Respiratory system
● consists of the lungs & the various breathing tubes that allow air to reach the lungs
● allows gas exchange
● brings oxygen into the body & expels carbon dioxide
● assures that you have a steady supply of clean filtered air into the lungs
Respiration
- overall exchange of gases between the atmosphere, the blood, & the cells
- how the body gets oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide
The four phases of Respiration
1. Breathing/Ventilation : the first step in respiration
- act of taking air in (inspiration/inhalation) & out of the lungs (expiration/exhalation)
- the physical action of taking oxygen into, and releasing the waste carbon dioxide
out of the lungs
> the human brain regulates the breathing rate of a person through a breathing
center located in the medulla oblongata
> these gases are transported by the circulatory system and exchanged in the cells
In animals, there are four types of gas exchange systems
❖ Integumentary exchange/ cutaneous respiration
- Occurs through skin
- Earthworms exhibit this system which is why they have to be moist
❖ Gills
- Exchange of gases underwater
❖ Tracheal systems
- Used by insects
❖ Lungs
- Found in land animals
2. External Respiration: Transport of Gases with the Circulatory System
- exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide between the air & the blood within the lungs
> each alveolus is surrounded by a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries
★ The walls of the alveoli and the capillaries share a fused basement. They are so
close that oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse ( move freely ) between the respiratory
system and the bloodstream.
★ As a result, when air enters the alveoli, oxygen in the air seeps through thin walls of
the tiny sacs and into the surrounding capillaries.
3. Internal Respiration: Exchange of Gases with Body Cells
- exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide between the blood & the body cells
- refers to the exchange of gas at the level of body cells
- brings oxygen from your lungs to all the other tissues in your body
- takes out carbon dioxide from the tissues back to your lungs as a waste product
4. Cellular Respiration: The Body’s Energy-Releasing Process
- process of using oxygen (oxidation) to break down sugar (glucose) in food,
producing energy (ATP) in cells, and releasing carbon dioxide as a waste product
- the energy-releasing process fueled by oxygen
- produces carbon dioxide
> body cells use the food they get from the blood and release energy within it only if
they get enough oxygen
Upper Respiratory Tract consists of..nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, & larynx
Nostrils - two openings that filter the air we breathe
Sneezing - expels and helps prevent the trapped particles, that may irritate your nasal
cavities, from entering the parts of the lower respiratory system
Pharynx - muscular tube in your UPPER throat that is a common passageway for food & air
Esophagus - passageway for food / leads to digestive system
Epiglottis - a flap of tissue that closes the entrance to the rest of the respiratory system
when you swallow and as a result, food + water are routed to the digestive system
Larynx - located at the top of the trachea, has two elastic ligaments that produces voice
(vocal cords), and supported by several curved pieces of cartilage
Thyroid Cartilage - a ridge that connects two pieces of cartilage / “Adam’s Apple”
Lower Respiratory Tract consists of.. trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, & alveoli
Trachea - passageway for air / main passageway of the lungs / leads to respiratory system /
also known as the “windpipe”
Rings or Bands of Cartilage - tough but flexible connective tissue
Cough - a triggered response from the irritation of particles in the trachea
Diaphragm - a powerful muscle nestled in the bottom of the ribcage, aids in respiration
Alveoli - gateways for oxygen to go into the body / serve as the site of respiration in the
lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place
> before air enters the lungs, they go to a place where the trachea branches into two tubes
called the left bronchi that goes to the left lung and right bronchi that goes to the right
lung (singular = bronchus, plural = bronchi)
> the bronchi will continue to divide again and again, becoming narrower each time, until
they appear like tiny twig-sized tubes called bronchioles
> at the ends of these tiny tubes are hundreds of round air sacs that resemble clusters of
grape on a stem and these air sacs are called alveoli ( alveolus = singular, alveoli = plural )
Lungs
- main organs of the respiratory system
- sponge-like organs in the chest cavity
- bounded on the sides by the ribs and on the bottom by the diaphragm
- a symmetrical pair but not completely identical
- divided into sections called lobes
Pleura
- two layers of membrane that surround the lungs
- secrete lubricating fluid into the Pleural Cavity
Pleural Cavity
- found between the pleura
- prevents friction when the lungs expand during breathing
Carbon Dioxide
- a metabolic waste product of cellular respiration + toxic to cells and must be removed
The Process of Breathing
1. the size of the chest cavity changes when the diaphragm and rib muscle expand & contract.
