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Gated Communities as Club Goods: Segregation or

Social Cohesion?
Tony Manzi & Bill Smith-Bowers
a
London Research Focus Group, University of Westminster, School of Architecture and the
Built Environment, London, UK
Published online: 22 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Tony Manzi & Bill Smith-Bowers (2005) Gated Communities as Club Goods: Segregation or Social
Cohesion?, Housing Studies, 20:2, 345-359, DOI: 10.1080/0267303042000331817

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 Housing Studies,
Vol. 20, No. 2, 345–359, March 2005

Gated Communities as Club Goods:

Segregation or Social Cohesion?
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TONY MANZI & BILL SMITH-BOWERS

London Research Focus Group, University of Westminster, School of Architecture and the Built Environment,
London, UK

(Received October 2003; revised May 2004)

ABSTRACT Gated communities are normally presented in highly negative terms, based on the
common assumption that they are a major factor in the intensification of social segregation.
In contrast to received wisdom, this paper argues that the theory of club goods can be used to
understand gating as a response to both real and perceived issues of crime, vandalism and anti-
social behaviour. It is suggested that gating can help to foster social cohesion in an area or
neighbourhood by involving a wide spectrum of communities and income groups to create
management vehicles which can: reduce crime, protect parked vehicles, increase safety and enhance
the local environment by preventing unsolicited entry. Through two case studies, the paper explores
how communities struggling with neighbourhood problems including crime are using gating as a
way of improving their environment rather than abandoning poorer areas of the city to find a safer
home in more residentially segregated affluent neighbourhoods. If housing and planning policy
makers are to take seriously a commitment to resident democracy and local participation, such
concerns should not be dismissed out of hand as examples of ‘isolationism’ or ‘particularistic
consumerist interests’.

KEY WORDS : Gated communities, residential segregation, club goods

Introduction
The issue of gated communities raises important questions about the future forms of
urban development. In much of the academic literature the proliferation of gating is
treated as an indicator of increasing levels of social division; creating new barriers
between rich and poor, and introducing ‘cities of walls’ (Brunn et al., 2003; Caldeira,
2000; Sandercock, 2002; Scott, 2002). The standard perception of gated communities is
that design and technological innovations serve to increase privatism and destroy
traditional community ties of neighbourliness, community and cohesion (Gottdiener &
Hutchison, 2000).

Correspondence Address: Tony Manzi, London Research Focus Group, University of Westminster,
School of Architecture and the Built Environment, 35 Marylebone Road, London NW1 5LS, UK.
Email: [email protected]
ISSN 0267-3037 Print/1466-1810 Online/05/020345–15 q 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/0267303042000331817
 346 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

The notion that gating exclusively benefits an elitist minority forms a deep-rooted belief
in much of the literature. For example, Joseph Rykwert (2002) describes some of the
recent additions to the Manhattan skyline (such as the Trump World Tower) as “vertical
gated communities” offering “a commanding residence for the privileged few” (p. 218).
What is a gated community? An influential publication offers the following definition:

Residential areas with restricted access in which normally public spaces are
privatised. They are security developments with designated perimeters, usually
walls or fences, and controlled entrances that are intended to prevent penetration by
non-residents. (Blakely & Snyder, 1997, p. 2)
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Gating therefore involve an inevitable form of privacy and exclusivity. Moreover, the
stereotypical view of gated communities is that they embody a form of dystopian living,
behind which community ties are non-existent with neighbours discouraged from
developing social interactions. In particular, they are seen to encourage affluent groups to
increase their social distance from what is perceived as the ‘other’. A common
representation of gating is derived from Davis’ (1990) City of Quartz, where the concept of
‘Fortress America’ encapsulates an increasing polarisation between rich and poor in cities
such as Los Angeles. Davis contends that “we live in ‘fortress cities’ brutally divided
between ‘fortified cells’ of affluent society and ‘places of terror’ where the police battle the
criminalised poor” (p. 224). Davis’ thesis is deliberately polemical, but nevertheless
highly influential in constructing a negative image of the gated society. Hence:

A pliant city government . . . has collaborated in the massive privatisation of public

space and the subsidisation of new, racist enclaves (benignly described as ‘urban
villages’) . . . a triumphalist gloss . . . is laid over the brutalisation of inner-city
neighbourhoods. (p. 227)

Although rarely described in such stark dichotomies—Davis refers, for example, to

