Vol 55, No 2—April 2021

RF Signal Chain
Discourse: Properties and
Performance Metrics
Anton Patyuchenko, Field Applications Engineer

Introduction A consistent basis for its definition conveying more than one sense can be
established by focusing on the distinguishing features of the RF, which include
It was not so long ago from the historical perspective, at the dawn of the 20th cen-
phase shift, reactance, dissipation, noise, radiation, reflections, and nonlinearity.1
tury, that the RF engineering underpinning any RF signal chain was a new emerging
This basis represents a modern all-inclusive definition that does not rely on
discipline. Today RF technology and radio frequency devices are so deeply ingrained
a single aspect or specific numerical values to distinguish RF from other terms.
in our lives that it is inconceivable how modern civilization could survive without
The term RF can be applied to any circuit or a component sharing a number of
them. There are countless examples of societal spheres that are heavily reliant on
these features that underlie its definition.
RF signal chains, which is the focus of our discourse.
Now that we have set the context for our discussion, we can move on to its main
However, before we delve into it, we need to understand what the term RF subject and consider the RF signal chain depicted in its generic form in Figure 1.
actually means. At first glance, this may seem like an easy question. We all Its representation uses a distributed-elements circuit model to account for the
know that RF stands for radio frequency, and a common definition ties this phase shift across the circuit, which is not negligible at shorter RF wavelengths,
term to a specific range of frequencies extending from MHz to GHz portions of making the lumped circuit approximation inapplicable to these types of systems.
the electromagnetic spectrum. Yet, if we take a closer look at its acknowledged An RF signal chain may include a broad variety of discrete components such
definitions and compare them, we come to realize that all of them define the as attenuators, switches, amplifiers, detectors, synthesizers, and other RF analog
actual boundaries of the RF portion of the spectrum differently. This becomes parts, along with high speed ADCs and DACs as well. All these components are
even more puzzling in light of the fact that we may often encounter a broader combined to serve a specific application whose overall indicative performance will
usage of this term in other contexts unrelated to specific frequencies at all. be determined by the composite performance of its constituent discrete parts.
Then what is RF?
I/Q Demodulator Antialiasing
Detector
LPF Balun Driver Filter
I
RSSI ADC

DSA BPF LNA BPF Mixer BPF

0°
CLK
Antialiasing
–90° Balun Driver Filter
VGA
LPF
Q ADC

PLL/VCO Frequency
Switch

Local SYN/DDS ×N CLK

Multipliers I/Q Modulator Reconst.
Oscillator ÷N LPF IF Amp Filter Balun
Dividers
I
DAC
Directional
Coupler HPA RF VGA BPF VGA
BPF 0°
CLK

Mixer –90° Reconst. Balun

LPF IF Amp Filter
Q DAC
Power
Control
CLK
Detector
Clock Source

Figure 1. A generic RF signal chain. CLK Distribution

SYN/DDS

VISIT [Link]
Therefore, in order to design a system that would meet specific require- If we now consider the incident and reflected waves at the same port, we can
ments imposed by the target application, an RF system engineer must attain a define S11 and S22 as shown in Figure 2. These terms are equivalent to the reflection
substantial system-level perspective and have consistent understanding of the coefficient |Γ| at the corresponding port for the case when the other port is
key notions and principles underlying it. The importance of this knowledge has terminated in matched load. Using Equation 1, we can relate the magnitude of
motivated the creation of this discourse, which consists of two parts. The goal the reflection coefficient to return loss (RL):
of the first part is to provide a concise guidance on the main properties and
RL = –20 log(|Γ|) (1)
metrics used to characterize RF devices and quantify their performance. The
goal of the second part is to give a well-structured overview of a broad range Return loss describes a ratio of the power incident on the port to the power
of individual components and their types that can be used to develop RF signal reflected back to the source. Depending at which port we estimate this ratio, we
chains for desired applications. In this article, we will focus on the first part can distinguish between input and output return loss. Return loss is always a
of our discourse and consider the main properties and performance metrics non-negative quantity that indicates how well the input or output impedance of
associated with RF systems. the network is matched to the impedance seen at the port toward the source.