2. air pressure changes when there is a change in the size of the chest cavity.
3. air moves in and out of the lungs when there is a change in the air pressure inside the chest
cavity.
breathing in = lung expands, diaphragm contracts, pressure decrease, volume increase
breathing out = lung relaxes, diaphragm relaxes, pressure increase, volume decrease
Epiglottis opens = when you breathe to permit air to enter the respiratory system
Epiglottis closes = when you eat/drink to send the contents of the pharynx into the esophagus
Alveoli = inflate = inhale
Alveoli = deflate = exhale
Air = 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% gases present in trace amounts
*20% of inhaled oxygen goes to the brain*
*the adult human body requires 90 pounds of oxygen per day*
*BLOOD transports oxygen to the brain through the internal carotid artery*
*the BRAIN needs a constant blood flow in order to keep up with the heavy metabolic
demands of the neuron*
*the left lung is smaller than the right because the heart is located in the left lung*
*if one lobe is injured/diseased, the other may not be affected & may still function normally*
*the lungs inhale over two million liters of air everyday which is a large enough amount to
cover a whole tennis court*
*in the lung’s 600 million alveoli, the exchange of carbon dioxide between the blood and air
take place*
*the branching structure / tree-like structure of the respiratory system enables more than
2400 kilometers of airways to fit into small area of the chest cavity*
Circulatory system
● is the life support system that feeds your cells with food and oxygen.
● take away the waste products.
● the heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system
● like a network of highways, streets and alleys connecting all the cells together into a
community. In turn, the community of cells keeps the body alive.
● carries blood and dissolved substances to and from different places in the body
William Harvey
- an English doctor who discovered the mechanics of blood circulation and the role of
the heart in propelling it.
- He found out that the human blood must flow in a single, continuous direction
> Because he had no microscope, he didn't see the role of the capillaries
Marcello Malphigi
- Italian anatomist who discovered the role of capillaries
> confirming the earlier work of Harvey
HEART
left side = deals with oxygenated blood right side = deals with deoxygenated blood
Parts of the Heart
★ Veins - bring blood from the body except the lungs / carry blood towards the heart
> veins have valves which act to stop the blood from going in the wrong direction
★ Arteries - carry blood away from the heart
★ Coronary Arteries - the heart’s own blood supply
★ Capillaries - link arteries with veins & exchange materials between the blood + body
cells
Capillary Bed - group of capillaries
★ Four chambers - 2 atria, 2 ventricles
★ Valves - it is a flap of tissue that prevents the backflow of blood and keeps it flow in
one direction
How does the heart work?
1. Heartbeat begins when the heart muscles relax & blood flows into the atria.
2. The atria contracts and the valves open to allow blood into the ventricles.
3. The valve closes to stop blood from flowing backwards, the ventricles contract
forcing the blood to leave the heart, and at the same, the atria are relaxing and once
again filling with blood.
The blood and its components
Blood
- Also known as “The River of Life”
- Transports a variety of essential elements throughout the body
- A fluid tissue
- Composed of cells
Functions of Blood
1. Transport of dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic wastes
➔ Nutrients from digested food, ions, and water from all parts of the body
➔ Enzymes to the cells and tissues that need the,
➔ Excretory products from the tissues to the excretory organs for removal
➔ Oxygen, bound to hemoglobin, from the lungs to all parts of the body
- Food substances, excretory products, hormones = plasma
- Oxygen = red blood cell’s hemoglobin
❖ Nitrogenous waste materials (for example: urea, uric, acid, creatinine) are removed
mainly by the kidneys
2. Protection against toxins, pathogens, and blood loss injuries
➔ Blood helps the body against disease-causing organisms thru phagocytosis,
production of antibodies, and regulation of blood clotting
3. Stabilization of body temperature
➔ Heat is produced in respiring body tissues especially by the muscle and liver
➔ Blood distributes heat throughout the body, therefore maintaining a uniform
body temperature
4. Regulation of the pH through the blood buffering system and electrolyte
composition of interstitial fluids throughout the body
➔ Blood helps regulate the body’s pH level because of the buffers and amino
acids that it carries
❖ Blood also regulates the water content of cells through the dissolved sodium ions
❖ DISSOLVED SODIUM IONS = electrolytes
BLOOD PLASMA
- The fluid part of blood
- 45% of blood cells and platelets
- 55% of blood volume
- A pale yellowish liquid that is about 92% water and the remaining 8% is
made up of a dissolved complex mixture of various substances
Various Substances found in Blood Plasma:
1. Soluble or plasma proteins
★ Albumin- plays a role in maintaining osmotic balance & in pH buffering
★ Serum globulin - contains most of the blood’s antibodies to help in immunity
★ Fibrinogen - with the help of prothrombin, helps greatly in blood clotting
★ Antibodies/Immunoglobulins - involved in fighting diseases
2. Dissolved mineral salts
★ IONS = Chlorides, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfates and Phosphates of
Sodium and Potassium, Bicarbonates ( Example: Carbon dioxide )
3. Food substances
★ Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins
4. Excretory products
★ Urea, uric acid, creatinine
5. Hormones
★ Insulin, growth hormones, testosterone, estrogen, adrenaline
Pathogens = virus-infected and tumor cells
Megakaryocytes = large bone marrow cells
What’s in blood?