‘spatial apartheid’ and a ‘Berlin wall’ separating ‘publicly subsidised luxury’ from a
‘lifeworld’ ‘reclaimed by immigrants’ (p. 230)—these fears have permeated the policies
of inner-city local planning authorities. Central and local governments in the UK have
therefore attempted to prevent a replication of the spatial polarisation of North American
inner cities, by discouraging gated developments, restricting planning approval and
encouraging neighbourhood renewal schemes based on more ‘traditional’ design layouts
(ODPM, 2000).
Others argue that gating is a feature of the growth of ‘global city regions’ and the
intensification of inequality and proximity which has accompanied urban growth and
globalisation of the ‘free market’:

Violence, or the fear of it, becomes a central preoccupation of the upper classes,
pushing them towards forms of fortress settlement, gated high-rise communities
surrounded by walls and guarded entries. (Scott, 2002, p. 25)

Gated communities are thus seen as a feature of growing importance in the development of
residential segregation taking place within cities. Some writers suggest that gating is an
overreaction to the real level of crime in an area compared to the perceived level of crime
 Gated Communities as Club Goods 347

that results from local media coverage of crime incidents in the USA. This argument is part
of the ‘culture of fear’ thesis put forward by Glassner (1999) suggesting that fear of crime
is just one of a number of ‘panics’ (that also include deadly diseases, teenage lone mothers
and African American males) propagated by local television news and current affairs
programmes. An over-emphasis on individual cases results in unnecessary risk reduction
responses to these events. Glassner argues that the underlying drives of many of the
current problems of American cities, such as poverty and income inequality are neglected:
“One of the paradoxes of a culture of fear is that serious problems remain widely ignored
even though they give rise to precisely the dangers that the populace most abhors”
(p. xviii).
The ‘culture of fear’ is explained as the result of people embracing ‘improbable
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pronouncements’ (his example being the response of many Americans to the broadcast of
Orson Welles’ War of the Worlds in 1938). Glassner suggests that acceptance of these
‘pronouncements’ is the result of how they are delivered by ‘professional narrators’ and
presented in news and current affairs programmes as ‘statements of alarm’, “poignant
anecdotes in place of scientific evidence, the christening of isolated incidents as trends,
depictions of entire categories of people as innately dangerous” (p. 208).
Many approaches to the phenomenon of gating suggest that it is a response to increasing
social inequalities, status-seeking behaviour, and real or perceived fear of crime
(Lindstrom & Bartling, 2003). References to the ‘totalitarian semiotics’ (Davis, 1990,
p. 231) of urban design mark a deliberate attempt to deny the validity of certain forms of
development per se. Consequently, rather than allowing local preferences to shape
decision making (as is claimed by many such critics), such analyses presume that gating by
definition is a form of design that should be rejected out of hand. Thus, heterogeneity is
acceptable as long as it does not result in a denial of public space. Is this commitment to
the public realm to be defended at all costs?

Club Goods and Gated Communities

An alternative approach to sociological and anthropological analyses of gated
communities can be found in the economic literature on clubs. The notion of a ‘club
good’ originates in the work of Buchanan (1965), who uses it to examine jointly consumed
and excludable services. Buchanan argued that there is a type of good (the club good),
which like private goods had excludable benefits but was allocated through groups. This
allowed the club members the enjoyment of the benefit but was unlike the private good
which is limited to the individual or shared by all in the case of the public good. The club
good is neither a ‘private’ nor ‘public’ good in the traditional economic sense. Rather, it
constitutes a hybrid in which a self-selecting community shares a range of benefits and
reduces the costs of public good ‘congestion’ by the use of its pricing and membership
requirements. Buchanan introduced the concept of a continuum of ownership and
consumption possibilities which created a bridge between the purely public and the purely
private goods that had formerly been the focus of discussion in the economic literature
(see Samuelson, 1954; Tiebout, 1956).
Gated communities can be analysed in economic terms as a form of holding property
rights developed through collective action of individuals for individual and mutual
benefits. This makes gated communities different from private goods, such as a single
dwelling owned by a person, and public goods, such as a public park, because while there
 348 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

is sharing of benefits (which is the definition of a public good) there is also ‘excludability’
of benefits (the definition of a private good). The hybrid quality of this good sharing has
led to the concept of club economics being used to explain this type of commodity.
Chris Webster has extended the concept of club goods to the analysis of gated
communities (2001, 2002). Webster was the first to point out that the Garden City plans of
Ebenezer Howard were in reality plans to develop a private city as a club good (2001). The
reconceptualisation of this concept of collective action to secure club goods was further
developed and applied to gated communities across a range of different societies (Webster
& Wu, 2001; Webster & Wai-Chung Lai, 2003). This work focuses on the management of
property rights and uses the concept of ‘proprietary communities’ to delineate the nature of
the gated community. The gated community development thus provides desired goods and
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services such as “security zones, lifestyle, retirement and prestigious communities”