Introduction to RF Terminology It is important to note that this simple relation of the IL and RL to the S-parameters
is valid only for the case when all ports are matched, which is the main condition
There is a wide range of specifications used for characterization of complete RF
for the definition of S-matrix that describes the network itself. If the network is
systems and their discrete building blocks. Depending on the application or use
not matched it will not change its intrinsic S-parameters, but it may certainly
case, some of these characteristics might be of primary importance while the
change the reflection coefficients seen at its ports as well as the transmission
others are instead less critical or irrelevant. It is certainly not possible to per-
coefficients between them.2
form a full comprehensive analysis of such a complex subject within the scope
of this article. Nevertheless we will attempt to give a concise yet comprehensive Frequency Range and Bandwidth
overview of the most common RF performance aspects by following the common
All these fundamental quantities that we have just described will continuously
thread that should shape their complex constellation into a balanced and easy to
change across the frequency range, which is the basic characteristic common to
understand guide to properties and characteristics of RF systems.
all RF systems. It defines the frequencies at which these systems are operable
Fundamental Properties and brings us to one more crucial performance measure—bandwidth (BW).

Scattering matrix (or S-matrix) is the basic term one needs to know to describe Although this term may refer solely to signal properties, some of its forms are
the behavior of an RF system. An S-matrix allows us to represent even the most used to describe RF systems that process these signals. In its general defini-
complex RF network as a simple N-port black box. A common example of a tion, bandwidth defines a range of frequencies confined by a certain criterion.
2-port RF network (for example, an amplifier, filter, or attenuator) is shown in However, it may have different meanings that vary depending on the specific
Figure 2, where Vn+ is a complex amplitude of the voltage wave incident on port n, application context. To make our discourse more complete, let us give brief
and Vn– is a complex amplitude of the voltage wave reflected from port n.2 When definitions to some variations of its meaning:
all its ports are terminated in matched loads, we can describe this network by X 3 dB BW is a span of frequencies at which signal power level is above half
the scattering matrix which elements, or S-parameters, quantify how RF energy
its maximum value.
propagates through the system in terms of a relationship between these voltage
waves. Let us now use S-parameters to express the main properties of a typical
X Instantaneous BW (IBW), or real-time BW, defines the maximum continuous
RF network. bandwidth that a system is able to generate or acquire without retuning.
X Occupied BW (OBW) is a range of frequencies containing a specified percent-
V1+ 2-Port V2– age of the total integrated signal power.
Network
Port 1 Port 2 X Resolution BW (RBW) in its general meaning describes the minimum separation
S11 S12
V1– V2+ between two frequency components that can still be resolved. For instance, in
S21 S22
spectrum analyzer systems, it is the frequency span of the final filter stage.

S11 =
V1–
S21 =
V2– These are just a few examples of various types of bandwidth definitions; how-
V1– S11 S12 V1+ V1+ V1+
V2– = S21 S22 V2+ V1– V2–
ever, regardless of its meaning, the bandwidth of an RF signal chain is largely
S12 = S22 =
V2+ V2+ determined by its analog front end as well as the sampling rate and bandwidth
Figure 2. A 2-port network described by its S-matrix. of a high speed analog-to-digital or digital-to-analog converter.

S21 is equivalent to the transmission coefficient from Port 1 to Port 2 for the Nonlinearities
case when the network is matched (S12 can be defined similarly). Its magnitude It needs to be mentioned that characteristic properties of an RF system vary
|S21 | in logarithmic scale describes the ratio of the output power to the input not only across different frequencies, but also across different power levels
power, which is known as gain or scalar logarithmic gain. This parameter is the of a signal. The fundamental properties we described in the beginning of this
key attribute of an amplifier and other RF systems in which it can take also article are typically expressed using small signal S-parameters, which do not
negative values. Negative gain indicates intrinsic or mismatch losses usually account for nonlinear effects. However, in a general case, a continuous increase
expressed by its reciprocal quantity known as insertion loss (IL), which is a typical in power level passing through an RF network often results in more pronounced
attribute of attenuators and filters. nonlinear effects, ultimately degrading its performance.

