COMMON LABORATORY OPERATIONS
Measuring Volume of Liquids
When measuring using a graduated cylinder and other related laboratory glass wares used for
measuring, the surface of the liquid inside is curved. This curvature can be concave if it wets the
glass and convex if it does not wet the glass. This curved surface is called the meniscus.
For most liquids such as water that wets the glass wall, read the calibration that coincides with
the lower meniscus while keeping your eyes at the same level with your lower meniscus (see
figure below).
Measuring Mass
The mass of a material or substance can be measure using a balance (platform, top loading or
analytical balance).
Before measuring, always check first the bubble of your balance (if it has one, applies to some
top loading and all analytical balance) to make sure that your balance is properly placed or rested
at the working table. For a platform balance, determine the rest point by positioning the rider at
zero on the rider beam, allowing the pointer to swing freely to the left and right of the central
point in the scale.
Make sure that the pans used for weighing are clean and dry. If the mass of the object is
estimated to be less than 10 grams, adjust the upper and lower riders to the rest point, and
record the sum of the two observed values as its mass.
Transferring Liquids
When transferring liquids from a wide mouth glassware to a narrow mouth glassware, a glass
rod or a piece of glass tubing can be used to avoid spillage. Hold the glass rod against the lip of
the wide mouth glassware (ex: beaker, sample bottle, graduated cylinder) and pour the liquid
into an empty narrow mouth glassware (ex: Erlenmeyer flask, beaker, funnel). This technique is
useful when transferring liquids for filtration and decantation (see figures below).
Heating Liquids in Test Tubes
When heating substances in a test tube hold the test tube at an angle of 45˚ using a test tube
holder and passing it back and forth over the tip of the flame. The heat should be applied to the
upper portion of the liquid but should not strike the tube above the level of the liquid. Never
point the open end of the test tube toward anyone while heating to prevent accidents when the
liquid being heated suddenly shots out of the test tube.
Precipitation
In the experiment, 2 ml of sodium chloride solution (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ) was placed in a test tube. Two (2)
ml of silver nitrate solution (𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) ) was slowly added to the test tube and a solid substance
was formed. The solid formed is known as precipitate. In this case, the precipitate formed is an
insoluble silver chloride (𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑠) ) represented by the chemical reaction equation below.
𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑨𝒈𝑵𝑶𝟑(𝒂𝒒) → 𝑨𝒈𝑪𝒍(𝒔) + 𝑵𝒂𝑵𝑶𝟑(𝒂𝒒)
The solution mixture can be of two types:
1. Unsaturated solution – a solution that contains less than the maximum amount of solute
that is capable of being dissolved.
(In the experiment, if more silver chloride is seen to form, it is an indication that the initial
precipitation was not complete. Thus, the solution was still unsaturated.)
2. Saturated solution – a solution that has dissolved as much solute as it is capable of
dissolving. No more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature. A saturated solution
can be made by keeping on dissolving a solute until no more solute can be dissolved.
(In the experiment, failing to obtain more precipitate indicates that complete
precipitation has occurred. Thus, the solution was already saturated.)
Filtration
A filter paper, about 5 cm square, was folded into exact halves and then not quite into quarters.
The edges were cut off so that it will have a circular shape when unfolded. A small corner was
torn off. This small corner cut seals the paper against an inflow of air to the underside of the filter
paper. The trimmed folded paper was opened to form a cone with one thickness on one side and
three thicknesses on the other. It was then placed in a funnel and was moistened with a little
water for it to adhere to the walls of the funnel. A filter paper must always be smaller than the
funnel.
Note: Chemists prefers a fluted filter paper than a conical filter paper because it provides a larger
surface area and helps to speed up the filtration process. See figure below on how to make a
fluted filter paper:
In the actual experiment, the mixture obtained from the precipitation process was poured to a
filter paper in a funnel just like the filtration setup shown on the figure below:
The liquid which passes through the filter paper is called a
filtrate.
Decantation
Decantation is the process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible (non-mixing)
liquids, by removing the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid or liquid below. The
process can be carried out by tilting the mixture after pouring out the top layer.
The liquid layer at the top is called the supernatant liquid.
Evaporation
Evaporation occurs when energy (heat) forces the bonds that hold water molecules together to
break. When you're boiling water on the stove, you're adding heat to liquid water. This added
heat breaks the bonds, causing the water to shift from its liquid state to its gaseous state (water
vapor), which we know as steam. For mixtures, the solid that remains on the dish after
evaporation of the liquid is called the residue.