(Blakely & Snyder, 1997, pp. 38– 45). In club economic terms gated communities are
merely a recent example of the growth of privately owned collective goods such as
shopping malls, business parks, timeshare apartments, golf and squash clubs.
Developing Webster’s argument, it is suggested that households are willing to
purchase different forms of rights in securing their accommodation and communal
service requirements. At the start of the 20th century, most households exercised rights
associated with renting or long leasing a part of a property. During the second half of
the 20th century, the trend was for more and more households to purchase the rights
associated with the ownership of freeholds and entire properties. By the 21st century,
we are witnessing the growth of gated communities because the additional rights and
obligations of this desired and scarce good are now being priced competitively for
more households. When purchased, these can enhance the traditional benefits
associated with freehold or leasehold occupation. Therefore, gated communities offer a
range of scarce goods, such as secure and guaranteed parking, enhanced security,
common standards for property appearance and rules governing the use of managed
communal areas.
Furthermore, whilst formerly associated with elite groups who could afford the luxury
of these kinds of purchases, rising real incomes and the comparative fall in security and
monitoring costs are bringing these goods within the budgets of middle-income
households. In contrast to much academic commentary, recent research from the USA by
Sanchez & Lang (2002) suggests that the view of gated communities as the preserve of
the white high-income homeowner is exaggerated. Their analysis of the 2000 census
(which included for the first time questions on gated communities) identified significant
numbers of poorer white and ethnic minority renters who live in gated communities. They
conclude that gating not only functions as a status symbol for the better off homeowners,
but also provides a response to fear of crime and protection for lower-income renters.
In addition to its physical and environmental attributes, private communal areas, walls,
gates and security patrols, the gated community constitutes a ‘territorial organisation’ of
the community members’ property rights (Glasze, 2003; McKenzie, 1994). These can
include homeowners associations (HOAs) or Common Interest Housing Developments
(CIDs) (McKenzie, 2003). In principle, these organisations provide a vehicle of
representative government in the management of community interests. Both Glasze and
McKenzie have questioned how democratic and representative such associations are in
practice. However, the additional merit good of being able to directly influence the
management of a community is one of the key objectives of the UK government’s
 Gated Communities as Club Goods 349

neighbourhood regeneration policy (DETR, 1998). Furthermore, the concept of choice has
become an increasingly important aspect of housing service delivery (ODPM, 2000).
Whilst there are significant differences between the US and UK environments, a central
preoccupation of policy debate has been a focus upon housing design, which has been long
recognised as having a huge impact on the way in which public spaces are used and
perceived. Newman (1972) and Coleman (1985) advocated ‘territorialism’ and making the
public realm ‘more defensible’ in the interest of safety, long before gated communities
became an issue of public policy in the UK. A primary motivating factor in the growth of
the ‘gated’ community and the ‘alley-gating’ phenomenon in the UK, as in most other
countries, has been the rise in both public concern and government concern about crime,
vandalism and anti-social behaviour (Garland, 2001). Some people, for example vagrants,
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drug users and gangs of young people are perceived as causing conflict within the public
realm and often attempts are made to ‘design them out’ through the use of gates, CCTV
cameras and other physical barriers (Raco, 2003). Often, however, this can also have the
effect of closing off the space to the general public.
Other concerns linked to access to parking spaces in London and protection of vehicles
have promoted a significant growth in gated developments. These concerns have also
occurred at an important time in the development and falling costs of some types of
security devices and their incorporation in the design of buildings. The gated option for
individuals, property developers and social landlords is now cheaper and more feasible
than ever before.
This issue is raised by the current alley gating programmes which have been developed
using regeneration funding in areas as far apart as Manchester, Liverpool and Watford.
Because of the evident support it has generated among local residents in poorer
neighbourhoods (see Landman, 2003; Mumford & Power, 2002) the policy is currently to
encourage alley gating. Thus, in July 2003, the government announced that local
authorities would have the power to close rights of way in certain blighted areas in order to
reduce the opportunity for criminal activity (DEFRA, 2003). While this may reduce
burglar access to properties inside these gates, in many cases it will also prevent the
continued use of these alleyways as safe pedestrian routes to local services.
Thus, while government policy rejects the gating of streets and the creation of gated
communities (ODPM, 2000) it supports the gating of alleys (small streets) and the creation
of gated areas, in many cases removing traditional rights of way, which planners argue
should be one of the reasons to reject the creation of gated communities. This marks a
contrast with other areas of government policy to open up rights, for example, in the
Countryside and Rights of Way Act (2000).
This paradox is also reflected in other discussions on gated communities (for example
RICS, 2002). The RICS report both expressed concern at the problem of social segregation
and lack of planned growth of gated communities and concluded: “Policies to create
greater balance should be directed towards new development, which increasingly includes
gated communities, as well as the regeneration of blighted areas” (p. 6).
If security, exclusive use of communal services, the managed prevention of unsolicited
calling and guaranteed parking are valued by community members, the key issue raised by
gated communities is who can enjoy these benefits and are some households socially
excluded from these benefits? This is not a new argument; it arose at the beginning of the
20th century when governments commenced providing rented housing as a merit good at
below market price to selected households. The debate evolved in the 1980s to encompass
 350 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