2 RF Signal Chain Discourse: Properties and Performance Metrics

When we talk about an RF system or a component with good linearity, we usually
mean that the key metrics describing its nonlinear performance meet the
requirements of our target application. Let us consider some of these key met- OIP2
IP2

rics that are commonly used to quantify nonlinear behavior of RF systems. IP3
OIP3
The first parameter we should consider defines the point at which a common 1 dB
Saturation
PSAT
device transitions from linear into nonlinear mode: the output 1 dB compres-

POUT (dBm)
OP1 dB
sion point (OP1dB). This is the output power level at which the gain of a system
decreases by 1 dB. This is an essential characteristic of any power amplifier

LDR
l
ta
that sets operation of the device toward the level of saturation defined by the en

SFDR
m
nda
saturated output power (PSAT). Power amplifiers generally belong to the final Fu

3
stages of a signal chain, and therefore these parameters usually define the

D2

IMD
Noise Floor

IM
output power range of an RF system.
Once the system is in a nonlinear mode, it starts distorting a signal, producing Sensitivity IP1 dB IIP3 IIP2 PIN (dBm)

spurious frequency components, or spurs. Spurs are measured relative to the Figure 4. Definition of nonlinear characteristics.
level of a carrier signal in dBc, and they can be classified into harmonics and
intermodulation products (see Figure 3). A harmonic is a signal found at integer Noise
multiples of the fundamental frequency (for example, H1, H2, H3 harmonics), Let us now consider another important attribute inherent to every RF system—
whereas the intermodulation products are signals that appear when two or more noise. This term describes a fluctuation in an electrical signal that encompasses
fundamental signals are present in a nonlinear system. If the first fundamental sig- many different aspects. Depending on its spectrum and the way it affects a
nal is at the frequency f1 and the second is at f2, then second-order intermodulation signal and mechanisms generating it, the noise can be categorized into many
products are found at their sum and difference frequencies f1 + f2 and f2 – f1 as different types and forms. However, despite the existence of many different
well as f1 + f1 and f2 + f2 (the latter are already known to us as H2 harmonics). The variations of noise sources, we do not need to delve into their physical proper-
combination of the second-order intermodulation products and the fundamental ties in order to describe their ultimate impact on system performance. We
signals results in third-order intermodulation products, two of which (2f1 – f2 can rely on a simplified noise model of a system that uses a single theoretical
and 2f2 – f1) are especially critical since they are close to the original signals and noise generator described by the key figure of merit known as noise figure (NF). It
therefore are not easy to filter. The output spectrum of a nonlinear RF system quantifies the degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) caused by the system
with spurious frequency components represents intermodulation distortion (IMD), and defined as the logarithmic ratio of SNR at the output to that at the input. Noise
which is an important term describing nonlinearity of the system.2 figure expressed in a linear scale is called noise factor. This is the key attribute of
any RF system that can govern its overall performance.
Fundamentals
In the case of a simple linear passive device, the noise figure is equal to its
f1 f2
insertion loss defined by |S21|. In more complex RF systems consisting of multiple
active and passive components, described by their individual noise factors, Fi,
Harmonics
and power gains, Gi, the noise cascades down the signal chain according to the
Friis formula (assuming that the impedances are matched at each stage):
Power (dBm)

H2 H2 H3 H3
2f1 – f2 2f2 – f1
F2 – 1 F3 – 1 F4 – 1 … Fn – 1
F = F1 + + + + + (2)
f2 – f1 f2 + f1 G1 G1G2 G1G2G3 G1G2 …Gn – 1
2f1 2f2 From this we can conclude that the first two stages in an RF signal chain are
3f1 3f2
the main contributors to the overall noise figure of the system. This is why the
components with the lowest noise figure, such as low noise amplifiers, are used
at the front ends of receiver signal chains.
IMD2 If we now consider devices or systems used specifically for signal generation,
IMD3 for characterization of their noise performance, it is more common to refer to
Frequency (Hz)
signal properties affected by their noise sources. These properties are phase
Figure 3. Harmonics and intermodulation products. jitter and phase noise, which are interrelated terms indicating signal stability in
Spurious components associated with the second-order intermodulation distor- time (jitter) and frequency domain (phase noise). Which one is preferred depends
tion (IMD2) and third-order intermodulation distortion (IMD3) cause interference usually on the application—for instance, in RF communications it is common to
to the desired signals. The key figure of merit used to quantify the level of its use the term phase noise, while in digital systems we will often see the term jitter.
severity is the intercept point (IP). We can distinguish the second-order (IP2) and Phase jitter defines small fluctuations in the phase of a signal, while the phase
third-order (IP3) intercept points. As depicted in Figure 4, they define hypotheti- noise describes its spectral representation, which is characterized by the noise
cal points for the input (IIP2, IIP3) and output (OIP2, OIP3) signal power levels at power level relative to the carrier contained in 1 Hz bandwidth at various offsets
which the power of the corresponding spurious components would reach the from the carrier, and considered to be uniform across this bandwidth (see Figure 5).
same level of fundamental components. Although the intercept point is a purely
mathematical concept, it is the paramount measure of RF system tolerance to
nonlinear effects.

