Paper No.

09
Paper Title: Bakery and Confectionery Technology
Module No. 09.
Module Title: Developments in formulation of bread- multigrain, Gluten free and
reduced salt

The fast moving lifestyle, lack of sufficient time for traditional food preparations has
tremendously changed the dietary patterns of high as well as middle class section of the
society from traditional to so called ‘modern foods’ like hot dogs, bergers, pizzas, sweets,
ice-creams, soft drinks, white bread, cakes, meat and meat products, fried foods, etc. These
products are made from refined wheat flour and their regular consumption has increased the
prevalence of number of diet related diseases, such as obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes,
cancer of colon, gastrointestinal disease and cardiovascular disease. Realizing the adversity
of these refined products, the demand for functional health foods has increased among
people. Bread, being the most consumed bakery product has drawn attention of researchers
for making these compatible with the ever increasing diet related challenges. Multigrain
bread, gluten free as well as reduced salt breads are the output of several developments being
done in bread formulations.
1) Multigrain breads
Multigain breads are made with wheat flour and cereal grains as well as oil seeds.
Oats, corn, soy, barley, rye, rice, amaranth, triticale, kamut, and buckwheat are most
commonly used in multigrain breads and rolls to add character, flavor, texture, nutritional
variety and color.
The ever increasing awareness about the health benefits provided by minor cereals
and pseudo-cereal based food consumption has led to their increased utilization in foods for
consumption. The nutritional benefits of are cereals and pseudo-cereals are more when used
as whole grains and/or whole flours in food preparations. The benefits may be lowering the
risk of cardiovascular disease, ischemic stroke, type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and
gastrointestinal cancers. In addition to dietary fibre, many health promoting components like,
phyto-chemical, phenolic compounds etc. are also supplied to the body by the cereals when
consumed as whole.
 The breads may be ‘Light’ multigrain bread prepared from small kibbled grains, oats
or other wheat, having openness similar to white bread. ‘Heavy’ multigrain breads are
characterised by small volume, dense texture and a high grain content.
Advantages of multigrain bread
 Utilization of indigenously available non-wheat cereals, tubers, millets, etc.
 Improvement in the nutritional quality in terms of dietary fibre, phyto-chemicals,
vitamins and phenolic compounds.
 Diversification of products in terms of flavour, colour, texture and mouthfeel.
 Numerous health benefits.
Challenges and approaches in making multigrain breads
Making multigrain breads requires modification in formulation as well as making
problems. The main challenge faced during multigrain bread making is that the flours
obtained from other cereals do not contribute to gluten formation and hence the product
quality degrades in terms of baking, colour and sensory properties.
Certain approaches are there to make gluten free breads as acceptable as possible.
 Utilization of improvers or additives like wheat gluten which help in producing a light
textured bread.
 Relatively low dough temperatures and shorter fermentation times.
 Changing the formulation.
 Mechanical dough development by high speed mixing.
 Sheeting and chemical dough development.
 Use of higher levels of yeast, oxidants and addition of emulsifiers or surfactants to
improve the quality of bread.
 Use of sponge and dough method and incorporating surfactants like sodium stearoyl
lactylate however, improves quality of bread.
 Utilization of gums like guar, karaya, xanthan, CMC etc.