the additional promotion of owner occupation via the Right to Buy provisions of the 1980
Housing Act and the emergence of shared ownership and other mechanisms for promoting
ownership among lower-income households.
The question today is whether or not gated communities can be regarded as a merit good
with public subsidy offered to enhance the provision and enjoyment of that good and
service. This argument is not hypothetical because in the UK the state subsidises gated
and managed sheltered accommodation for older people as well as alley gating in areas of
high crime.

Residential Segregation and Gated Communities in a UK Context

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Social relations and social interactions within public housing space are fundamentally
determined by the people who live there alongside a wider process of market and social
housing allocation. In this respect, the locality and nature of housing is a major
determinant of how connections between individuals and communities are formed and
maintained. It is generally accepted that the distribution of residential units and their
occupants is not a consequence of random events but the product of complex social,
economic and political processes. One of the most significant results of these processes is
that housing consumption patterns can result in segregated areas otherwise known as
‘enclaves’ (suggesting choice) or ‘ghettos’ (suggesting constraint).
Part of the difficulty is that segregation is a highly loaded term. As Smith (1989)
acknowledges, “Segregation in its broadest sense refers to the organisation of all social
life. It has to do with the conditions of interaction or avoidance, the construction of group
identity and the structuring of social, economic and political life” (p. 14). Any process that
increases residential segregation is therefore viewed with outright hostility by most
commentators, following the Chicago School of spatial sociology, whereby positive
behaviour and attitudes are generated by removing distance and increasing interaction
(Miller & Brewer, 1984; Smith, 1989, p. 14).
The economic theory of ‘collective action’ and ‘club goods’ has also been applied to the
concept of social exclusion in the work of Jordan (1996). The group and its selective
membership criteria promote acting in a way not detrimental to the group interest, thus
maximising the benefits to members while reducing or preventing benefits accruing to
non-group members. Jordan provides the example of the UK National Health Service,
which cannot provide customer services that higher-income groups seek and who
therefore join health insurance schemes that screen out those with poor risk from
membership, thus intensifying social exclusion in terms of access to health care linked to
income and health inequalities. If applied to gated communities, Jordan’s argument would
view these as another type of club that creates a new form of spatial social exclusion.
However, as housing has never been viewed as a good to be supplied free at the point of
access (in the same way as the NHS), it can be argued that the gated community functions
as a merit good in which choice can play a crucial role; thus public subsidy can be applied
to increase safety and security in regeneration areas.
There is a lack of empirical research examining the consequences of gated
developments within a UK context. Far greater evidence exists on the impact of ‘gated’
communities within the US literature (for example, Blakely & Snyder, 1997; Low, 2003).
A systematic review of literature in the UK found little discussion of the implications of
having developments where residents segregate themselves from the perceived threats of
 Gated Communities as Club Goods 351

the outside world (Blandy et al., 2003). Other studies have been commissioned which have
argued that the growth of gating is a serious threat to community cohesion and urban
sustainability through spatial and temporal segregation, in addition to conflicting with
English urban cultural traditions (Atkinson et al., 2003, p. 5). Whilst there is little specific
guidance on gated developments, government policy places strong emphasis on social
cohesion achieved through interaction and contact between different social and cultural
groups (Home Office, 2001; ODPM, 2000). The general assumption appears to be that
gated developments detract from these objectives.

