely Feedback
• Promptly provide feedback to students on their speaking performances to
ensure relevancy and effectiveness. Timely feedback enables students to
reflect on their performance while it is still fresh in their thoughts, allowing
for instant learning and progress.
2. Specific and Descriptive Feedback
• Provide detailed comments on speaking performance, including
pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, grammar, coherence, and
conversational tactics. Use precise, concrete language to describe what
the student performed well and where he or she could improve.
3. Highlight Strengths and Achievements
• Acknowledge and highlight students' strengths, achievements, and
successful communication strategies in their speaking performance.
Positive feedback reinforces students' confidence, motivation, and self-
esteem, encouraging continued effort and progress.
4. Address Areas for Improvement
• Identify specific areas for improvement or language errors in students'
speaking performance and provide constructive feedback on how to
address them. Offer suggestions, explanations, and examples to help
students understand the errors and strategies for improvement.
5. Focus on Communication Effectiveness
• Emphasize communication effectiveness as the primary goal of speaking
feedback. Assess whether the student's message was conveyed clearly,
appropriately, and comprehensibly to the listener, rather than solely
focusing on linguistic accuracy.
6. Provide Corrective Feedback
• Provide remedial comments on linguistic, pronunciation, and grammar
issues to increase pupils' language ability. Corrective comments should be
precise, explicit, and tailored to each student's requirements.
7. Encourage Self-Assessment and Reflection
• Encourage students to self-assess and reflect on their speaking
performance. Encourage students to assess their own skills and
weaknesses, identify areas for progress, and establish goals for future
speaking practice.
8. Use Different Modes of Feedback
• Employ a variety of feedback modalities, including verbal feedback, written
comments, peer feedback, audio recordings, and video recordings, to
 provide comprehensive feedback to students. Different modes of feedback
cater to diverse learning preferences and enhance understanding.
9. Encourage Peer Feedback
• Facilitate peer feedback activities where students provide feedback to their
peers on their speaking performance. Peer feedback encourages
collaboration, active engagement, and multiple perspectives on speaking
proficiency.
10. Monitor Progress Over Time
• Track students' progress in speaking proficiency over time by providing
ongoing feedback and assessing improvement. Compare students' current
performance to previous performances to measure growth and identify
areas of consistent improvement or persistent challenges.
11. Feedback Follow-Up
• Follow up on feedback provided to students by revisiting previous areas for
improvement, monitoring progress, and providing additional support or
guidance as needed. Reinforce key concepts, strategies, and language
points addressed in feedback to ensure retention and application.

Teachers can enable students to build their speaking abilities, improve their
communicative competence, and become confident and proficient speakers by using
appropriate feedback mechanisms in speaking assessments. Feedback creates a
supportive learning environment in which students receive tailored direction and
motivation to achieve their language learning objectives.