2) Gluten free breads

Gluten is a major protein component of some cereals which is responsible for flour
processing characteristics in bakery industry. However, it is also responsible for an
increasingly recognized disorder called celiac disease or celiac sprue. Celiac disease is a
severe form of a continuum of disorders called gluten sensitivity and is due to a permanent
intolerance to gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. The ingestion of 70% ethanol
soluble prolamin fraction of protein present in wheat (gliadin), barley (hordein) and rye
(secalin) triggers the immune response in celiac patients. This disease leads to maldigestion
and malabsorption of nutrients, vitamins, and minerals in the gastrointestinal tract. Around
1% of world population is suffering from this disease and the prevalence of celiac disease
increased sharply in recent years because of better recognition of the disease and its
associated disorders. Currently, the only scientifically proven treatment for celiac disease is
strict lifelong adherence to a gluten-free diet.
Baked products, especially bread constitutes important meal for a major population
and gluten is often termed the ‘structural’ protein for bread making. Exclusion of gluten from
these products often results in a liquid batter rather than a dough which results in baked bread
with a crumbling texture, poor colour and other quality defects after baking. Hence several
research works are being carried out for gluten free baking to cater the needs of ever growing
celiac patients. Various advances being made in gluten free baked products are as follows:
1) Replacement of wheat flour with non-gluten containing flours
2) Use of functional ingredients to replace gluten
3) Novel approaches
1) Replacement of wheat flour with non-gluten containing flours
The gluten free flour can be obtained from certain cereals and pseudo-cereals that do
not contain the prolamines which are responsible for celiac disease. Among cereals corn
(Zea mays), millets, rice (Oryza sativa), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), teff (Eragrostis tef) etc.
are gluten free. Pseudo-cereals such as amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), buckwheat (Fagopyrum
esculentum Moench), oats (Avena sativa) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) are also gluten
free.
2) Use of functional ingredients to replace gluten
Several studies have been done on finding alternatives to gluten so as to improve the
nutritional as well as functional qualities of gluten free baked products. Dairy ingredients,
egg protein, maize protein, starches, gums and hydrocolloids are being extensively used for
gluten free baking.
a) Dairy ingredients:
 Enhance the batter handling properties by improving texture, reduce staling and
increasing water absorption.
 Enhance flavour, crust color and improve nutritional value of the product.
  One disadvantage is that in CD due to damage to intestinal villi lactose intolerance
can also develop which limits the use of dairy ingredients in GF products.
b) Egg proteins:
Egg proteins act as a structure builder in gluten free baked products by forming
strong cohesive viscoelastic films that help in stable foaming and improve the gas
retention ability of dough.
c) Starches:
 Starch from corn, cassava, sweet potato, potato, sorghum, barley, and rice can be
used in gluten free breads.
 Starches absorb water in dough and significantly contribute to texture,
appearance, and overall acceptability of baked goods
 Gelatinized starch play an important role in gluten free formulation because of
the ability of starch pastes to trap air bubbles that aid the gas holding capacity of
batter.
d) Hydrocolloids:
 Hydrocolloids or gums are hydrophilic long-chain, high molecular weight
polysaccharides extracted from plant, seaweed, and microbial sources, as well as
gums derived from plant exudates and modified biopolymers prepared by
chemical treatment of cellulose (Dickinson 2003).
 Studies on use of a wide range of hydrocolloids, i.e. Hydroxy propyl methyl
cellulose (HPMC), carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), psyllium gum, locust bean
gum, guar gum, agarose, b-glucan and xanthan gum have been investigated in
gluten free baking.
 HPMC and xanthan gum can most successfully replace gluten in gluten free
breads and hence these are used the most (Anton and Artfield 2008).

Novel approaches
a) Sourdough Technology
This technology is the oldest method for leavening bread. Sourdough is a
mixture of flour and water fermented with LAB and yeasts. Traditionally sourdough
is added as an ingredient to unmodified flour of wheat for bread making. Generally,
rye bread is prepared by sourdough process.
 However, this technology is also researched up on for hydrolysis of wheat
proteins responsible for celiac disease. The lactobacilli present in sourdough produce
a complex system of peptidases in which the proline-specific peptidases are also
included. A combination of strain of Lactobacilli will be required to produce the
whole spectrum of peptidases required for hydrolysis of the proline-rich proteins
involved in celiac disease.

Sourdough fermentation

Slightly acidic pH
during fermentation

Glutenin (high molecular wt. protein)

Cleavage of disulphide bond in glutenin

by glutathione, present in dough

Release of proline- rich polypeptides

Action of proline-specific peptidases,

produced in sourdough by Lactobacillii

Fig. 1. Mechanism of gluten degradation in sourdough

Sourdough technology improves the functionality of a dough in many ways-
 Enhances the gas retention ability of dough.
 Improves the textural quality and flavour.
 Enhances the nutritional value in terms of mineral bioavailability, starch digestibility
and concentration of bioactive compounds.
 Retards staling and by protecting bread from spoilage, thereby increases shelf life.
Sourdough technology has the limitation of long fermentation time also, which may degrade
the quality of baked products.
 b) Enzyme technology
Transglutaminase (EC [Link])
 Catalyses either protein cross-linking, binding of free amines or the deamidation of
glutamine residues to form glutamate, depending on the available substrates and
conditions in the system.
 Modify visco-elastic property of the gluten free flour batter.
 Improve the crumb structure.
Proteases (EC [Link])
 Improve the machineability and extensibility of the dough.
 Enhances foaming and functional properties of cereal proteins.

Glucose oxidase (EC [Link])

 Act as alternative to chemical oxidising agent for bread improvement.

Laccase (EC [Link])

 Has oxidising effect on the dough constituents.