Methodology
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The research conducted for this paper consisted of case studies of two gated developments.
The aim of the research was to understand how gated developments were perceived by
residents in different environments and to provide qualitative empirical evidence about the
impact of gated communities upon distinctive urban environments. This study originated
in a wider research project on an outer London estate into neighbourhood profiling and
neighbourhood renewal. The client of the project was not primarily interested in the gated
community (see Manzi & Smith-Bowers, 2004). However, the authors considered this
gated community raised important issues about reducing spatial segregation and the types
of developments that should be provided on mixed tenure estates. A second ‘gated
community’ was selected in inner London, which was in the process of development; this
was also located in an area of multiple deprivation as defined by the ODPM index.
The research in outer London used interviews with residents of the estate, the chair of
the residents’ association of the gated community, local landlords and service providers,
observation of forum events and community meetings. In the inner London development
interviews were conducted with the managing agent of the estate, the security consultant,
the planning officer and residents. The Outer London scheme was located within a mixed
tenure estate and the other was designed as a private development (with additional social
housing to be provided at a later stage). The former was a permanent gated settlement and
the latter a temporary gated environment. The initial purpose of the interviews was to
gather more detailed information about management issues, relationships in the
neighbourhoods, local service delivery and priorities for improvement. A total of 20
interviews were conducted.

Case Study One: The Permanent Gated Community

The first development is a mixed tenure estate in outer London built in the first half of the
1990s. The estate, which comprises one-third of the ward population, is located in a
neighbourhood ranked 634 out of 8414 on the Index of Deprivation (DETR, 2000). The
estate is divided into a number of sub-sections. A wall with two electric gates to permit and
restrict entry to residents and their guests separates the owners from the wider estate. This
part of the development houses around 200 owner occupiers in the converted wing of a
19th century asylum. The remainder of the estate is situated outside the gated area and is
semi-enclosed within the historic walled grounds of the 19th century asylum (but without
gates). In this part of the estate about 600 units of social housing, shared ownership and
private renting accommodation are located in different sub-developments. The estate can
be described as a ‘forted up’ mixed tenure development inside two sets of walls.
 352 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

These walls and gates were considered a key problem within this development in that
the social housing estate is physically separated from the privately owned and gated
community. One local authority officer expressed the difficulty in the following terms:

It has a history as a psychiatric hospital . . . I see it as the final bastion of

stigmatisation. It reinforces the sense that it is still a madhouse; it is symbolic of care
in the community. You put them in houses and put a wall around them. It conspires
with a subliminal message . . . You could believe that it is still a psychiatric hospital.
You should not underestimate the symbolism of the physical. Walled cities in
ancient times were fortresses to keep people in and out. The physical fabric is
testimony to separateness. (Interview)
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The estate was the largest RSL consortium development in the UK of the early 1990s and
probably the only one to contain a gated community within its boundary. From its start the
estate brought together many contemporary features of housing development, private
ownership and leasing, shared ownership and social renting, RSL consortium development
and a gated community (only local authority housing is absent from the landlord mix).
In one sense the estate was a leading example of a mixed community development, in that
it brought a range of income groups together in one neighbourhood rather than being
segregated into different residential neighbourhoods.
However, the practicalities of mixing diverse social groups proved highly problematic.
The development was not planned as a social housing scheme and much of the
infrastructure planned did not materialise (Interview data). In addition, from the beginning
there was a strong feeling of segregation between social housing residents on the one side
and private owners and leaseholders on the other. As one private resident commented:
“there was a real ‘us and them’ scenario” (Interview). This meant that owners and
leaseholders did not see themselves as benefiting from the community facilities:

I very rarely go to the . . . shop. They can tell you by the car you drive or the way that
you dress . . . that you are not from the housing association flats. It is aggressive.
(Interview)
A strong sense of conflict was generated between the different social groups on the estates.
This was expressed in the following way by a leaseholder in one of the flats which was
located on the estate but not within the gated community: “there is definitely a bad feeling
towards the people living in these flats because we are owners. There is a definite class
divide I think” (Interview).
The owner occupiers within the gated community also felt removed from much of the
day-to-day activities on the estate. Because they did not share the experience of the
majority of residents in the neighbourhood the scale of the social problems reported by
other residents surprised them. For example, one owner occupier commented:

I have been to a few of the resident meetings. We were absolutely horrified to hear
what they were saying about prostitution and drug abuse. Residents said that they
knew who was perpetrating these crimes but that they did not dare come forward to
report them due to the fear of reprisals. I also heard that some of the neighbours did
not come to the meeting as they were watching who was attending. It was felt that it
was a ‘grassing’ situation. (Interview)
 Gated Communities as Club Goods 353

In addition, the gated residents were aware of the class distinctions between those within
and outside of the walled community and acknowledged that a high level of diplomacy
was called for in making contributions to collective management.

