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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

CHAPTER 1: SYSTEMS, ROLES, AND DEVELOPMENT

METHODOLOGIES
Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives
Learning Objectives
● Activity:
● Understand the need for systems analysis and
design in organizations. ○ Interviewing user management
● Realize what the many roles of the systems ○ Summarizing the knowledge obtained
analyst are. ○ Estimating the scope of the project
● Comprehend the fundamentals of three ○ Documenting the results
development methodologies: ● Output:
○ SDLC ○ Feasibility report containing problem
○ The agile approach definition and objective summaries
○ Object-oriented systems analysis and from which management can make a
design decision on whether to proceed with
Roles of the Systems Analyst the proposed project
● The analyst must be able to work with people of Determining Human Information Requirements
all descriptions and be experienced in working
with computers ● Activity:
● Three primary roles: ○ Interviewing
○ Consultant ○ Sampling and investing hard data
○ Supporting expert ○ Questionnaires
○ Agent of change ○ Observe the decision maker’s behavior
Qualities of the Systems Analyst and environment
○ Prototyping
● Problem solver ○ Learn the who, what, where, when,
● Communicator how, and why of the current system
● Strong personal and professional ethics ● Output:
● Self-disciplined and self-motivated ○ The analyst understands how users
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) accomplish their work when interacting
● The systems development life cycle is a phased with a computer
approach to solving business problems ○ Begin to know how to make the new
● Developed through the use of a specific cycle of system more useful and usable
analyst and user activities ○ Know the business functions
● Each phase has unique user activities ○ Have complete information on the:
■ People
The Seven Phases of the Systems Development Life ■ Goals
Cycle (Figure 1.1) ■ Data
■ Procedure involved
Analyzing System Needs
● Activity:
○ Create data flow, activity, or sequence
diagrams
○ Complete the data dictionary
○ Analyze the structured decisions made
○ Prepare and present the system
proposal
● Output:
○ Recommendation on what, if anything,
should be done

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Designing the Recommended System ● Over time the cost of continued maintenance
Activity: will be greater than that of creating an entirely
● Design procedures for data entry new system. At that point it becomes more
● Design the human-computer interface feasible to perform a new systems study.
● Design system controls Approaches to Structured Analysis and Design and to
● Design database and/or files the Systems Development Life Cycle
● Design backup procedures
Output ● Traditional systems development life cycle
● Model of the actual system ● CASE systems development life cycle
● Object-oriented systems analysis and design
Developing and Documenting Software Case Tools
Activity: ● CASE tools are productivity tools for systems
● System analyst works with programmers to analysts that have been created explicitly to
develop any original software improve their routine work through the use of
● Works with users to develop effective automated support
documentation
● Programmers design, code, and remove The Agile Approach
syntactical errors from computer programs ● Based on:
● Document software with help files, procedure ○ Values
manuals, and Web sites with Frequently Asked ○ Principles
Questions ○ Core practices
Output: Agile Values
● Computer programs
● System documentation ● Communication
● Simplicity
Testing and Maintaining the System ● Feedback
Activity: ● Courage
● Test the information system Four Agile Resources
● System maintenance
● Resources are adjusted to ensure successful
● Maintenance documentation
project completion
Output:
○ Time
● Problems, if any
○ Cost
● Updated programs
○ Quality
● Documentation
○ Scope
Five Stages of Agile Development
Implementing and Evaluating the System
Activity: ● Exploration
● Train users ● Planning
● Analyst plans smooth conversion from old ● Iterations to the first release
system to new system ● Productionizing
● Review and evaluate system ● Maintenance
Output:
● Trained personnel Object-Oriented (O-O) Systems Analysis and Design
● Installed system
• Object-oriented (O-O) systems analysis and
The Impact of Maintenance design is an approach intended to facilitate the
development of systems that must change
● Maintenance is performed for two reasons: rapidly in response to dynamic business
○ Removing software errors environments.
○ Enhancing existing software

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• Object-oriented techniques often work well in ● Communication of how new systems work is
situations in which complicated information important
systems are undergoing continuous When to Use Agile
maintenance, adaptation, and redesign. Object
oriented approaches use the industry standard ● There is a project champion of agile methods in
for modeling O-O systems, called unified the organization
modeling language (UML), to break down a ● Applications need to be developed quickly in
system into a use case model. response to a dynamic environment
• Analysis is performed on a small part of the ● A rescue takes place (the system failed and
system followed by design and implementation there is no time to figure out what went wrong)
● The customer is satisfied with incremental
improvements
The steps in the UML development process. ● Executives and analysts agree with the
principles of agile methodologies
When to Use Object-Oriented
● The problems modeled lend themselves to
classes
● An organization supports the UML learning
● Systems can be added gradually, one subsystem
at a time
● Reuse of previously written software is a
possibility
● It is acceptable to tackle the difficult problems
first

Open Source Software

● An alternative of traditional software
development where proprietary code is hidden
from the users
● Open source software is free to distribute,
Unified Modeling Language (UML) Phases share, and modify
● Characterized as a philosophy rather than
● Define the use case model: simply the process of creating new software
○ Use case diagram ● Examples: Linux Operating System, Apache Web
○ Use case scenarios Server, Mozilla Firefox
● Create UML diagrams Four Types of Open Source Communities:
● Develop class diagrams
● Draw statechart diagrams ● Ad hoc
● Modify the UML diagrams ● Standardized
● Develop and document the system ● Organized
When to Use SDLC ● Commercial
Six Key Dimensions that Differentiate Open Source
● Systems have been developed and documented Communities
using SLDC
● It is important to document each step ● General structure
● Upper level management feels more ● Environment
comfortable or safe using SDLC ● Goals
● There are adequate resources and time to ● Methods
complete the full SDLC ● User community
● Licensing
Collective Design
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● Through a process of collective design the IT ○ What is to be included in the system.

artifact is imbued with ○ The external entities are outside the
○ Community and organizational scope of the system.
structures The Basic Symbols of a Data Flow Diagram (Figure 2.4)
○ Knowledge
○ Practices - Process: means that some action or group of
actions take place.
- Entity: is a person, group, department, or any
CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING AND MODELING system that either receives or originates
ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS information or data.
- Data flow: shows that information is being
● Levels of management passed from or to a process.
● Design of organizations
● Organizational cultures Management in Organizations Exists on Three
Organizations Are Composed of Interrelated Horizontal Levels: Operational Control, Managerial
Subsystems Planning and Control, and Strategic Management
(Figure 2.19)
● Influenced by levels of management decision
makers that cut horizontally across the
organizational system
○ Operations
○ Middle management
○ Strategic management
● Influenced by organizational cultures and
subcultures
Organizations as Systems
● Conceptualized as systems designed to
accomplish predetermined goals and objectives
Interrelatedness and Independence of Systems
● All systems and subsystems are interrelated and
interdependent. Operations Control
● All systems process inputs from their • Make decisions using predetermined rules that
environments. have predictable outcomes.
● All systems are contained by boundaries • Oversee the operating details of the
separating them from their environments. organization.
● System feedback is used for planning and
control
● An ideal system self-corrects or regulates itself. Managerial Planning and Control
Enterprise Resource Planning
● Make short-term planning and control decisions
● Enterprise Systems or Enterprise Resource about resources and organizational objectives.
Planning (ERP) describes an integrated ● Decisions may be partly operational and partly
organizational information system. strategic.
● Software that helps the flow of information Strategic Management
between the functional areas within the
● Look outward from the organization to the
organization
future.
Context-Level Data Flow Diagrams
● Make decisions that will guide middle and
● Focus is on the data flowing into and out of the operations managers.
system and the processing of the data. ● Work in highly uncertain decision-making
● Shows the scope of the system: environment.
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● Define the organization as a whole. Project Initiation

Managerial Levels ● Problems in the organization
○ Problems that lend themselves to
● Different organization structure systems solutions
● Leadership style ● Opportunities for improvement
● Technological considerations ○ Caused through upgrading, altering, or
● Organization culture installing new systems
● Human interaction
● All carry implications for the analysis and design Checking Output, Observing Employee Behavior, and
of information systems Listening to Feedback Are All Ways to Help the Analyst
Organizational Culture Pinpoint Systems Problems and Opportunities (Figure
• Organizations have cultures and subcultures. 3.1)
• Learn from verbal and nonverbal symbolism.