1. Oxygen
2. Carbon Dioxide
3. Red Blood Cells
- A circular biconcave that is round and flat without a nucleus
- Contain haemoglobin/hemoglobin, a protein that contains iron, a molecule
that is specially designed to hold oxygen and carry the cells that need it
- Can change shape to an amazing extent, without breaking, as it squeezes
single file through capillaries
- Also called erythrocytes (erythro = red, cytes = cells)
- Have no mitochondria & produced by the bone marrow
- Generate ATP through anaerobic respiration & live for about 120 days
4. White Blood Cells
- Have many different types but they all contain a big nucleus
- Also known as leukocytes ( leuko = white, cytes = cells )
- Colorless & do not contain hemoglobin
- Larger than RBC but fewer
- Irregularly shaped & contains a nucleus
- Develop in the bone marrow + mature in the lymph organs and nodes
- Can move, change its shape, and squeeze through the walls of the fine
blood capillaries into the spaces among tissue cells
- Protects the body from diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, etc.
> 2 MAIN WHITE BLOOD CELLS
I. Macrophages
- eat & digest microorganisms
- alerts lymphocytes
- engulfs pathogens and cellular debris
II. Lymphocytes
- some fight disease by making antibodies to destroy invaders by
dissolving them
- active against various pathogens
- others make antitoxins to break down poisons
Other types of white blood cells:
I. Monocyte - engulfs pathogen & turns into macrophages upon migration to tissues
and bloodstream
II. Eosinophil - active against parasites and in allergic reactions
III. Basophil - active in allergic reactions and matures like mast cells
IV. Neutrophil - active against bacteria and fungi and capable of phagocytosis
5. Plasma
- A straw-coloured liquid that carries the cells and the platelets which help
blood clot
- Contains useful things like carbon dioxide, glucose, amino acids, proteins,
minerals, vitamins, hormones, waste materials like urea.
6. Digested Food
7. Waste ( Urea )
8. Hormones
9. Platelets
- Known as Thrombocytes
- Play a part in the clotting of blood & formed in the red marrow of bones
- Not true cells but fragments of cytoplasm with nucleus from megakaryocytes
- Produce tiny fibrinogen fibres to form a net which traps other blood cells to
form a blood clot
3 types of blood vessels: veins, capillaries, arteries
3 types of cellular components that are suspended in plasma: RBC, WBC, Platelets
*elastic fibres allow the artery to stretch under pressure*
*thick muscle can contract to push the blood along* > artery
*body muscles surround the veins so that when they contract to move the body, they also
squeeze the veins and push the blood along the vessel*
*exchange of materials between the blood & body can ONLY occur through the capillaries*
*when a blood vessel is damaged, fibrinogen ( a protein in the blood plasma ) forms
long, sticky strands of a substance called fibrin*
*fibrin traps platelets, which collect to form a clot and seal the wound*
*the clot becomes hard forming a scab as the wound heals*
*each of the two ventricles of the heart is connected to a major artery*
*as a result of each contraction, blood is pushed into the arteries*
*the artery’s wall is made up of 3 layers of tissue*
*blood that enter the vein flows slower & smoother because the heart does not push blood
through the veins*
*walls of most capillaries are only one cell thick*
Cardiologist - a physician who specializes in treating heart problems
Antibodies - one of the most important biomolecules naturally produced by immune cells
Genetics
is a branch of biology that studies hereditary information
Heredity
Refers to the passing of characteristics (eye color, height, texture of hair, shape of earlobe,
and skin color) from parents to offspring.