I am the only one who has gone to the . . . meetings. I am very careful about what I
say. I know that a lot of them are on income support. For example if I talk about kids
damaging our cars, I need to be diplomatic. You only have to compare the cars
inside and outside. (Interview)

Despite the disparities in income and wealth, there appeared to be some co-operation
between residents; in particular they felt they shared common goals in terms of improving
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their neighbourhood. Nevertheless, residents felt that the gated development was essential
in preserving a sense of security and protection from the varied social problems occurring
on the estate.

A couple of people were mugged . . . when they were waiting for the gates to open. It
was a prime opportunity as they had to get their swipe cards from their wallets. We
used to have a code to enter the grounds but [the youths] knew the code. They are not
stupid. I dread to think how much we are paying for the gates but they are a
necessity. When they were broken (by the kids of course) cars were getting broken
into. (Interview)

Despite the very serious social problems on the estate, voiced by residents and workers in
the neighbourhood, owners generally felt happy and secure in their properties.

I bought the flat at a very good price. I have never felt unsafe inside. I have
installed a spy hole and extra window locks. For the first two years I lived on my
own. The gates have done a lot to help. Personally I have never had problems that I
wouldn’t find on any London street but I tend not to walk around the estate.
(Interview)

Such views illustrate how there can be reasonable levels of safety and security despite
residents living within an area widely perceived as a high crime neighbourhood.
Significantly, there appeared to be very different perceptions between those within the
gated community (who were largely positive) and those living in leasehold flats that were
integrated within the social housing estate. The latter appeared much more negative about
their environment and reported much more serious instances of harassment, intimidation,
victimisation and crime.
As argued above, the gated community is not normally identified as one of the aspects of
a mixed community development in the statements of government and other interested
parties. Rather it is commonly viewed as the opposite of a desirable social mix in urban
living the government wishes to promote; gated communities challenge these aspirations
given their target population of affluent households. However, the legal structure means
that most are owned and managed collectively by the residents. This represents a further
issue of collectivism versus individualism, given that one of the ‘solutions’ to the
sustainable development of the estate was seen as the development of tenant management.
Such trends represent what can be termed “an unusual blend of collectivism combined
 354 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

with a retreat into privatised spaces” (Blandy et al., 2003, p. 3). This demonstrates how the
phenomenon of gating can be connected to club goods theories to illustrate new
approaches to private and public service provision. As Webster (2001) maintains it is
misleading to polarise debate into issues of public versus private institutions.
This case study suggests that one way to promote mixed tenure developments in areas of
deprivation is to acknowledge community members’ concerns for safety and security. The
study suggests this can be done by developing gated sub-subsections in the
neighbourhood.

Case Study Two: The ‘Lifestyle’ Temporary Gated Community

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Owned by a large private sector property development company, this southeast London
site was previously a derelict industrial estate. The development is located in one of the
poorest wards in the country, ranked 468 out of 8414 on the Index of Deprivation (see
DETR, 2000). The development is an example of the vision of the local authority to use
culture and the arts as a driver to regenerate the area and bring higher-income households
into the inner city. It also meets the objectives of the economic regeneration strategy of the
borough to create accommodation for office workers. The estate manager explained the
developer’s objectives:

The vision was to design a ‘new concept for living’—a ‘lifestyle’ community. This
encapsulates a total living environment comprising home and leisure facilities with
24-hour concierge service to care for residents’ every requirement. (Interview)

The advertisements and marketing for the scheme present the development as a prestigious
housing and living complex situated in what could be taken as an upmarket area. However,
the immediate location is not the focus of the marketing of the estate. The main selling
points of the area are the local rail station opposite the development and the lifestyle that
was available inside the complex at affordable prices. The marketing focus was on the
‘living experience’, referring to modernist interiors and immediate surrounding exterior
facilities such as a gym, landscaping and restaurant. It was presented in publicity material
as “the development where you can have it all”.
The development was targeted at a number of different groups. As an investment
vehicle, it was marketed at overseas buyers who would gain rental income and capital
gains from letting to young professionals working in the new ‘City of London’ situated at
Canary Wharf. The development was also targeted at young families and thus incentives
for first-time buyers were offered. The development comprised 50 per cent buyers and
50 per cent tenants. These units were seen as comparatively cheap in the London housing
market. A single bedroom flat costs £160 000 and a flat could be rented for just under
£1000 a month (at 2003 prices).
Planning requirements (so-called ‘section 106’ obligations) obliged the developer to
provide 30 per cent affordable housing within the scheme. Consequently, in the last phase
of the development three blocks of social rented housing were to be provided let by three
housing associations. This part of the estate was expected to be ready for occupancy in
December 2003. The estate manager explained that differential access to estate facilities
would apply and that tension between the different groups might follow from the opening
of the social housing blocks:
 Gated Communities as Club Goods 355