CHAPTER 3: PROJECT MANAGEMENT

● Understand how projects are initiated and
selected, define a business problem, and
determine the feasibility of a proposed project.
● Evaluate hardware and software and the way it
supports human interactions with technology.
● Forecast and analyze tangible and intangible
costs and benefits.
● Manage a project by preparing a budget,
creating a work breakdown structure, Problem Definition
scheduling activities, and controlling the ● Problem statement
schedule and costs. ○ Paragraph or two stating the problem or
● Build and manage a project team opportunity
● Professionally write and present an effective ● Issues
systems proposal, concentrating on both ○ Independent pieces pertaining to the
content and design problem or opportunity
● Objectives
○ Goals that match the issues
Project Management Fundamentals point-by-point
● Requirements
● Project initiation
○ The things that must be accomplished
● Determining project feasibility
along with the possible solutions, and
● Activity planning and control
constraints, that limit the development
● Project scheduling
of the system
● Managing systems analysis team members
● Use the problem definition to create a
preliminary test plan
Major Topics
● Project initiation
Problem Definition Steps
● Determining feasibility
● Find a number of points that may be included in
● Determining resources
one issue
● Activity planning and control
● State the objective
○ Gantt charts
● Determine the relative importance of the issues
○ PERT diagrams
or objectives
● Managing analysis and design activities
● Identify which objectives are most critical.
● The agile approach
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Selection Of Projects
● Backing from management
● Appropriate timing of project commitment
● Possibility of improving attainment of
organizational goals
● Practical in terms of resources for the system
analyst and organization
● Worthwhile project compared with other ways
the organization could invest resources

Selection of Projects: Improving Attainment of

Organizational Goals
● Improving corporate profits
● Supporting the competitive strategy of the
organization
● Improving cooperation with vendors and Technical Feasibility
partners ● Can current technical resources be upgraded or
● Improving internal operations support added to in a manner that fulfills the request
● Improving internal decision support so that under consideration?
decisions are more effective ● If not, is there technology in existence that
● Improving customer service meets the specifications?
● Increasing employee morale
Economic Feasibility
Defining Objectives ● Economic feasibility determines whether the
Many possible objectives exist including: value of the investment exceeds the time and
● Speeding up a process cost
● Streamlining a process ● Includes:
● Combining processes ○ Analyst and analyst team time
● Reducing errors in input ○ Business employee time
● Reducing redundant storage ○ Hardware
● Reducing redundant output ○ Software
● Improving system and subsystem integration ○ Software development

Determining Feasibility Operational Feasibility

● Defining objectives ● Operational feasibility determines if the human
● Determining resources resources are available to operate the system
○ Operationally once it has been installed
○ Technically ● Users that do not want a new system may
○ Economically prevent it from becoming operationally feasible

The Three Key Elements of Feasibility Include Estimating Workloads

Technical, Economic, and Operational Feasibility Systems analysts formulate numbers that represent
(Figure 3.3) both current and projected workloads for the system so
that any hardware obtained will possess the capability
to handle current and future workloads

Comparisons of Workloads between Existing and

Proposed Systems (Figure 3.4 )

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Inventorying Computer Hardware

● Type of equipment
● Operation status of the equipment
● Estimated age of equipment
● Projected life of equipment
● Physical location of equipment
● Department or person responsible for
equipment
● Financial arrangement for equipment

Evaluating Hardware
● Time required for average transactions
● Total volume capacity of the system
● Idle time of the CPU or network
● Size of memory provided

People that Evaluate Hardware

Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs ● Management
● Steps used to determine hardware and software ● Users
needs: ● Systems analysts
○ Inventory computer hardware currently
available Acquisition of Computer Equipment
○ Estimate current and future system ● Purchasing
workloads ● Using Cloud Services
○ Evaluate available hardware and
software Available cloud services
○ Choose the vendor ● Available cloud services may include:
○ Acquire the computer equipment ○ Web hosting
○ Email hosting
Steps in Choosing Hardware and Software (Figure 3.5) ○ Application hosting
○ Backup
○ Storage and processing of databases
○ Archiving
○ Ecommerce

Three Main Categories of Cloud Computing

● Software as a Service (SaaS)
● Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
● Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Strategic Cloud Computing Decisions

● Decisions on cloud computing can first be
addressed on a strategic level
● Business should focus on:
○ Define a high-level business case that
focuses on high-level benefits
○ Define core requirements
○ Define core technologies for the
enterprise

Benefits of Cloud Computing

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● Less time spent maintaining legacy systems

● May be simpler to acquire IT services
● Scalable applications that can grow by adding
more cloud resources
● Consistency across multiple platforms
● Capital is not tied up

Drawbacks of Cloud Computing

● Loss of control of data stored in the cloud
● Potential security threats to data that is not
stored on premises
● Reliability of the Internet as a platform

Purchasing or Using Cloud Services Advantages and

Disadvantages (Figure 3.6)
’
BYOD and BYOT
● BYOD: Bring your own device
● BYOT: Bring your own technology
● Employee uses their own device access
corporate networks, data, and services remotely

Benefits of BYOD and BYOT

● Building employee morale
● Potential for lowering the initial cost hardware
purchase
● Facilitating remote, around-the-clock access to
corporate computer networks
● Building on a familiar user interface to access
corporate computing services, applications,
Evaluating Vendor Support databases, and storage
● Hardware support
● Software support Drawbacks of BYOD and BYOT
● Installation and training support ● Security risks posed by untrained users
● Maintenance support ● Loss of the device
● Theft of the device and its data
Guidelines for Vendor Selection (Figure 3.7) ● Unauthorized access to corporate networks
using personal mobile devices

Software Alternatives
● Created custom software
● Purchased as COTS (commercial off-the-shelf)
software
● Provided by an software as a service (SaaS)

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○ Comparing the plan for the project with

its actual evolution
○ Taking appropriate action to expedite or
reschedule activities

Identifying and Forecasting Costs and Benefits

● Judgment methods
○ Estimates from the sales force
○ Surveys to estimate customer demand
○ Delphi studies
○ Creating scenarios
○ Drawing historical analogies
● If historical data are available
○ Conditional:
■ There is an association among
variables in the model
○ Unconditional:
■ Do not need to find or identify
Software Evaluation
any relationships
● Performance effectiveness
● Performance efficiency
Estimation of Trends
● Ease of use
● Graphical judgment
● Flexibility
● Moving averages
● Quality of documentation
● Manufacturer support
Guidelines for Evaluating Software (Figure 3.9)
Identifying Benefits and Costs
● Tangible benefits are advantages measurable in
dollars through the use of the information
system
● Intangible benefits are difficult to measure
● Tangible costs are accurately projected by the
systems analyst and accounting personnel
● Intangible costs are difficult to estimate and
may not be known

