UNIT I
After independence, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, initiated reforms to
promote higher education and science and technology in India. The Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT)—conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs in order
to promote technical education—was inaugurated on 18 August 1951 at Kharagpur in West
Bengal by the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. More IITs were soon opened in
Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s along with the
regional RECs (now National Institutes of Technology (NIT). Beginning in the 1960s, close ties
with the Soviet Union enabled the Indian Space Research Organisation to rapidly develop the
Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test
explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.
India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and development in Asia and the
number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007. However, according
to former Indian science and technology minister Kapil Sibal, India is lagging in science and
technology compared to developed countries. India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000
population, compared to 4,651 in the United States.India invested US$3.7 billion in science and
technology in 2002–2003. For comparison, China invested about four times more than India,
while the United States invested approximately 75 times more than India on science and
technology.
While India has increased its output of scientific papers fourfold between 2000 and 2015
overtaking Russia and France in absolute number of papers per year, that rate has been exceeded
by China and Brazil; Indian papers generate fewer cites than average, and relative to its
population it has few scientists.
In the global landscape, science & technology, and innovation (STI) have emerged as
fundamental drivers of national development. Throughout its history since independence, India
has implemented four major policies aimed at fostering STI:
1. Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) 1958
2. Technology Policy Statement 1983
3. Science and Technology Policy 2003 (STP 2003)
4. Science Technology Innovation Policy 2013 (STIP 2013)
As India pursues faster, more sustainable, and inclusive growth, the Indian STI system, buoyed
by a significant demographic dividend and a vast talent pool, is poised to play a pivotal role in
realizing these national objectives.
Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) 1958
■ Origin:
■ Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) 1958 initiated by the government of Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
■ Nehru envisioned India as a welfare state, recognizing the pivotal role of science
and technology in achieving this vision.
■ Objectives:
■ Establish scientific enterprise and temper in India.
■ Utilize science and technology as drivers for socio-economic transformation.
■ Reduce dependency on raw materials and capital through scientific advancements.
■ Narrow the gap between India and developed countries.
■ Strategies:
■ Emphasize investment in science and technology for national prosperity.
■ Develop educational programs to produce a skilled workforce in science.
■ Foster a culture of scientific creativity and innovation among citizens.
■ Recognize the importance of science in various sectors such as agriculture and
defense.
■ Implementation:
■ Focus on cultivating scientific enterprise in pure and applied research.
■ Prioritize the development of high-quality scientists.
■ Establish mechanisms for scientific activity, acquisition, dissemination, and
discovery of new knowledge.
■ Result:
■ SPR 1958 led to the establishment of numerous scientific organizations and
national laboratories.
■ Significantly contributed to research and development (R&D) and higher
education in India.
■ Initially, technology development was considered secondary to scientific research
but later gained prominence.
Technology Policy Statement 1983
Following the Scientific Policy Resolution (SPR) 1958, India focused on developing its scientific
enterprise over three decades. By the early 1980s, India had built a strong industrial and
agricultural base and possessed a skilled workforce.
■ Objectives:
■ Technology Policy Statement (TPS) 1983 aimed to address societal needs and
aspirations through technological development.
■ Emphasized achieving technological self-reliance by promoting indigenous
technologies.
■ Highlighted the importance of efficient adoption of imported technologies while
safeguarding national interests.
■ Prioritized replacing obsolete technologies with those enhancing productivity,
efficiency, and quality.
■ Conclusion:
■ TPS 1983 played a crucial role in promoting technological self-reliance and
fostering indigenous technological development.
■ It laid the groundwork for leveraging technology to benefit all sections of society
and improve conditions for the disadvantaged.
■ However, shifting economic policies post-1991 posed challenges to the vision of
technological self-reliance, necessitating a reevaluation of strategies in the face of
globalization.
Science and Technology Policy 2003 (STP 2003)
By the early 2000s, India had established a robust infrastructure in science and technology,
recognizing the evolving dynamics in these fields. Science and technology practices were
becoming more multidisciplinary and globally interconnected, demanding a comprehensive
policy approach.
■ Objectives:
■ Science and Technology Policy (STP) 2003 aimed to address the evolving
landscape of science and technology and its impact on society and the economy.
■ Recognized the need for integrating science and technology initiatives for
equitable and sustainable development in a globalized world.
■ Outcomes:
■ STP 2003 facilitated advancements in R&D, innovation, and human capacity,
contributing to India’s scientific and technological progress.
■ Increased collaboration between industry and academia, leading to the
development of intellectual property and the mitigation of natural hazards.