These characteristics are called heredity because they can be passed on from one generation
to another
For instance, organisms belonging to the same species exhibit similar characteristics. Even so
each individual possesses unique traits that differentiate him/her from others. These differences
among individuals belonging to the same species are called variations
The Three Branches of Genetics
1. Mendelian genetics
reviews the basic laws of inheritance that was described by Gregor Mendel
2. Molecular genetics
deals with the chemical nature of the gene, the mechanisms of transmission, and its varied
applications.
3. Population genetics
focuses on the behavior of a particular gene in a group of organisms and how gene frequency is
affected by environmental factors.
Gregor Johan Mendel is the father of genetics.
The scientific heredity started with the experiments of the Austrian priest Gregor Mendel.
● ALLELES
Different forms of a trait
Mendel's finding still formed the basis of genetics, called Mendelian or Transmission genetics.
In his initial experiments, Mendel cross-pollinated garden peas with contrasting expressions.
● MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
Inheritance involving the one pair of contrasting characters (alleles)
Pure breeding plants produce only one form of a particular trait when they self fertilize
These pure breeding plants served as the parental generation in Mendel's experiments.
The parental generation (represented as P) are the first 2 organisms that are crossed in the
breeding experiment
In the study of genetics symbols are used to represent individual organisms. To figure our pure
breeding parents (P1 gen) are represented with PP and pp for purple and white respectively
GENOTYPE is the gene that is responsible for the observed character (flower color), while
allele is responsible for the observed trait (purple or white flower). The observable expression of
the trait (purple or white flowers) is called the phenotype.
Genes and Dominance
● the offspring of crosses between parents with different traits are called hybrids
● When Mendel crossed plants with different traits he expected them to blend, but that's
not what happened at all
● All of the offspring have only
THE PRINCIPLE OF DOMINANCE- Some alleles are dominant, some recessive
PUNNETT SQUARE NOTES
Inherited Traits - are present in the person since the time of his birth and are passed on from
one generation to another.
Acquired Traits- cannot be passed to progeny, acquired trait do not bring changes in the DNA.
Alkaptonuria- a disease characterized by the excretion of black urine
● Sir Archibald Edward Garrod (1857-1936), an English physician published his work on
the inheritance of Alkaptonuria
Genetic diversity
refers to the total variety of genes or inheritable characteristics present in a population of
organisms
Species diversity
refers to a variety of life forms and the number of each species present in a biological
community
Species richness
The number of different kinds of species in a particular area
Species abundance
The number of individual members within a particular species
On earth the richness of biodiversity varies from one place to another because of several
factors.
Niches
the size of an area, climate, and diversity of functional roles
The all contribute to diversity
The tropical rainforests of southeast Asia, Latin America, and central Africa are the most diverse
ecosystems on the planet. Though they cover only about 7 percent of Earth's land surface, they
house more than half of the world's species.
Ecosystem diversity
Refers to the variety of ecosystems in a biosphere
Functional diversity
refers to the biological and chemical processes that include energy flow, biogeochemical or
nutrient cycles, and interactions of organisms, which are important for the survival of species,
population, communities, and the entire ecosystems.
Extinction rates
when the environment changes, a population of organisms respond in 3 ways:
1. Adapt 2. to a new area with favorable conditions, or become extinct
Extinction
is the total disappearance of all the members of a certain species
biodiversity is lost if all members of a particular kind of die
Local extinction
occurs in a certain population of organisms that cease to exist elsewhere.
Background extinction
is the gradual process of becoming extinct
species rise and become extinct throughout biological history at a shower rate. In mass
extinctions, the rate dramatically increases as large populations of organisms die out in a
relatively short period. Widespread catastrophic and global disastrous events can wipe out 25 to
95 percent of all living species. In between mass extinctions, many surviving organisms have
opportunities to evolve as they occupy vacant niches. They may become a new species in a
process called speciation
Premature Extinction
raised the rate of the disappearance of species by as much as 1000 times the background rate.