Tangible Benefits
● Advantages measurable in dollars that accrue to
the organization through the use of the
information system
● Examples:
○ Increase in the speed of processing
○ Access to otherwise inaccessible
information
○ Access to information on a more timely
Activity Planning and Control
basis
● Planning includes:
○ The advantage of the computer’s
○ Selecting a systems analysis team
superior calculating power
○ Estimating time required to complete
○ Decreases in the amount of employee
each task
time needed to complete specific tasks
○ Scheduling the project
● Control includes:
Intangible Benefits
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● Intangible benefits are benefits from use of the

information system that are difficult to measure
● Examples:
○ Improving the decision-making process
○ Enhancing accuracy
○ Becoming more competitive in
customer service
○ Maintaining a good business image
○ Increasing job satisfaction

Tangible Costs
● Those that can be accurately projected by
systems analysts and the business’ accounting
personnel
● Examples:
○ Cost of equipment
○ Cost of resources
○ Cost of systems analysts’ time Break-Even Analysis Showing a Payback Period of
○ Cost of programmers’ time Three and a Half Years (Figure 3.11)
○ Employees’ salaries

Intangible Costs
● Those that are difficult to estimate and may not
be known
● Examples:
○ Losing a competitive edge
○ Losing the reputation of being first
○ Declining company image
○ Ineffective decision making

Comparing Costs and Benefits

● Break-even analysis Cash-Flow Analysis
● Payback ● Examines the direction, size, and pattern of cash
● Cash-flow analysis flow that is associated with the proposed
● Present value analysis information system
● Determines when cash outlays and revenues
Break-Even Analysis will occur for both; not only for the initial
● The point at which the total cost of the current purchase, but over the life of the information
system and the proposed system intersect system
● Useful when a business is growing and volume
is a key variable in costs Cash-Flow Analysis for the Computerized
● Disadvantage: Mail-Addressing System (Figure 3.12)
○ Benefits are assumed to remain the
same
● Advantage:
○ Can determine how long it will take for
the benefits of the system to pay back
the costs of developing it

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Work Breakdown Structure Properties

● Each task or activity contains one deliverable, or
tangible outcome, from the activity
● Each task can be assigned to a single individual
or a single group
● Each task has a responsible person monitoring
and controlling performance

Developing a WBS
● Decomposition, starting with large ideas, then
breaking them down into manageable activities
● Product oriented, building a website can be
broken down into many parts
Present Value Analysis ● Process-oriented, emphasizes the importance of
● Way to assess all the economic outlays and each phase
revenues of the information system over its
economic life, and to compare costs today with Time Estimation Techniques
future costs and today’s benefits with future ● Relying on experience
benefits ● Using analogies
● Presents the time value of the investment in the ● Using three-point estimation
information system as well as the cash flow ● Identifying function points
● Taking into account present value, the ● Using time estimation software
conclusion is that the costs are greater than the
benefits. Function Point Analysis
● The discount rate, i, is assumed to be .12 in ● Takes the five main components of a computer
calculating the multipliers in this table. system and rates them in terms of complexity:
○ External inputs
○ External outputs
○ External queries
○ Internal logical files
○ External interface files

Beginning to Plan a Project by Breaking it into Three

Guidelines for Analysis Major Activities (Figure 3.16)
● Use break-even analysis if the project needs to
be justified in terms of cost, not benefits
● Use payback when the improved tangible
benefits form a convincing argument for the
proposed system
● Use cash-flow analysis when the project is
expensive, relative to the size of the company
● Use present value when the payback period is
long or when the cost of borrowing money is
high
Refining the Planning and Scheduling of Analysis
Work Breakdown Structure Activities by Adding Detailed Tasks and Establishing the
● Often a project needs to be broken down into Time Required to Complete the Tasks (Figure 3.17)
smaller tasks or activities
● These tasks together make up a work
breakdown structure (WBS)

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PERT Diagram Advantages

● Easy identification of the order of precedence
● Easy identification of the critical path and thus
critical activities
● Easy determination of slack time

Project Due Dates

● Estimating models
○ Costar
○ Construx
● Function point analysis
○ Helps the analyst quantitatively
estimate the overall length of software
development efforts
Project Scheduling
● Gantt Charts
Estimating Costs
○ Simple
● Using a work breakdown structure
○ Lends itself to end user communication
○ Estimate costs for each activity in the
○ Drawn to scale
work breakdown structure
● PERT diagrams
○ Prepare a budget for the project and
○ Useful when activities can be done in
have it approved by the organization or
parallel
client
○ Manage and control the costs
Using a Two-Dimensional Gantt Chart for Planning
throughout the project
Activities that Can Be Accomplished in Parallel (Figure
3.18)
Approaches to Cost Estimation
● Basing estimates on similar projects, also called
the top-down approach
● Building bottom-up estimates
● Using parametric modeling

Project Risk
● Project failures may be prevented by:
○ Training
○ Experience
○ Learning why other projects have failed
● Fishbone diagram systematically lists all of the
possible problems that can occur

Fishbone Diagram (Figure 3.24)

A Completed PERT Diagram for the Analysis Phase of a
Systems Project (Figure 3.22)

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● Earned value (EV) is an estimate of the value of

work completed (where p is percentage
completed)
EV = PV * p

Monitoring Completion
● The Cost Performance Index (CPI), Earned Value
(EV), and BAC are used to estimate how much
more is needed to complete the project (ETC):
○ ETC = (BAC – EV) / CPI
● The Actual Cost (AC) and the ETC are used to
estimate the completion cost (EAC):
○ EAC = AC + ETC
Expediting
Managing the Team Project
● Expediting is speeding up a process
● Team management
● Expediting can help reduce the time it takes to
○ Assembling a team
complete an entire project
○ Team communication strategies
● The expedited activities have to be on the
○ Project productivity goals
critical path
○ Team member motivation
●
Expediting to minimize project time
Assembling a Team
● Shared value of team work
● Good work ethic
● Honesty
● Competency
● Readiness to take on leadership based on
expertise
● Motivation
● Enthusiasm for the project
● Trust of teammates

Communication Strategies
Earned Value Management (EVM) ● Teams often have two leaders:
● A technique used to help determine progress ○ Task leader: leads members to
(or setbacks) on a project accomplish tasks
● Involves: ○ Socioemotional leader: concerned with
○ Project cost social relationships
○ Project schedule ● The systems analyst must manage:
○ Performance of the project team ○ Team members
○ Their activities
Four Key Measures in EVM ○ Their time and resources
● Budget at completion (BAC) is the total budget
for the project Project Productivity Goals and Motivation
● Planned value (PV) is the value of the work that ● Successful projects require that reasonable
is to be completed on the project productivity goals for tangible outputs and
● Actual Cost (AC) is the total cost incurred in process activities be set.
completing the work ● Goal-setting helps to motivate team members.