 Increases the resistance to deformation of dough, decreases extensibility and
improve loaf volume in the dough.
c) High pressure processing of cereal flour
High pressure processing changes the structure and functional properties of proteins.
This treatment induces starch gelatinization. Pre-gelatinized starch/flour has a strong
potential of being used as gluten substitute. The pre-gelatinized starch/flour may
contribute in gluten free formulations by increased water retention, improved gas
holding capacity and enhanced shelf life.
Codex standard for gluten free foods (1976, revised in 1981 and 2000)
The codex standard for gluten free foods was adopted by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission of WHO and by the FAO in 1976. It states that the so-called gluten-free foods
are described as:

a) consisting of, or made only from ingredients which do not contain any prolamins from
wheat or all Triticum species such as spelt, kamut or durum wheat, rye, barley, oats or
their crossbred varieties with a gluten level not exceeding 20 ppm; or
 b) consisting of ingredients from wheat, rye, barley, oats, spelt or their crossbred
varieties, which have been rendered gluten-free; with a gluten level not exceeding 200
ppm; or
c) any mixture of two ingredients as in (a) and (b) mentioned with a level not exceeding
200 ppm.
A food that bears the claim gluten-free or a similar claim (eg, free of gluten, without
gluten, no gluten) in its labeling and fails to meet the conditions specified in the proposed
definition of gluten-free would be deemed misbranded.

3) Reduced salt bread

Bread contains approximately 1.4% salt as a minor ingredient. As the frequency of
bread consumption increases, the salt intake per day also increases. The functions of salt in
bread are as follows:
 To impart taste to the baked products
 To enhance flavour of other ingredients
 To act as a measure of adjustment of sweetness in baked products
 To control yeast activity and hence the fermentation
 To strengthen and tighten the gluten structure and make it more extensible
 To prevent growth of undesirable bacteria in yeast raised dough
 To inhibit enzymes that softens protein and hence protecting the gluten protein from
destruction
 To make the gluten protein structure more compact: Gluten has a small net (+) charge
which is suppressed by salt. At low pH the gluten has a sizeable net (+) charge
leading to repulsion forces due to the excessive (+) charges. Salt suppresses the net
(+) charge of the proteins and make the structure compact.
An increased intake of salt in diet (10-12 g/day) may also be harmful to person
suffering from hypertension. High salt diets result in high blood pressure, leading to an
increased risk of heart disease and stroke. Hence requirement of salt free/reduced salt bread
has emerged in the modern food market. For this reason, complete replacement of sodium
chloride becomes a necessity. However, removing salt also poses several challenges in terms
of physiological functions sensory quality etc.
 Salt free bread is tasteless or ’pasteboardy’, not stimulating saliva because for
perception of salty taste optimum salt content of 1-1.4% is required.
  Salt free bread perceived as older and drier by consumers.
 Salt-free and low salt breads are crumblier.
 Reduced shelf life of bread.
Approaches for reduced salt bread
Various approaches are being used to make reduce salt breads. These are –
Gradual salt reduction: By reducing the salt gradually in the product the expectations of
consumer for saltiness in the bread may be minimized over a period of time.
Salt replacement by substitutes:
Based on the taste mineral salts are classified as:
Pure salty : NaCl, LiCl (toxic)
Salty and bitter : KCl, RbCl, NH4Cl, NaBr, LiBr, Na2SO4, K2SO4, NaNO3
Bitter : CsCl, MgCl2, MgSO4, RbBr, CsBr, KJ, RbJ, CsJ, CaCl2
The saltiness is perceived via permeation of sodium ions through an ion channel in the
epithelial cell membrane of tongue. Besides sodium ion only lithium and potassium ion
are able to permeate through the ion channel. But lithium ion is toxic and potassium ion is
salty as well as bitter. Sodium chloride can be replaced up to 20% by potassium which
results in to a bread having acceptable quality.
Taste-taste interaction: Different taste qualities interact and mutually influence their
perception. Hence addition of other taste qualities may be done to amplify the salty taste
of sodium or mask the off-taste of potassium. For e.g. umami compounds enhance the
saltiness and also mask the bitterness of potassium ion.
Multisensory interaction: The taste perception of salt in reduced salt product can be enhanced
by understanding the mechanism by which the information provided by the different
sensory modalities (taste, aroma, colour, sound and texture) accumulate into a particular
perception. For e.g. odours of foods associated with saltiness lead to saltiness perception
by smell.
Stimulation of the taste receptors
Sensory contrast: The creation of a sensory contrast in food products can amplify taste
perception (Noort et al. 2012).

Use of anions and/or cations close to Na+ in the Lyotropic series in performing certain
function in dough. For e.g. Na+ and K+ are close to each other as both strengthen wheat
dough. In the Lyotropic series (Hofmeister series) the cations and anions are arranged in the
order of their effects in many chemical and technological systems (such as retrogradation).
Challenges in marketability of reduced salt bread
 Assumingly inherited preference for salt
 Rapid changes in sensory properties of products may be a risk in the market. For this
a long term trend in the food industry is needed.
 Salt substitutes (mineral salts) are of little value in flavour improvement however,
these may be helpful for texture of reduced-salt foods.
 Salt (NaCl) plays many roles in bread.
 labelling requirement for ’high in salt’.

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