Endangered species
species that are at the risk of extinction
Threatened species
those who could becomes endangered because of the threats of their environment
different types of extinction
Cretaceous-Tertiary Period mass extinction
extinction of the dinosaurs 50 percent of all species was wiped out
CAUSE: Asteroid impact
Triassic-Jurassic
Half of all the species including large amphibians became extinct
CAUSES: Climate change, flood basalt eruptions, massive volcanic eruption, ocean acidity, and
an asteroid impact
Permian period Mass extinction
Also known as the great dying
96 Percent of species died out
life on earth descended from the four percent that survived
CAUSES: Asteroid impact, flood basalt eruptions, catastrophic methane release, a drop in
oxygen levels, sea level fluctuations
Devonian period mass extinction
Three quarters of all species on earth died
Seabed became devoid of oxygen; only bacteria can survive.
CAUSES: changes in sea level, asteroid impacts, climate change, and new kinds pf plants
interrupting the soil
Ordovician-Silurian Mass extinction
third largest extinction in earth's history
85 percent of sea life was wiped out.
CAUSE: A huge ice sheet caused the climate to change, which altered the chemistry of the
oceans.
Earth is continuously changing because of geological phenomena.
Endemic species
species confined only in a certain area with a specialized diet are more likely to become extinct
than organisms living in other areas and have broader dietary choices.
ANE (Asia and Near East)
HIPPCO- six reasons why Earth is losing biodiversity
Habitat Destruction Degradation and Fragmentation
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population using too many resources
Pollution
Climate Change
Overexploitation
IUCN- The International Union for Conservation of Nature
an organization dedicated to conserving Earth's natural resources, evaluated 63 939 animals,
22 326 plants, and 48 fungi and protists species totaling 86 313 all over earth and came out a
read list pd 24 431 threatened species after evaluation.
Autotrophs
is what plants are called because they are self-feeders; the produce their own food and sustain
themselves without consuming other organisms
plants have extra cell parts such as, cell wall, large vacuoles and chloroplasts
● The reason for these extra structures is that plants harness and store their energy
differently. Animals cannot harness energy directly from the sun. Plants harness energy
from the sun using chloroplasts, and use it to produce carbohydrate molecules. This
process occurs in the cell wall and vacuoles.
● Plants undergo a process called photosynthesis (Greek photos mean "light"; synthesis
means "putting together" or "manufacture"
Photosynthesis
● is a multistep process whereby light energy is trapped by chlorophyll in plants and
converted into chemical energy, which is then utilized to manufacture organic
carbohydrates from inorganic carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is released as a
by-product during this process.
● is the process by which plants convert energy from the sun to manufacture glucose.
● Photosynthesis by plants provides energy for almost all life forms.
● is the basis of majority of food chains
● most photosynthesis occur in leaves, which are main organs for photosynthesis
Stomata (stoma)
● found at the underside of the leaf blade allow raw materials (such as carbon dioxide) for
photosynthesis to pass through, and to allow waste products (such as oxygen) to exit the
leaf.
● each photosynthetic cell contains many green plastids called chloroplasts
Chloroplasts
● are the organelles specialized for photosynthesis.
● a chloroplasts has 2 membranes surrounding the liquid in its interior called the stroma
● inside the inner membrane are a series of flattened, interconnected sacs that look like
pancakes stacked up on top of each other called granum (plural: grana). Each of those
flattened sacs is called thylakoid
A closer look at the thylakoid reveals its membrane that separates it with the stroma
(liquid part of chloroplast). It is in this membrane that light-trapping molecules are
located. Because the membrane, the light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis occurs
here, while the light-independent reaction takes in the stroma
When the sun heats the water in plant leaves, photosynthesis begins.
The molecules of chlorophyll in the chloroplasts, which are scattered throughout each plant cell,
absorb energy in the form of sunlight. The amount of light received by plants varies depending
on the plant species. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through tiny openings
in structures known as stomata. Plants absorb water and nutrients dissolved in the soil form the
ground up through their roots. This is possible through the root system and its network of
conducting cells called the xylem vessels
CELLULAR RESPIRATION or cell respiration
● refers to the complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released into food
molecules. Carbon dioxide and water are also produced during the process
● is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of
organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules or nutrients into
adenosine triphosphate, and then release waste products.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
The energy stored in food must be converted into a form of energy that the body recognizes
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Human Circulatory System
3D Medical Mechanics of breathing L v 1 0
Heart Sounds and Heart Murmurs, Animation.
How Mendel's pea plants helped us understand genetics - Hortensia Jiménez Díaz
Where do genes come from? - Carl Zimmer
Learn Biology: How to Draw a Punnett Square
What happens if you cut down all of a city's trees? - Stefan Al
Why is biodiversity so important? - Kim Preshoff
STD 06 _ Science - Amazing Process Of Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