Ecommerce Project Management

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● Ecommerce and traditional software project ● Number and title the table at the top of the
management differences: page.
○ The data used by ecommerce systems is ● Label each row and column.
scattered across the organization ● Use a boxed table if room permits.
○ Ecommerce systems need a staff with a ● Use footnotes if necessary to explain detailed
wide variety of skills information contained in the table.
○ Partnerships must be built externally
and internally well ahead of Effective Use of Graphs
implementation ● Choose a style of graph that communicates your
○ Security is of utmost importance intended meaning well
● Integrate the graph into the body of the
Project Charter proposal
● Describes in a written document what the ● Give the graph a sequential figure number and a
expected results of the systems project are and meaningful title
the time frame for delivery ● Label each axis, and any lines, columns, bars, or
pieces of the pie on the graph
● Include a key to indicate differently colored
Project Charter Clarifies These Questions lines, shaded bars, or crosshatched areas
● What does the user expect of the project?
● What is the scope of the project? Summary
● What analysis methods will the analyst use to ● Project management fundamentals
interact with users? ○ Project initiation
● Who are the key participants? ○ Determining project feasibility
● What are the project deliverables? ○ Activity planning and control
● Who will evaluate the system and how will they ○ Project scheduling
evaluate it? ○ Managing systems analysis team
● What is the estimated project timeline? members
● Who will train the users? ● Problem definition
● Who will maintain the system? ○ Issues of the present system
○ The objective for each issue
The Systems Proposal ○ The requirements that must be included
● Cover letter in all proposed systems
● Title page of project ● Project selection
● Table of contents ○ Backed by management
● Executive summary ○ Commitment of resources
● Outline of systems study with appropriate ○ Attains goals
documentation ○ Practical
● Detailed results of the systems study ○ Important
● Systems alternatives ● Feasibility
● Systems analysts recommendations ○ Operational
● Summary ○ Technical
● Appendices ○ Economic

Using Figures for Effective Communication ● Acquiring hardware and software

● Effective use of tables ● Work breakdown structure
● Effective use of graphs ● Project planning
○ Gantt charts
Effective Use of Tables ○ PERT
● Integrate into the body of the proposal ○ Function point analysis
● Try to fit the entire table vertically on a single ● Team management
page. ● Ecommerce projects
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● Preparing a system proposal Interview Preparation

● Reading background material
CHAPTER 4: INFORMATION GATHERING INTERACTIVE ● Establishing interview objectives
METHODS ● Deciding whom to interview
● Preparing the interviewee
• Recognize the value of interactive methods for ● Deciding on question types and structure
information gathering.
• Construct interview questions to elicit human Question Types
information requirements and structure them in a ● Open-ended
way that is meaningful to users. ● Closed
• Understand the purpose of stories and why they
are useful in systems analysis. Open-Ended Questions
• Understand the concept of JAD and when to use it. ● Open-ended interview questions allow
• Write effective questions to survey users about interviewees to respond how they wish, and to
their work. what length they wish
• Design and administer effective questionnaires. ● Open-ended interview questions are
appropriate when the analyst is interested in
Interactive Methods to Elicit Human Information breadth and depth of reply
Requirements Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
• Interviewing ● Puts the interviewee at ease
• Joint Application Design (JAD) ● Allows the interviewer to pick up on the
• Questionnaires interviewee’s vocabulary
● Provides richness of detail
Major Topics ● Reveals avenues of further questioning that may
have gone untapped
● Interviewing ● Provides more interest for the interviewee
○ Interview preparation ● Allows more spontaneity
○ Question types ● Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer
○ Arranging questions ● Useful if the interviewer is unprepared
○ The interview report
● User Stories Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions
● Joint Application Design (JAD) ● May result in too much irrelevant detail
○ Involvement ● Possibly losing control of the interview
○ Location ● May take too much time for the amount of
● Questionnaires useful information gained
○ Writing questions ● Potentially seeming that the interviewer is
○ Using scales unprepared
○ Design ● Possibly giving the impression that the
○ Administering interviewer is on a “fishing expedition”
Interviewing Closed Interview Questions
● Interviewing is an important method for
● Closed interview questions limit the number of
collecting data on human and system
possible responses
information requirements
● Closed interview questions are appropriate for
● Interviews reveal information about:
generating precise, reliable data that is easy to
○ Interviewee opinions
analyze
○ Interviewee feelings
● The methodology is efficient, and it requires
○ Goals
little skill for interviewers to administer
○ Key HCI concerns
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Benefits of Closed Interview Questions ● May be either open-ended or closed

● Saving interview time Arranging Questions
● Easily comparing interviews
● Getting to the point ● Pyramid
● Keeping control of the interview ○ Starting with closed questions and
● Covering a large area quickly working toward open-ended questions
● Getting to relevant data ● Funnel
○ Starting with open-ended questions and
Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions working toward closed questions
● Diamond
● Boring for the interviewee ○ Starting with closed, moving toward
● Failure to obtain rich detailing open-ended, and ending with closed
● Missing main ideas questions
● Failing to build rapport between interviewer
and interviewee Pyramid Structure
Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Questions (Figure ● Begins with very detailed, often closed
4.5) questions
● Expands by allowing open-ended questions and
more generalized responses
● Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up
to the topic or seem reluctant to address the
topic
Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from Specific
to General Questions (Figure 4.7 )

Bipolar Questions
● Bipolar questions are those that may be
answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or
“disagree”
● Bipolar questions should be used sparingly
● A special kind of closed question Funnel Structure
Probes ● Begins with generalized, open-ended questions
● Probing questions elicit more detail about ● Concludes by narrowing the possible responses
previous questions using closed questions
● The purpose of probing questions is: ● Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin
● To get more meaning an interview
● To clarify ● Is useful when the interviewee feels emotionally
● To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s about the topic
point
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Funnel Structure for Interviewing Begins with Broad Closing the Interview
Questions then Funnels to Specific Questions (Figure
4.8) ● Always ask “Is there anything else that you
would like to add?”
● Summarize and provide feedback on your
impressions
● Ask whom you should talk with next
● Set up any future appointments
● Thank them for their time and shake hands.
Interview Report
● Write as soon as possible after the interview
● Provide an initial summary, then more detail
● Review the report with the respondent
Stories
● Stories originate in the workplace
● Organizational stories are used to relay some
kind of information
● When a story is told and retold over time it
takes on a mythic quality
Diamond Structure
● Isolated stories are good when you are looking
● A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very for facts
specific way ● Enduring stories capture all aspects of the
● Then more general issues are examined organization and are the ones a systems analyst
● Concludes with specific questions should look for
● Combines the strength of both the pyramid and
Purposes for Telling a Story
funnel structures
● Takes longer than the other structures ● There are four purposes for telling a story:
○ Experiential stories describe what the
Diamond-Shaped Structure for Interviewing Combines
business or industry is like
the Pyramid and Funnel Structures (Figure 4.9)
○ Explanatory stories tell why the
organization acted a certain way
○ Validating stories are used to convince
people that the organization made the
correct decision
○ Prescriptive stories tell the listener how
to act
● Systems analysts can use storytelling as a
complement to other information gathering
methods
Joint Application Design (JAD)
● Joint Application Design (JAD) can replace a
series of interviews with the user community
● JAD is a technique that allows the analyst to
accomplish requirements analysis and design
the user interface with the users in a group
setting
Conditions That Support the Use of JAD
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● Users are restless and want something new ● Organization members are widely dispersed
● The organizational culture supports joint ● Many members are involved with the project
problem-solving behaviors ● Exploratory work is needed
● Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ● Problem-solving prior to interviews is necessary
ideas using JAD
● Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the Question Types
length of time required ● Questions are designed as either:
Who Is Involved ○ Open-ended
○ Try to anticipate the response you will
● Executive sponsor get
● IS analyst ○ Well suited for getting opinions
● Users ● Closed
● Session leader ○ Use when all the options may be listed
● Observers ○ When the options are mutually
● Scribe exclusive
Where to Hold JAD Meetings Trade-offs between the Use of Open-Ended and Closed
Questions on Questionnaires (Figure 4.12)
● Offsite
● Comfortable surroundings
● Minimize distractions
● Attendance
● Schedule when participants can attend
● Agenda
● Orientation meeting
Benefits of JAD
● Time is saved, compared with traditional
interviewing Questionnaire Language
● Rapid development of systems
● Improved user ownership of the system ● Simple
● Creative idea production is improved ● Specific
● Short
Drawbacks of Using JAD ● Not patronizing
● JAD requires a large block of time to be available ● Free of bias
for all session participants ● Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
● If preparation or the follow-up report is ● Technically accurate
incomplete, the session may not be successful ● Appropriate for the reading level of the
● The organizational skills and culture may not be respondent
conducive to a JAD session Measurement Scales
Questionnaires ● The two different forms of measurement scales
● Questionnaires are useful in gathering are:
information from key organization members ○ Nominal
about: ○ Interval
● Attitudes Nominal Scales
● Beliefs
● Behaviors ● Nominal scales are used to classify things
● Characteristics ● It is the weakest form of measurement
● Data may be totaled
Planning for the Use of Questionnaires ●
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What type of software do you use the most?