■ Enhanced focus on science diplomacy and international cooperation, especially
among developing nations, further bolstered India’s standing in the global
scientific community.
Science Technology Innovation Policy 2013 (STIP 2013)
The decade from 2010 to 2020 was designated as a decade of innovation under Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh’s leadership. Recognized the necessity of transitioning to a knowledge-based
economy to maintain global competitiveness.
■ Objectives:
■ Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy (STIP) 2013 aimed to synergize
science, technology, and innovation to position India among the top five global
scientific powers.
■ Promoted a science and technology-led innovation ecosystem linked to
socio-economic priorities.
■ Key Features:
■ Introduced “innovation” as a critical component, emphasizing the importance of
fostering a robust national innovation ecosystem.
■ Encouraged private-sector contributions to the R&D ecosystem to drive science
and technology-led innovation.
■ Directed scientific discoveries towards developmental priorities in sectors like
agriculture, manufacturing, water, health, environment, and infrastructure.
■ Impact:
■ Facilitated India’s increased participation in global mega-science initiatives such
as LIGO, LHC (CERN), ITER, and SKA.
■ Contributed to aligning scientific outputs with developmental goals and
addressing key societal challenges.
■ Challenges and Future Evaluation:
■ Despite progress, the full impact of STIP 2013 remains to be comprehensively
evaluated.
■ Ongoing assessment is necessary to understand the policy’s effectiveness in
driving innovation and addressing socio-economic priorities.
■ Conclusion:
■ STIP 2013 represented a significant shift towards promoting innovation-driven
growth and addressing societal challenges through science and technology.
■ Continued evaluation and refinement of the policy are essential to sustain
momentum and achieve desired outcomes in the innovation ecosystem.
Satellite
A satellite is an object in space that orbits or circles around a bigger object. There are two kinds
of satellites: natural (such as the moon orbiting the Earth) or artificial (such as the International
Space Station orbiting the Earth).There are dozens upon dozens of natural satellites in the solar
system, with almost every planet having at least one moon.
As of May the 4th, 2024 (be with you), the satellite tracking website “Orbiting Now” lists 9,900
active satellites in various Earth orbits. A deeper dive into numbers of satellite that are in space
reveals how small satellites have come to dominate low Earth orbit.
Where do these satellites orbit?
In the three main categories of Earth orbits, small satellites dominate LEO while large satellites
dominate GEO.
GEO 12%
MEO 3%
LEO 84%
Low orbits are easier to reach and have certain advantages for small satellites. Radio signals take
much less time to reach LEO than GEO. As a result, low-orbiting communications satellites can
deliver higher-quality internet service. Being closer to Earth also lets satellites communicate with
Industrial Internet of Things (IoT) devices despite these devices’ low-power radios.
Satellite communication in India involves the use of satellites to transmit and receive
signals for various purposes, such as telecommunications, broadcasting, internet connectivity,
and weather monitoring. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has developed and
launched a series of communication satellites, including the INSAT and GSAT(Geosynchronous
Satellite) series, to provide a wide range of services across the country. These satellites facilitate
long-distance communication, enable connectivity in remote areas, and support the growth of
telecommunication and broadcasting sectors in India.
The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system was commissioned with the launch of INSAT-1B
in August 1983 (INSAT-1A, the first satellite was launched in April 1982 but could not fulfil the
mission). INSAT system ushered in a revolution in India's television and radio broadcasting,
telecommunications and meteorological sectors.
The Indian National Satellite System or INSAT, is a series of multipurpose geostationary
satellites launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to satisfy
telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations.
Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Indo-Pacific
Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications,
India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination
and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination
Committee.
INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands to serve the television and
communication needs of India. Some of the satellites also have the Very High Resolution
Radiometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for meteorological imaging. The satellites also incorporate
transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for search and rescue missions in the South
Asian and Indian Ocean Region, as ISRO is a member of the Cospas-Sarsat program.
Applications of INSAT
Modern communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low
Earth orbits.
Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental
monitoring, meteorology, map making etc.
Navigational satellites (e.g. GPS) are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable
mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight
between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics,
allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters
in real time.
Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth’s weather and climate.
Reconnaissance(the study of a place or area for military reasons.) satellites are Earth observation
satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications.
Starlink (SpaceX) and OneWeb have projects to launch constellations of hundreds of satellites,
which could provide a cheaper broadband service.
INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) has a variety of applications, primarily focused on
telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations. Here are
some of the key applications:
1. Telecommunications:
- Providing telecommunication services across the Indian subcontinent, including telephone
and data transmission.