VISIT [Link] 3
 –20 The lowest signal level that a system can handle to produce an output signal with
–30 a specified SNR defines another important characteristic typical for receiver
–40
systems known as sensitivity. It depends primarily on the system noise figure
–50
and signal bandwidth. The noise inherent to the receiver limits its sensitivity as
–60
well as other system specifications. For instance, phase noise or jitter in data
Phase Noise (dBc/Hz)

–70
1 Hz BW
–80 communication systems will result in deviation of the constellation points in
–90 the eye diagram from their ideal locations, degrading the system’s error vector
–100 magnitude (EVM) and contributing to higher bit error rate (BER).
–110
–120 Conclusion
–130
–140 There are numerous properties and performance metrics that can be used for the
–150 characterization of RF signal chains. They address different system aspects,
–160 and their importance and relevance may vary from one application to another.
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz
Although it is not possible to consider all of them in one article, substantial
Frequency Offset from the Carrier
understanding of the fundamental characteristics discussed in this part of our
Figure 5. An example of a phase noise characteristic.
discourse will allow an RF engineer to easily translate them into some of the key
requirements and specifications of the target application whether it is a radar,
Multifold Derivatives
communication, measurement, or any other RF system.
The most important figures of merit that we have considered so far underlie a
broad range of derivative parameters utilized for performance quantification of Analog Devices addresses the most demanding requirements of RF applications
RF signal chains in various application domains. For example, the combination with the industry’s broadest portfolio of RF, microwave, and millimeter wave
of the terms noise and spurious results in the definition of the term dynamic solutions coupled with deep system design expertise. The widest range of discrete
range (DR). It describes the operating range for which a system has desirable and fully integrated ADI solutions from antenna to bits unlocks the entire spectrum
characteristics. As shown in Figure 4, if this range is limited at the low end by from DC to beyond 100 GHz and offers best-in-class performance, enabling
noise and at the high end by the compression point, we talk about the linear multifaceted RF and microwave designs in communications, test and measurement
dynamic range (LDR); and if its high end is defined by the maximum power level instrumentation, industrial, and aerospace & defense applications.
for which intermodulation distortion becomes unacceptable, we talk about the
spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR). It should be noted that, depending on References
the application, actual definitions of the terms LDR and SFDR may vary.2 1
M. S. Gupta. “What Is RF?” IEEE Microwave Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 4.
December 2001.
2
David M. Pozar. Microwave Engineering, 4th Edition. Wiley, 2011.

About the Author

Anton Patyuchenko received his Master of Science in microwave engineering from the Technical University of Munich in 2007.
Following his graduation, Anton worked as a scientist at German Aerospace Center (DLR). He joined Analog Devices as a field appli-
cations engineer in 2015 and is currently providing field applications support to strategic and key customers of Analog Devices
specializing in RF applications. He can be reached at [Link]@[Link].

For regional headquarters, sales, and distributors or ©2021 Analog Devices, Inc. All rights reserved. VISIT [Link]
to contact customer service and technical support, Trademarks and registered trademarks are
visit [Link]/contact. the property of their respective owners.

Ask our ADI technology experts tough questions, browse

FAQs, or join a conversation at the EngineerZone Online
Support Community. Visit [Link].