1 = Word Processor
2 = Spreadsheet Halo Effect
3 = Database ● When the impression formed in one question
4 = An Email Program carries into the next question
● Solution is to place one trait and several items
Interval Scales on each page

● An interval scale is used when the intervals are Designing the Questionnaire
equal
● There is no absolute zero ● Allow ample white space
● Examples of interval scales include the ● Allow ample space to write or type in responses
Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale ● Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark
their answers
How useful is the support given by the Technical ● Be consistent in style
Support Group?
Order of Questions
NOT USEFUL
EXTREMELY ● Place most important questions first
● Cluster items of similar content together
AT ALL USEFUL ● Introduce less controversial questions first
1 2 3 4 5 Administering Questionnaires
● Administering questionnaires has two main
questions:
Validity and Reliability ● Who in the organization should receive the
Reliability of scales refers to consistency in questionnaire
response—getting the same results if the same ● How should the questionnaire be administered
questionnaire was administered again under the same
conditions
Ways to Capture Responses When Designing a Web
Validity is the degree to which the question measures Survey (Figure 4.13)
what the analyst intends to measure
Problems with Scales
● Leniency
● Central tendency
● Halo effect
Leniency
● Caused by easy raters
○ Solution is to move the “average”
category to the left or right of center
Central Tendency
● Central tendency occurs when respondents rate
everything as average
● Improve by making the differences smaller at Methods of Administering the Questionnaire
the two ends
● Adjust the strength of the descriptors ● Convening all concerned respondents together
● Create a scale with more points at one
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● time Major Topics

● Personally administering the questionnaire ● Sampling
● Allowing respondents to self-administer the ● Quantitative document analysis
questionnaire ● Qualitative document analysis
● Mailing questionnaires ● Observation
● Administering over the Web or via email ● STROBE
● Applying STROBE
Electronically Submitting Questionnaires
● Reduced costs Sampling
● Collecting and storing the results electronically ● A process of systematically selecting
representative elements of a population
Summary ● Involves two key decisions:
● Interviewing ○ What to examine
○ Interview preparation ○ Which people to consider
○ Question types
○ Arranging questions Need for Sampling
○ The interview report The reasons systems analysts do sampling are:
● Stories ● Containing costs
● Joint Application Design (JAD) ● Speeding up the data gathering
○ Involvement and location ● Improving effectiveness
● Questionnaires ● Reducing bias
○ Writing questions
○ Using scales and overcoming problems Need for Sampling
○ Design and order ● Too costly to:
○ Administering and submitting ○ Examine every scrap of paper
○ Talk with everyone
○ Read every web page from the
organization
CHAPTER 5: INFORMATION GATHERING:
UNOBTROSIVE METHODS
Sampling
● Sampling helps accelerate the process by
Learning Objectives
gathering selected data rather than all data for
● Recognize the value of unobtrusive methods for
the entire population
information gathering.
● The systems analyst is spared the burden of
● Understand the concept of sampling for human
analyzing data from the entire population
information requirements analysis.
● Construct useful samples of people, documents,
Sampling Effectiveness
and events for determining human information
● • Sampling can help improve effectiveness if
requirements.
information that is more accurate can be
● Create an analyst’s playscript to observe
obtained
decisionmaker activities.
● This is accomplished by talking to fewer
● Apply the STROBE technique to observe and
employees but asking them questions that are
interpret the decision-maker’s environment.
more detailed
● If less people are interviewed, the systems
Unobtrusive Methods
analyst has more time to follow up on missing
● Less disruptive
or incomplete data
● Insufficient when used alone
● Multiple methods approach
Sampling Bias
● Used in conjunction with interactive
● Data gathering bias can be reduced by sampling
methods

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● When the systems analyst asks for an opinion ● Only moderately reliable
about a permanent feature of the installed
information system, Complex Random Samples
● the executive interviewed may provide a biased ● The complex random samples that are most
evaluation because there is little possibility of appropriate for a systems analyst are
changing it ○ Systematic sampling
○ Stratified sampling
Sampling Design ○ Cluster sampling
● To design a good sample, a systems analyst
must follow four steps: The Sample Size Decision
○ Determining the data to be collected or ● Determine the attribute
described ● Locate the database or reports in which the
○ Determining the population to be attribute can be found
sampled ● Examine the attribute
○ Choosing the type of sample ● Make the subjective decision regarding the
○ Deciding on the sample size acceptable interval estimate
● Choose the confidence level
Four Main Types of Samples the Analyst Has Available ● Calculate the standard error
(Figure 5.1) ● Determine the sample size

A Table of Area under a Normal Curve Can Be Used

to Look up a Value Once the Systems Analyst
Decides on the Confidence Level (Figure 5.2)

Four Main Types of Samples

● Convenience
● Purposive
● Simple random Calculate the Standard Error of the Proportion
● Complex random

Convenience Samples
● Convenience samples are unrestricted,
nonprobability samples.
● This sample is the easiest to arrange
● The most unreliable

Purposive Sample
● A purposive sample is based on judgment Determine the Sample Size
● Choose a group of individuals who appear
knowledgeable and are interested in the new
information system
● A nonprobability sample
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Example: A. Sembly Company

● Determine that you are looking for orders with
mistakes
● Locate order forms from the past six months
● Examine order forms and conclude that p = 5%
● Subjective decision of acceptable interval i = ±
0.02
● Look up confidence coefficient z - value = 1.96
● Calculate p = i / z = 0.02/1.96 = 0.0102 A Manually Completed Payment Record (Figure 5.4)
● Determine n; n = 458

Investigation
● The act of discovery and analysis of data
● Hard data
○ Quantitative
○ Qualitative

Analyzing Quantitative Documents

● Reports used for decision making
● Performance reports
● Records
● Data capture forms
● Ecommerce and other transactions

Reports Used for Decision Making

● Sales reports
● Production reports Records
● Summary reports ● Records provide periodic updates of what is
occurring in the business
A Performance Report Showing Improvement (Figure ● There are several ways to inspect a record:
5.3) ○ Checking for errors in amounts and
totals
○ Looking for opportunities for improving
the recording form design
○ Observing the number and type of
transactions
○ Watching for instances in which the
computer can simplify the work
(calculations and other data
manipulation)

Data Capture Forms

● Collect examples of all the forms in use
● Note the type of form
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● Document the intended distribution pattern ● Signs or posters on bulletin boards