- Supporting long-distance communication networks.
2. Broadcasting:
- Facilitating television and radio broadcasting services.
- Supporting Direct-to-Home (DTH) broadcasting.
3. Meteorology:
- Gathering meteorological data to assist in weather forecasting and analysis.
- Providing real-time weather monitoring and predictions to aid in disaster management and
planning.
4. Search and Rescue Operations:
- Assisting in search and rescue missions through the Cospas-Sarsat satellite-based search and
rescue system.
- Helping locate distress signals from aircraft and ships.
5. Disaster Management:
- Providing critical information and communication links during natural disasters like cyclones,
floods, and earthquakes.
- Enabling better coordination and response during emergency situations.
INSAT has been a crucial part of India's space-based infrastructure, contributing significantly to
the country's socio-economic development by providing essential services across various sectors.
Application of Remote Sensing:
Remote means something which is not directly or physically in contact and sensing means
getting information about a particular field or area. Remote sensing is the process of gathering
the full information about an area without going physically into that particular area. In this given
article we discuss the application of remote sensing.
Remote Sensing Application
There are some applications of remote sensing used in various fields.
1. Agriculture
When farmers observe their fields, and their conditions without physically touching them, it is a
form of remote sensing. Observing the overall appearance of crop can determine the crop and its
condition. Remotely captured images provide a means to assess field conditions without
physically touching them. Another application of remote sensing in agriculture field is the
following.
● the content of moisture in the soil.
● Determining crop type and classifying it.
● Crop condition assessment.
● Increasing precision in farming.
● Determining crop damage and crop progress.
● Crop identification.
● Water content determination of the field crop.
● Mapping of soil characteristics.
● Mapping of soil management practices.
● Determine crop health.
2. Forestry
Forest research is utilizing the most up-to-date remote sensing tools, including data collection of
various types of animals, plants, stones, minerals, and all-over things that are included in the
forest. All data collected from satellites, aircraft, and drones i.e. remote sensing materials. Some
application of remote sensing in forest department is the following:
● Forest cover.
● Determine the type of forest.
● Vegetation density.
● Deforestation controlling.
● Control forest fires.
● Biomass estimation.
● Analyzing the actual condition of the forest.
3. Geology
Geology is the study of the solid earth. Geologists use remote sensing materials to decipher the
earth and understand the process that occurs on and inside it. Remote sensing technology can be
used for geological investigation and explorations of minerals and geothermal energy. Another
application if remote sensing is the following.
● Bedrock mapping.
● Lithological mapping.
● Structural mapping.
● Mineral exploration.
● Hydrocarbon exploration.
● Environmental geology.
● Geobotany.
● Sedimentation mapping and monitoring.
● Event mapping and monitoring.
● Geo-hazard mapping.
4. Hydrology
Remotely sensed data are nowadays commonly used for regional and global monitoring of
rainfall, water level, and flood. In the years to come, recent and modern satellite sensors are
specially designed for hydrological purposes. Some application of remote sensing in the
hydrology field is the following:
● Wetlands mapping and monitoring.
● Soil moisture estimation.
● Measuring snow thickness.
● Determining snow-water equivalent.
● River and lake ice monitoring.
● Flood mapping and monitoring.
● Glacier dynamics monitoring.
● River/ delta change detection.
● Drainage basin mapping and watershed modeling irrigation canal leakage detection.
5.Sea Ice
To study seawater and sea ice various tools can be used. Remote sensing technology i.e. satellite
and airborne technology is being developed. The new technology can easily detect changes and
inform the user. The application of remote sensing in Sea ice is following:
● Ice concentration.
● Determine ice type, age, and motion.
● Iceberg detection and tracking.
● Surface topography.
● Tactical identification of leads: navigation: safe shipping routes/ rescue.
● Historical ice and iceberg conditions and dynamics for planning purposes.
● Ice condition(state or decay)
● Wildlife Habitat.
6. Oceans and Coastal Monitoring
Remote sensing in oceanography mostly measures the properties of the ocean surface with
sensors on satellites or planes. Remote sensing instruments can receive radiation from the earth’s
surface, whether reflected from the sun or emitted. Some generally used application of remote
sensing in Oceans and coastal monitoring field is the following:
● Ocean pattern identification: currents, regional circulation patterns.
● Fish stock and marine mammal assessment water temperature monitoring water
quality.
● Tidal and storm effects.
● Coastal vegetation mapping.
● Human activities and their impact.
● Ocean salinity.
