Calculus For Engineers
Limit and Continuity
Dr. Ramesh Arumugam
Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences
VIT-AP University, Amaravati
[email protected]
Introduction - Single variable calculus
Function
A function f : X → Y is a rule that assigns a unique element f (x) ∈ Y
to each element x ∈ X.
Domain and Range of a function
Domain of a function: The set X of all possible input values
Range: The set of all output values of f (x), x ∈ X
Domain and Range of a function
Domain of a function: The set X of all possible input values
Range: The set of all output values of f (x), x ∈ X
Examples:
Graph of a function
Graph of a function
The points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-
output pairs. Mathematically, {(x, f (x))|x ∈ X}.
Example: y = x2
Graph of a function
Graph of a function
The points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-
output pairs. Mathematically, {(x, f (x))|x ∈ X}.
Example: y = x2
Functions and their Graphs
Constant function
Functions and their Graphs
Identity function
Functions and their Graphs
Linear function
Functions and their Graphs
Quadratic function
Functions and their Graphs
Quadratic function
Functions and their Graphs
Cubic function
Functions and their Graphs
Exponential function
Functions and their Graphs
Exponential function
Functions and their Graphs
Exponential function
Functions and their Graphs
Exponential function
Functions and their Graphs
Logarithmic function
Functions and their Graphs
Piece-wise function
Functions and their Graphs
Piece-wise function
−x if x ≤ 0
f (x) = x2 if 0 < x ≤ 1
1 if x > 1
Functions and their Graphs
Odd and Even functions
Functions and their Graphs
Trigonometric function
Functions and their Graphs
Trigonometric function
Functions and their Graphs
Trigonometric function
Functions and their Graphs
Trigonometric function
Functions and their Graphs
Trigonometric function
Functions and their Graphs
Trigonometric function
Functions and their Graphs
Horizontal shift of a graph: y = f (x + k)
Shifts the graph of f left k units if k > 0
Shifts the graph right |k| units if k < 0
Functions and their Graphs
Vertical shift of a
graph: y = f (x) + k
Shifts the graph of
f up k units if
k>0
Shifts the graph
down |k| units if
k<0
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
As x gets closer to 1, f (x) gets closer to 2.
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
As x gets closer to 1, f (x) gets closer to 2.
Suppose f (x) is defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c
itself
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
As x gets closer to 1, f (x) gets closer to 2.
Suppose f (x) is defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c
itself
If f (x) is arbitrarily close to the number L for all x sufficiently close to c,
we say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches c
Limit of a function
How does the function
x2 − 1
f (x) =
x−1
behave near x = 1?
As x gets closer to 1, f (x) gets closer to 2.
Suppose f (x) is defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c
itself
If f (x) is arbitrarily close to the number L for all x sufficiently close to c,
we say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches c
x2 − 1
lim =2
x→1 x−1
Definition of limit
Definition of limit
Definition of limit
Definition of limit
Definition of limit - Examples
Definition of limit - Examples
Definition of limit - Examples
Definition of limit - Examples
Definition of limit - Examples
Limit Laws
Limits of Polynomials and Rational functions
Limit - Examples
Limit - Examples
What is the behavior of functions as x approaches 0?
Limit - Examples
What is the behavior of functions as x approaches 0?
None of these functions has a limit as x approaches 0
One-sided limits
Consider the function
|x|
f (x) =
x
The function f (x) has limit 1 as x
approaches 0 from the right
lim f (x) = 1
x→0+
The function f (x) has limit -1 as x
approaches 0 from the left
lim f (x) = −1
x→0−
Continuous functions
Continuity at points a, b, c
Continuous functions
Continuous functions
lim bxc = n − 1
x→n−
lim bxc = n
x→n+
Types of Discontinuities
Removable discontinuity
(
x2 −1
x−1
if x 6= 0
f (x) =
2 if x = 0
Types of Discontinuities
Jump discontinuity
1 if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
0 if x < 0
Types of Discontinuities
Infinite discontinuity
1
f (x) =
x2
Types of Discontinuities
Oscillating discontinuity
1
f (x) = sin
x
Continuity - Examples
1. Find the points of discontinuity of the function whose graph is
2. Examine the continuity of the function
3x + 3
f (x) =
x2 − 3x − 4
Continuity - Examples
3. Check the continuity of the function
f (x) = max. {1 − x, 1 + x, 2}, x ∈ (−∞, ∞)
4. For what values of a, the function
a2 x − 2a if x ≤ 2
f (x) =
12 if x > 2
is continuous for all x.
5. Find the values of a and b for which the function
sin (a+1)x+sin x
x
if x < 0
g(x) = b if x = 0
√ √
x+x2
− x
if x > 0
3
x2
is continuous for all x in (−∞, ∞).
Rate of Change
Galileo’s law for free fall
A solid object dropped from rest (not moving) near
the surface of the earth and allowed to fall freely
will fall a distance proportional to the square of
the time it has been falling.
Rate of Change
Galileo’s law for free fall
A solid object dropped from rest (not moving) near
the surface of the earth and allowed to fall freely
will fall a distance proportional to the square of
the time it has been falling.
If y denotes the distance fallen in feet after t sec-
onds, then Galileo’s law is
y = 16t2
Rate of Change
Example
A rock breaks loose from the top of a tall cliff.
What is its average speed
(i) during the first 2 sec of fall?
(ii) during the 1-sec interval between second 1
and second 2?
Find the speed of the falling rock at 2 seconds
Rate of Change
Example
A rock breaks loose from the top of a tall cliff.