● Compare the intended distribution pattern with ● Corporate websites
who actually receives the form ● Manuals
● Policy handbooks
Questions to Ask about Official and Bootleg Forms that
Are Already Filled out (Figure 5.5) Analysis of Memos Provides Insight into the Metaphors
that Guide the Organization’s Thinking (Figure 5.6)

Observation
● Observation provides insight on what
organizational members actually do
● See firsthand the relationships that exist
between decision makers and other
organizational members
Questions to Ask About Forms ● Can also reveal important clues regarding HCI
● Is the form filled out in its entirety? concerns
● Are there forms that are never used?
● Are all copies of forms circulated to the proper
people or filed appropriately?
● Can people who must access online forms do Analyst’s Playscript
so? ● Involves observing the decision makers behavior
● If there is a paper form that is offered as an and recording their actions using a series of
alternative to a Web-based form, compare the action verbs
completion rates for both ● Examples:
● Are “unofficial” forms being used on a regular ○ Talking
basis? ○ Sampling
○ Corresponding
Analyzing Qualitative Documents ○ Deciding
● Key or guiding metaphors
● Insiders vs. outsiders mentality A Sample Page from the Analyst’s Playscript (Figure
● What is considered good vs. evil 5.7)
● Graphics, logos, and icons in common areas or
web pages
● A sense of humor

Analyzing Qualitative Documents

● Email messages and memos

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● Does the decision maker prefer to gather and

store information personally?
● Is the storage area large or small?

Props
● Is there evidence that the decision maker uses a
PC, smart phone, or tablet computer in the
office?

External Information Sources

● Does the decision maker get much information
from external sources such as trade journals or
the Web?

Office Lighting and Color

● Is the lighting set up to do detailed
work or more appropriate for casual
STROBE communication?
STRuctured OBservation of the Environment—a ● Are the colors warm and inviting?
technique for observing the decision-maker’s physical
environment Clothing
● Does the decision maker show authority by
STROBE wearing conservative suits?
● Often it is possible to observe the particulars of ● Are employees required to wear uniforms?
the surroundings that will confirm or negate the
organizational narrative STROBE and Decision-Maker Characteristics (Figure
○ Also called stories or dialogue 5.9)
○ Information that is found through
interviews or questionnaires

STROBE Elements
● Office location
● Desk placement
● Stationary equipment
● Props
● External information sources
● Office lighting and color
● Clothing worn by decision makers
Applying STROBE
Office Location ● The five symbols used to evaluate how
● Who has the corner office? observation of the elements of STROBE
● Are the key decision makers dispersed over compared with interview results are:
separate floors? ○ A checkmark means the narrative is
confirmed
Desk Placement ○ An “X” means the narrative is reversed
● Does the placement of the desk encourage ○ An oval or eye-shaped symbol serves as
communication? a cue
● Does the placement demonstrate power? ○ to look further
○ A square means observation modifies
Stationary Office Equipment the
○ narrative
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○ A circle means narrative is Agile modeling is distinct from structured methods as a

supplemented by systems development approach that helps develop
○ observation systems rapidly. Scrum is an agile method that is
suitable for more complex systems projects. Using
An Anecdotal List with Symbols (Figure 5.10) Scrum, a limited number of features or tasks are
selected for completion in a sprint, typically lasting two
to four weeks. The result of the sprint is a potentially
shippable product. Once the sprint ends, the process
begins again with new priorities and features to be
finished in the next sprint. There are specific roles to
play in Scrum, and there are also specific actions to take.
DevOps (derived from Development and Operations) is
a cultural shift in the organization. It can create two
approaches in the organization that run on parallel
tracks, one track supports developing rapid innovative
applications, and the other supports the maintenance
and operations of those processes already in place.

Prototyping: A systems analyst presenting a prototype

of an information system is keenly interested in the
reactions of users and management to the prototype.
The analyst wants to know in detail how they react to
Summary
working with the prototype and how good the fit is
● Sampling
between their needs and the prototyped features of the
○ Designing a good sample
system. Reactions are gathered through observation,
○ Types of samples
interviews, and feedback sheets (possibly
○ Sample size
questionnaires) designed to elicit each person’s opinion
● Hard data
about the prototype as he or she interacts with it.
○ Quantitative document analysis
Information gathered in the prototyping phase allows an
○ Qualitative document analysis
analyst to set priorities and redirect plans inexpensively,
● Observation
with minimal disruption. Therefore, prototyping and
○ Playscript
planning go hand in hand.
● STROBE
○ STROBE elements
Kinds of Prototypes
○ Applying STROBE
PATCHED-UP PROTOTYPE - The first kind of prototyping
has to do with constructing a system that works but is
patched up or patched together. In engineering, this
approach is referred to as breadboarding: creating a
patched-together, working model of an (otherwise
CHAPTER 6: AGILE MODELING, PROTOTYPING, AND
microscopic) integrated circuit.
SCRUM
An example in information systems is a working model
This chapter explores agile modeling, which is a
that has all the necessary features but is inefficient. In
collection of innovative, user-centered approaches to
this instance of prototyping, users can interact with the
systems development. You will learn the values and
system and get accustomed to the interface and the
principles, activities, resources, practices, processes,
types of output available. The retrieval and storage of
and tools associated with agile methodologies. Agile
information may be inefficient, however, because
approaches have their roots in prototyping, so this
applications were written rapidly, with the objective of
chapter begins with prototyping to provide a proper
being workable rather than efficient.
context for understanding, and then it takes up the agile
approach later in the chapter.

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NONOPERATIONAL PROTOTYPE - The second SELECTED FEATURES PROTOTYPE - A fourth conception

conception of a prototype is that of a nonworking scale of prototyping concerns building an operational model
model that is set up to test certain aspects of the that includes some, but not all, of the features that the
design. An example of this approach is a full-scale model final system will have. An analogy would be a new retail
of an automobile that is used in wind tunnel tests. The shopping mall that opens before the construction of all
size and shape of the auto are precise, but the car is not shops is complete. When prototyping information
operational. In this case, only features of the systems in this way, some, but not all, essential features
automobile that are essential to wind tunnel testing are are included. For example, users may view a system
included. menu on a screen that lists six features: add a record,
A nonworking scale model of an information system update a record, delete a record, search a record for a
might be produced when the coding required by the key word, list a record, or scan a record. In the
applications is too extensive to prototype but when a prototyped system, however, only three of the six may
useful idea of the system can be gained through the be available for use, so that the user may add a record
prototyping of the input and output only. In this (feature 1), delete a record (feature 3), and list a record
instance, processing, because of undue cost and time, (feature 5). User feedback can help analysts understand
would not be prototyped. Users could still make what is working and what isn’t. It also can help with
decisions on the utility of the system, based on their use suggestions on what features to add next.
of prototyped input and output.