Cryogenic rocket engines:
Meaning of Cryogenics • In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production of very low
temperature(below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123 K) and the behavior of materials at those
temperatures .
Cryogenic technology • Cryogenic technology involves the use of rocket propellants at
extremely low temperatures. • The combination of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen offers
the highest energy efficiency for rocket engines that need to produce large amounts of thrust. •
Oxygen remains a liquid only at temperatures below minus 183 ° Celsius and hydrogen at
below minus 253 ° Celsius.
History of Cryogenic Technology • The United States was the first country to develop
cryogenic rocket engines. with RL-10 engines, registered its first successful flight in 1963 and
is still used on the Atlas V rocket. • Then The Japanese LE-5 engine flew in 1977 ,French
HM-7 in 1979 , Chinese YF-73 in 1984 . • The Soviet Union, first country to put a satellite
and later a human in space, successfully launched a rocket with a cryogenic engine only in
1987.
To India the U.S., Japan and France would either not provide the technology or do so only at
an exorbitant price. • The 11D56 cryogenic engine had been developed for one of the upper
stages of the mammoth N1 rocket, the Soviet equivalent of Saturn V. But after four successive
launch failures, the N1 project was scrapped and its engines were mothballed. • The deal
violated the Missile Technology Control Regime, which was intended to prevent the spread of
missile-related technology, and fell foul of the U.S. laws meant to enforce its provisions.
Despite warnings from within the organization, ISRO opted to go ahead with the import. In
May 1992, the U.S. imposed sanctions on ISRO and Glavkosmos. A year later, Russia, which
received the contract after the break-up of the Soviet Union, backed out of the deal.
ISRO then had no option but to develop the technology on its own. • At the time, ISRO gave
the impression that much of the technology had already been acquired and further
development would be quick. • A GSLV with an indigenous cryogenic engine would be ready
to fly in about four years, Chairman U.R. Rao told in July 1993. Instead, it has taken 16 years.
It involves a complicated ‘staged combustion cycle' to increase the engine efficiency. •
Hydrogen is partially burnt with a little oxygen in a gas generator. The hot gases drive a
turbo-pump and are then injected at high pressure into the thrust chamber where the rest of
oxygen is introduced and full combustion takes place. • Before going to the gas generator, the
incredibly chilly liquid hydrogen is used to cool the thrust chamber where temperatures rise to
over 3,0000 ° Celsius when the engine is fired.
Production & Manufacturing • The Indian cryogenic engine is produced by Godrej and the
Hyderabad-based MTAR Technologies working together as a consortium. • Instead of ISRO
first mastering the technology and transferring it to industry, the two companies were
involved from the start and even the early prototypes were built by them.
Why didn't the cryogenic engine of India ignite? • The GSLV D3, which lifted off well from
Sriharikota on Thursday, April 15, 2010 later plunged into the sea as the indigenous cryogenic
engine failed to ignite. • The vehicle lifted off as planned at 4.27 p.m. and its performance
was normal up to the end of its second stage till 293 seconds from the lift-off. • An
authoritative former ISRO official said: “It is very clear that the cryogenic engine did not
ignite when you look at the curve [of the vehicle's trajectory] • the vehicle developed
problems when the cryogenic upper stage should have ignited 304 seconds after the lift-off,
and it fell into the sea
Advantages • High Energy per unit mass: Propellants like oxygen and hydrogen in liquid
form give very high amounts of energy per unit mass due to which the amount of fuel to be
carried aboard the rockets decreases. • Clean Fuels Hydrogen and oxygen are extremely clean
fuels. When they combine, they give out only water. This water is thrown out of the nozzle in
form of very hot vapour. Thus the rocket is nothing but a high burning steam engine •
Economical Use of oxygen and hydrogen as fuels is very economical, as liquid oxygen costs
less than gasoline.
Drawbacks: • Boil off Rate • Highly reactive gases • Leakage • Hydrogen Embrittlement •
Zero Gravity conditions
The next generation of the Rocket Engines • All rocket engines burn their fuel to generate
thrust . If any other engine can generate enough thrust, that can also be used as a rocket
engine • There are a lot of plans for new engines that the NASA scientists are still working
with. One of them is the “ Xenon ion Engine”. This engine accelerate ions or atomic particles
to extremely high speeds to create thrust more efficiently. NASA's Deep Space-1 spacecraft
will be the first to use ion engines for propulsion. • There are some alternative solutions like
Nuclear thermal rocket engines, Solar thermal rockets, the electric rocket etc. • We are
looking forward that in the near future there will be some good technology to take us into
space