The residents of the housing association blocks will have access to some but not all
of the developments facilities, [such as] the restaurant and coffee bar but not the
gym or swimming pool . . . there will be a view that the housing association blocks
may not be a welcome feature of the estate for the private residents. (Interview)

However, problems soon appeared in relation to maintaining the standards of the estate
and the blocks: litter, security doors left open by a large number of absentee landlords and
the turnover on the estate of private renters.
Security was one of the features of the estate and this included: CCTV cameras
linked to a reception area, a concierge which would eventually be staffed 24 hours a
day, site security patrol night checks, an emergency mobile number for residents, and
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access point fob keys for all resident blocks and the car parks. In addition to these
features, residents were offered extra day and night security cover (although there
would be an additional charge for this service). Residents were encouraged to establish
a neighbourhood watch scheme and the estate manager attended regular liaison
meetings with the local police.
The development included ‘temporary’ gates while development work was in progress.
However, these gates, which had a robust and sculptured quality, did not give the
impression of being temporary. The estate manager confirmed us that residents were
happy with the gated entrance. Residents had also assumed these gates were a permanent
feature of the development. However, the planning agreement required these gates to be
dismantled and retractable bollards were installed in their place in 2003.
To the casual visitor (and many residents) the estate looked like a gated community with
patrolling security and gated access staffed by security guards. In fact, it was intended to
be a development that would have no gates but would only limit the public right of way to
walking access. The development could be an example of what Low (2003) has called a
‘faux-gated’ community.
The gates became a major issue on the estate because of criminal incidents within the
neighbourhood. The estate manager, the planning officer and local residents all identified
crime and fear of crime as key reasons why the residents wanted the gates to stay. In letters to
the council planning department and at a meeting with the planning officer, residents claimed
that if the gates were removed and the public access footpath through the estate was reopened
more residents would become victims of crime. Officers stated that overseas property owners
had been contacting the council because their tenants were advising them about how
dangerous the area was and that the gates they thought permanent were in fact only building
site gates. The planning officer and the estate manager reported that sales were decreasing and
that rents had adjusted downwards as a consequence of these security concerns.
The planning officer stated that gated community developments were a new issue for the
planning team. Gates were previously allowed in the borough but these situations were
described as entirely different in that developments were situated on private land with no
public access. However, in similar developments gates had been disallowed despite
petitions from residents. The planning officer stated that with reference to the current
development:

The developers erected gates without planning permission. Obviously some sort of
makeshift security gate was required as expensive building materials were present
on the site. However, these gates had a ‘permanent’ feel from the start. (Interview)
 356 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

The planning department agreed to retractable road bollards to control entry but an
application would need to be submitted for the gates to become a permanent fixture. The
request to gate a public parked area was refused and any replacement for the current
temporary gates was thought likely to be vetoed.
The original planning brief stated that although there would be no provision for
vehicular traffic, a public access route would be a feature of the development. Therefore
keeping the gates in place was thought to be contrary to the spirit of the provisions in
section 106. The council was keen to uphold this situation and any argument to the
contrary, it was suggested, would have to be presented very convincingly. As discussed
earlier, petitioning for gates goes against the current government advice on good urban
design practice and mixed development guidelines. Additionally, the legal implications
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would need to be thoroughly assessed.

The planning officer advised that at a recent residents’ association meeting the main
concern was security, particularly “that the gates be a permanent feature as there have been
a number of incidents ranging from vandalism to actual physical assault” (Interview). As
one officer commented:

Issues arose at the initial planning meeting for the scheme concerning the potential
lack of integration into the wider . . . community from prospective residents. Several
of these buyers have subsequently called claiming that they thought the estate was
more exclusive than it actually is, and saying that tenants now wish to vacate their
flats as they fear for their safety. (Interview)