What is its average speed
(i) during the first 2 sec of fall?
(ii) during the 1-sec interval between second 1
and second 2?
Find the speed of the falling rock at 2 seconds
distance travelled f (t2 ) − f (t1 )
Average Speed over [t1 , t2 ] = =
elapsed time t2 − t1
Rates of Change and Secant Lines
The rate of change of f over
[x1 , x2 ] is the slope of the line
through the points P (x1 , f (x1 ))
and Q(x2 , f (x2 ))
A line joining two points of a curve
is a secant to the curve
Rates of Change and Tangent Lines
A tangent line to the curve at P : a line that just touches the curve
The tangent to the curve at P is the line through P whose slope is the
limit of the secant slopes as Q → P from either side.
Tangents and derivative
Tangents and derivative
Derivative and its interpretation
Derivative and its interpretation
The slope of the graph of y = f (x) at x = x0
Derivative and its interpretation
The slope of the graph of y = f (x) at x = x0
The slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at x = x0
Derivative and its interpretation
The slope of the graph of y = f (x) at x = x0
The slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at x = x0
The rate of change of f (x) with respect to x at x = x0
Derivative and its interpretation
The slope of the graph of y = f (x) at x = x0
The slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at x = x0
The rate of change of f (x) with respect to x at x = x0
The derivative f 0 (x) at a point
Rate of change - Examples
1. Find the average rate of change of the function f (t) = 2+cos t
over [0, π] and [−π, π].
2. Object dropped from a tower: An object is dropped from the
top of a 100-m-high tower. Its height above ground after t sec is
100 − 4.9t2 m. How fast is it falling 2 sec after it is dropped?
3. Speed of a rocket: At t sec after liftoff, the height of a rocket
is 3t2 ft. How fast is the rocket climbing 10 sec after liftoff?
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Motion Along a Line
Suppose that an object is moving along a coordinate line (an s-axis),
its position s on that line as a function of time t:
s = f (t)
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Motion Along a Line
Suppose that an object is moving along a coordinate line (an s-axis),
its position s on that line as a function of time t:
s = f (t)
Displacement
The displacement of the object over the time interval from t to t + ∆t
is
∆s = f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Motion Along a Line
Suppose that an object is moving along a coordinate line (an s-axis),
its position s on that line as a function of time t:
s = f (t)
Displacement
The displacement of the object over the time interval from t to t + ∆t
is
∆s = f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
Average Velocity
The average velocity of the object over that time interval is
displacement ∆s f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
vav = = =
travel time ∆t ∆t
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Velocity
Velocity (instantaneous velocity) is the derivative of position with
respect to time. If a body’s position at time t is s = f (t), then the
body’s velocity at time t is
ds f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
v(t) = = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Velocity
Velocity (instantaneous velocity) is the derivative of position with
respect to time. If a body’s position at time t is s = f (t), then the
body’s velocity at time t is
ds f (t + ∆t) − f (t)
v(t) = = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Acceleration
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time. If a
body’s position at time t is s = f (t), then the body’s acceleration at
time t is
dv d2 s
a(t) = =
dt dt2
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Example 1
The Derivative as a Rate of Change
Example 2
Example 3
Implicit Differentiation
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x
dy dy
Collect the terms with dx
on one side of the equation and solve for dx
dy
Example: Find dx
if y 2 = x2 + sin(xy)
d d d
y2 x2 +
= (sin xy)
dx dx dx
Implicit Differentiation
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x
dy dy
Collect the terms with dx
on one side of the equation and solve for dx
dy
Example: Find dx
if y 2 = x2 + sin(xy)
d d d
y2 x2 +
= (sin xy)
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2x + (cos xy) (xy)
dx dx
Implicit Differentiation
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x
dy dy
Collect the terms with dx
on one side of the equation and solve for dx
dy
Example: Find dx
if y 2 = x2 + sin(xy)
d d d
y2 x2 +
= (sin xy)
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2x + (cos xy) (xy)
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2x + (cos xy) y + x
dx dx
Implicit Differentiation
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x
dy dy
Collect the terms with dx
on one side of the equation and solve for dx
dy
Example: Find dx
if y 2 = x2 + sin(xy)
d d d
y2 x2 +
= (sin xy)
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2x + (cos xy) (xy)
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2x + (cos xy) y + x
dx dx
dy dy
2y − x cos xy = 2x + (cos xy)y
dx dx
Implicit Differentiation
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x
dy dy
Collect the terms with dx
on one side of the equation and solve for dx
dy
Example: Find dx
if y 2 = x2 + sin(xy)
d d d
y2 x2 +
= (sin xy)
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2x + (cos xy) (xy)
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2x + (cos xy) y + x
dx dx
dy dy
2y − x cos xy = 2x + (cos xy)y
dx dx
dy
(2y − x cos xy) = 2x + y cos xy
dx
Implicit Differentiation
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a
differentiable function of x
dy dy
Collect the terms with dx
on one side of the equation and solve for dx
dy
Example: Find dx
if y 2 = x2 + sin(xy)
d d d
y2 x2 +
= (sin xy)
dx dx dx
dy d
2y = 2x + (cos xy) (xy)
dx dx
dy dy
2y = 2x + (cos xy) y + x
dx dx
dy dy
2y − x cos xy = 2x + (cos xy)y
dx dx
dy
(2y − x cos xy) = 2x + y cos xy
dx
dy 2x + y cos xy
=
dx 2y − x cos xy
Related rates
Example