FIRST-OF-A-SERIES PROTOTYPE - A third conception of

prototyping involves creating a first fullscale model of a
system, often called a pilot. An example is prototyping
the first airplane of a series and then seeing whether it
flies before building a second. The prototype is
completely operational and is a realization of what the
designer hopes will be a series of airplanes with
identical features. This type of prototyping is useful
when many installations of the same information system
are planned. The full-scale working model allows users
to experience realistic interaction with the new system,
but it minimizes the cost of overcoming any problems it
presents. For example, when a retail grocery chain
intends to use blockchain (see Chapter 13) to check in
suppliers’ shipments in a number of outlets, a full-scale
implementation might be done in one store so users
could work through any problems before blockchain is
implemented as part of the supply chain in all the Agile Modeling
others. Agile methods are a collection of innovative,
user-centered approaches to systems development. You
will learn the values and principles, activities, resources,
practices, processes, and tools associated with agile
methodologies in the upcoming sections. Agile methods
have been credited with many successful systems
development projects and, in numerous cases, have
rescued companies from a failing system designed using
a structured methodology

Values and Principles of Agile Modeling

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FOUR VALUES OF AGILE MODELING - Testing is the second basic activity of

development. The agile approach views
automated tests as critical. The agile approach
advocates writing tests to check coding,
functionality, performance, and conformance.
Agile modeling relies on automated tests, and
large libraries of tests exist for most
programming languages. These tests need to be
updated as necessary during the progress of the
project.
- The third basic activity of development is
listening. In Chapter 4, we learned about the
importance of listening during interviews. In the
agile approach, listening is done in the extreme.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AGILE MODELING
Developers use active listening to hear their
1. Satisfy the customer through delivery of working
programming partner. In agile modeling, there is
software.
less reliance on formal, written communication,
2. Embrace change, even if introduced late in
so listening becomes a paramount skill.
development
- The fourth basic activity in development is
3. Continue to deliver functioning software
designing, which is a way of creating a structure
incrementally and frequently.
to organize all the logic in the system. Designing
4. Encourage customers and analysts to work together
is evolutionary, and systems designed using the
daily.
agile approach are conceptualized as evolving,
5. Trust motivated individuals to get the job done.
as always being designed.
6. Promote face-to-face conversation.
7. Concentrate on getting software to work.
FOUR RESOURCE CONTROL VARIABLES OF AGILE
8. Encourage continuous, regular, and sustainable
MODELING
development.
● Time
9. Adopt agility with attention to mindful design.
● Cost
10. Support self-organizing teams.
● Quality
11. Provide rapid feedback.
● Scope
12. Encourage quality.
FOUR CORE AGILE PRACTICES
13. Review and adjust behavior occasionally.
14. Adopt simplicity.

FOUR BASIC ACTIVITIES OF AGILE DEVELOPMENT

Agile methods use four basic activities of development:
coding, testing, listening, and designing.
- Coding is designated as the one activity that it is
not possible to do without. Beck (2000) states
that the most valuable thing we receive from
code is “learning.” The process is basically this:
have a thought, code it, test it, and see whether
the thought was a logical one. Code also can be
used to communicate ideas that would
otherwise remain fuzzy or unshaped. When
others see your code, they may get a new
thought (Beck, 2000).

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The Agile Development Process The Scrum Master plays many roles, including serving as
Modeling is a keyword in agile methods. Agile modeling the team’s coach, a knowledgeable adviser, an
seizes on the opportunity to create models. experienced developer, and a facilitator. The Scrum
Agile is the other keyword in agile modeling. Agile Master is indeed a coach, but he or she may take on
implies maneuverability. Today’s systems, especially additional roles such as captain of a ship, a jungle guide
those that are Web-based, pose twin demands: getting who clear paths for the team, or even a guardian. A
software released as soon as possible and continually Scrum Master needs to be both knowledgeable in agile
improving the software to add new features. A systems practices and have the experience to help the team. The
analyst needs to have the ability and the methods to Scrum Master is a facilitator of the team, but sometimes
create dynamic, context-sensitive, scalable, and takes on the role of clearing obstacles for them (like the
evolutionary applications. Agile modeling is therefore a jungle guide). The culture of the group depends on the
change-embracing method. Scrum Master. He or she selects the team members,
WRITING USER STORIES Even though the title of this organizes and moderates Scrum meetings, and
section is “Writing User Stories,” the emphasis in the moderates conflict internally and externally.
creation of user stories is on spoken interaction
between developers and users, not written Team members play a more significant role in Scrum.
communication. In user stories, a developer is seeking Team members:
first and foremost to identify valuable business user 1. Work to create and improve user stories.
requirements. Users will typically engage in 2. Generate estimates.
conversations every day with the developers about the 3. Self-organize to complete the work.
meaning of the user stories they have written. These 4. Exhibit willingness to participate in any activity to
frequent conversations are purposeful interactions that help the project.
have as their goal the prevention of misunderstandings Teams members are chosen for their soft and technical
or misinterpretations of user requirements. Therefore, skills. Recall that soft skills include communication and
user stories serve as reminders to the developers that building relationships. Members may include designers,
they must hold conversations devoted to those coders, a user interface expert, a tester, and a domain
requirements. expert who knows about the business and the customer.

Scrum The product backlog is composed of features and other

Another agile approach is named Scrum. The word deliverables designers intend for the product based on
scrum is taken from a starting position in rugby in which user stories. In addition to listing features to add to an
the rugby teams form a huddle and fight for possession application, a product backlog also lists bugs to fix or
of the ball. Scrum is really about teamwork, similar to even applications that need to be documented.
what is needed in playing a game of rugby.
The Sprint Cycle
Roles Played in Scrum Keeping a list in product backlog is one thing, but the
There are three roles in Scrum. registry doesn’t accomplish anything unless the team
1. Product owner starts working on user stories in the list. A sprint backlog
2. Scrum Master is created to select the user stories that need to be
3. Team member completed soon. Stories are deliverables the team
The product owner might be viewed as a project creator accomplishes. Tasks, on the other hand, are parts of the
because he or she expresses the vision for the product. story or units of work that each team members does.
The product owner also is responsible for initial plans
for the project, releases of the product, and the final Other Unique Scrum Features
assessment. SCRUM PLANNING MEETING
There are two parts to a Scrum planning meeting. First,
the product owner presents the list of features on the
wish list of user stories. At this point, the team asks
questions of the product owner. The second part
involves estimating the resources needed to complete
all of the features.
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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

SCRUM PLANNING POKER Data Flow Diagrams

Planning poker is a way to help the team determine ● Graphically characterize data processes and
estimates for completing the features that arise from flows in a business system
user stories. ● Depict:
DAILY SCRUM MEETINGS ○ System inputs
The meeting that starts off the daily Scrum is called a ○ Processes
stand-up meeting because it lasts only a few minutes ○ Outputs
(the concept implies that team members will stand, but
only for a short time). Major Topics
USING BURNDOWN CHARTS ● Data flow diagram symbols
One way to keep track of performance is to use a sprint ● Data flow diagram levels
burndown chart. ● Creating data flow diagrams
SPRINT REVIEW ● physical and logical data flow diagrams
At the end of a sprint, the team gets together in a ● Partitioning
meeting to review the work that was done and note any ● Communicating using data flow diagrams
tasks that were not completed.
Advantages of the Data Flow Approach
Kanban ● Freedom from committing to the technical
Kanban is a concept developed by Toyota to achieve a implementation too early
more effective and efficient way of delivering products. ● Understanding of the interrelatedness of
The word’s meaning in English is “signboard,” a method systems and subsystems
of directing consumers to certain areas to find products ● Communicating current system knowledge to
or directing employees to a location to replenish items. users
The concept of kanban is widely used in software ● Analysis of the proposed system
development today.
Basic Symbols
DevOps: A Cultural Shift for App Development ● A double square for an external entity
DevOps, which is derived from the words ● An arrow for movement of data from one point
“Development” and “Operations,” is one way to to another
decrease the deployment time for newly developed ● A rectangle with rounded corners for the
applications and maximize profit by rapidly addressing occurrence of a transforming process
market opportunities and getting customer feedback in ● An open-ended rectangle for a data store
a timely manner. DevOps tries to merge these
processes. The Four Basic Symbols Used in Data Flow Diagrams,
Their Meanings, and Examples (Figure 7.1)
CHAPTER 7: USING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS

Learning Objectives
● Comprehend the importance of using logical
and physical data flow diagrams (DFDs) to
graphically depict movement for humans and
systems in an organization.
● Create, use, and explode logical DFDs to capture
and analyze the current system through parent
and child levels.
● Develop and explode logical DFDs that illustrate
the proposed system.
● Produce physical DFDs based on logical DFDs
you have developed.
● Understand and apply the concept of
partitioning
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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

External Entities Creating the Context Diagram

● Represent another department, a business, a ● The highest level in a data flow diagram
person, or a machine ● Contains only one process, representing thE
● A source or destination of data, outside the entire system
boundaries of the system ● The process is given the number 0
● Should be named with a noun ● All external entities, as well as major data flows
are shown
Data Flow
● Shows movement of data from one point to Basic Rules
another ● The data flow diagram must have one process
● Described with a noun ● Must not be any freestanding objects
● Arrowhead indicates the flow direction ● A process must have both an input and output
● Represents data about a person, place, or thing data flow
● A data store must be connected to at least one
Process process
● Denotes a change in or transformation of data ● External entities should not be connected to
● Represents work being performed in the system one another
● Naming convention:
○ Assign the name of the whole system Context Diagram (Figure 7.3)
when naming a high-level process
○ To name a major subsystem attach the
word subsystem to the name
○ Use the form verb-adjective-noun for
detailed processes

Data Store
● A depository for data that allows examination,
addition, and retrieval of data Drawing Diagram 0
● Named with a noun, describing the data ● The explosion of the context diagram
● Data stores are usually given a unique reference ● May include up to nine processes
number, such as D1, D2, D3 ● Each process is numbered
● Represents a: ● Major data stores and all external entities are
○ Database included
○ Computerized file
○ Filing cabinet Drawing Diagram 0 (continued)
● Start with the data flow from an entity on the
Steps in Developing Data Flow Diagrams (Figure 7.2) input side
● Work backward from an output data flow
● Examine the data flow to or from a data store
● Analyze a well-defined process
● Take note of any fuzzy areas

Note Greater Detail in Diagram 0 (Figure 7.3)

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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

Data Flow Diagram Levels

● Data flow diagrams are built in layers
● The top level is the context level
● Each process may explode to a lower level
● The lower level diagram number is the same as Data Flow Diagrams Error Summary
the parent process number ● Forgetting to include a data flow or pointing an
● Processes that do not create a child diagram are arrow in the wrong direction
called primitive ● Connecting data stores and external entities
directly to each other
Creating Child Diagrams ● Incorrectly labeling processes or data flow
● Each process on diagram 0 may be exploded to
create a child diagram
● A child diagram cannot produce output or Data Flow Diagrams Error Summary (continued)
receive input that the parent process does not ● Including more than nine processes on a data
also produce or receive flow diagram
● The child process is given the same number as ● Omitting data flow
the parent process ● Creating unbalanced decomposition (or
○ Process 3 would explode to Diagram 3 explosion) in child diagrams

Creating Child Diagrams (continued) Checking the Diagrams for Errors (Figure 7.5)
● Entities are usually not shown on the child ● Forgetting to include a data flow or pointing an
diagrams below Diagram 0 arrow in the wrong direction
● If the parent process has data flow connecting
to a data store, the child diagram may include
the data store as well
● When a process is not exploded, it is called a
primitive process

Differences between the Parent Diagram (above) and

the Child Diagram (below) (Figure 7.4)

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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

Checking the Diagrams for Errors (continued Figure 7.5) ○ Depicts the system
● Connecting data stores and external entities
directly to each other Features Common of Logical and Physical Data Flow
Diagrams (Figure 7.7)

Typical Errors that Can Occur in a Data Flow Diagram

(Payroll Example) (continued Figure 7.5) The Progression of Models from Logical to Physical
(Figure 7.8)

Logical Data Flow Diagram Example (Figure 7.9)

Logical and Physical Data Flow Diagrams
● Logical
○ Focuses on the business and how the
business operates
○ Not concerned with how the system will
be constructed
○ Describes the business events that take
place and the data required and
produced by each event
Physical Data Flow Diagram Example (Figure 7.9)
Logical and Physical Data Flow Diagrams
● Physical
○ Shows how the system will be
implemented
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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

● A CRUD matrix is a tool to represent where each

of these processes occurs in a system

CRUD Matrix (Figure 7.11)

Developing Logical Data Flow Diagrams

● Better communication with users
● More stable systems
● Better understanding of the business by analysts
● Flexibility and maintenance
● Elimination of redundancy and easier creation
of the physical model

Developing Physical Data Flow Diagrams

● Clarifying which processes are performed by Event Modeling and Data Flow Diagrams
humans and which are automated ● An input flow from an external entity is
● Describing processes in more detail sometimes called a trigger because it starts the
● Sequencing processes that have to be done in a activities of a process
particular order ● Events cause the system to do something and
● Identifying temporary data stores act as a trigger to the system
● Specifying actual names of files and printouts ● An approach to creating physical data flow
● Adding controls to ensure the processes are diagrams is to create a data flow diagram
done properly fragment for each unique system event

Physical Data Flow Diagrams Contain Many Items Not Event Response Tables
Found in Logical Data Flow Diagrams (Figure 7.10) ● An event table is used to create a data flow
diagram by analyzing each event and the data
used and produced by the event
● Every row in an event table represents a data
flow diagram fragment and is used to create a
single process on a data flow diagram

An Event Response Table for an Internet Storefront

(Figure 7.12)

CRUD Matrix
● The acronym CRUD is often used for
○ Create
○ Read
○ Update
○ Delete
● These are the activities that must be present in
a system for each master file
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From Opismeyts Dio, Viv, Mau

Communicating Using Data Flow Diagrams

Data Flow Diagrams for the First Three Rows of the ● Use unexploded data flow diagrams early when
Internet Storefront Event Response Table (Figure 7.13) ascertaining information requirements
● Meaningful labels for all data components

Summary
● Data flow diagrams
○ Structured analysis and design tools
that allow the analyst to comprehend
the system and subsystems visually as a
set of interrelated data flows
● DFD symbols
○ Rounded rectangle
○ Double square
○ An arrow
○ Open-ended rectangle

Summary (continued)
Use Cases and Data Flow Diagrams ● Creating the logical DFD
● Each use case defines one activity and its ○ Context-level data flow diagram
trigger, input, and output ○ Level 0 logical data flow diagram
● Allows the analyst to work with users to ○ Child diagrams
understand the nature of the processes and ● Creating the physical DFD
activities and then create a single data flow ○ Create from the logical data flow
diagram fragment diagram
○ Partitioned to facilitate programming
Partitioning Data Flow Diagrams
● Partitioning is the process of examining a data Summary (continued)
flow diagram and determining how it should be ● Partitioning data flow diagrams
divided into collections of manual procedures ○ Whether processes are performed by
and computer programs different user groups
● A dashed line is drawn around a process or ○ Processes execute at the same time
group of processes that should be placed in a ○ Processes perform similar tasks
single computer program ○ Batch processes can be combined for
efficiency of data
Reasons for Partitioning ○ Processes may be partitioned into
● Different user groups different programs for security reasons
● Timing
● Similar tasks
● Efficiency
● Consistency of data
● Security

Partitioning Websites
● Improves the way humans use the site
● Improves speed of processing
● Ease of maintaining the site
● Keep the transaction secure

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