The second major issue was access to a public garden located on the edge of the estate.
Residents wished this to remain private as they were paying a service charge for its upkeep
and maintenance and therefore felt it was inappropriate for non-residents to use (and
possibly abuse) it. Furthermore, residents were concerned that if the community was to be
open-access the council would not pay the bill for any vandalism or graffiti that might
occur. As one estate resident noted, it was a private development and the council would
have no liability for any damage. The planning officer stated at the meeting she was
“concerned with the residents’ exclusive attitude” (Interview). In turn, the residents were
frustrated by what they perceived as an unsympathetic response to their anxieties.
This example illustrated the conflict between the planning department’s responsibilities
to protect ‘rights of way’ and promote ‘permeability’ (ease of movement in an area) and
the desire of the residents to secure a safe environment in which to live. These gates had
become a focal point around the management of higher income housing in an area of acute
deprivation, with a high level of crime and fear of crime. What the example shows is that
the battle to maintain gating represented an important area of conflict between residents
and council staff and between principles of safety and security on the one side and those of
community, neighbourhood and social cohesion on the other. However, a conceptual-
isation of gating as a club good can challenge the necessity to think in strict dimensions of
public and private, allowing discussion to proceed at a less emotive level.

Conclusions
Gated communities via their costs of ownership and membership partition the population
into ‘beneficiaries’ and ‘non-beneficiaries’. However, gated communities provide one
 Gated Communities as Club Goods 357

example from a long tradition in clubbing together for increased individual benefits. Other
examples include trade unions, friendly societies, squash and bridge clubs. All make a
distinction between members and non-members to determine the allocation of benefits and
costs.
The gated community represents a dilemma for policy makers between the concepts of
segregation and security. If consumer choice points to the desirability of privacy and
safety as priorities for residents, it becomes increasingly problematic for policy makers to
deny the exercise of this choice. To suggest that residents be denied security merely based
on an abstract notion of social cohesion could be construed as paternalism.
The view that the ‘gated community increasingly seems a misnomer for a highly
privatised mode of living’ (Atkinson et al., 2003) assumes a relationship between
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neighbourhood cohesion and community development, based on an idealised model of

housing design. As society has become more fragmented and privacy is highly desired by
residents, to see gating as the antithesis of social cohesion by reinforcing social and class
divisions, producing new forms of segregation between rich and poor, ignores the much
more complex relationships between individuals and their environments. The evidence
from these two case studies suggests that whilst there is some validity in these arguments,
they are too simplistic in capturing the complex choices that residents make in their
attachment to urban neighbourhoods. Undoubtedly gated communities represent a choice
to exclude others, but as a club good, they may also represent a more positive model of
housing development.
In the case studies both the fear of crime and actual crime levels have either resulted in
gates being erected or in the demand for temporary gates to be made permanent. The
examples illustrate that developments help to reduce residential segregation in areas that
otherwise would have accommodated either multi-deprived households exclusively or
have been used for other purposes.
Research (Manzi & Smith-Bowers, 2004) on a housing estate with a large number of
social landlords responsible for the communal services and facilities that tenants enjoyed,
showed how ineffective local residents felt in influencing and getting a better service from
their landlords. Institutions such as homeowners associations and Common Interest
Housing Developments can provide useful models of self-managed, territorial
organisation, in conjunction with other more traditional residents’ associations. In one
of the case studies the Home Owners Association had been able to secure the gating of the
estate to reduce crime, to protect motor vehicles and to prevent unsolicited entry. Outside
the gates, the consortium of landlords could offer no such service.
The theory of club goods illustrates an alternative model of conceptualising gated
developments. By providing a hybrid model of property ownership and rights alongside a
representation of new forms of territorial organisation, the theory can extend an
understanding of the function of gated developments that provides a more detailed insight
into this increasingly common phenomenon.
The process of collective ownership and management may serve to increase
permeability as much as decrease it. The development of an active residents’ association in
both cases can provide an opportunity to develop links across tenure divides. The
consequence may well be that such neighbourhoods are less segregated in socio-economic
terms than would be the case if the gating were not available. By protecting property prices
and offering opportunities for social mixing (albeit in limited terms) gating may present
opportunities for urban renewal that are at present poorly understood.
 358 T. Manzi & B. Smith-Bowers

Rather than attempting to prevent the spread of such developments, policy makers need
to come to terms with the spread of gated communities in less emotive language. They
should consider how issues of segregation can be balanced against the need to develop
consumer choice and potentially increase social cohesion by providing new forms of
sustainable communities, instead of railing against privatism, isolationism and particular
interests.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Jordan Trimby who worked on the original research and two anonymous referees for
their comments on an earlier version of this paper.
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