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ee Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 CONTROL SYSTEMS: WHAT THEY ARE
In modern usage the word system has man}
when we use this word in this book, fi
literature,
'y meanings. So let us begin by defining what we mean.
ist abstractly then slightly more specifically in relation to scientific.
A system is an arrangemer
‘@ manner as to form an e
‘set, or collection of things connected or related in such
1 OF whole.
A system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a
manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit,
The word control is usually
ly taken to mean regulate, direct, or command. Combi
definitions, we have
1B the above
Definition 1.2:
A control system is an arran,
gement of physical components connected or related in
such @ man
ner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system,
In the most abstract sense it is possible to consider every physical object a control system.
Everything alters its environment in some manner, if not then passively—like mirror directing
a beam of light shining on it at some acute angle. The mirror (Fig. 1-1) may be considered. ao
clementary control system, controlling the beam of light according to the simple equation * the angle of
reflection a equals the angle of incidence a.”
Peers OM ee
In engineering and science we usual
ly restrict the meaning of control systems to apply to those
systems whose major function is to dynamically or actively command, direct, or regulate. The system
shown in Fig, 1-2, consisting of a mirror pivoted at one end and adjusted up and down with a screw at
the other end, is properly termed a control system. The angle of reflected light is regulated by means of
the screw,
It is important to note, however, that cont
include not only those manufactured by huma
systems with both manufactured and natural
rol systems of interest for analysis or design purposes
ins, but those that normally exist in nature, and control
mponents,, .
1 2 INTRODUCTION
12 EXAMPLES of CONTROL systems
Control systems sbound in Gur environment. But before exemy
a lng this, we deting (0 terms:
input and ouput, which help inidentitying, deline ing, OF defining
# control system,
Pofaition 13 aye ‘input is the stimutus, Stsitation oF ‘command “Pplied to: a control system,
Ypically from an external eneray source, “sually in order to prod
luce a specifed
Fesponse from the Control system,
Defanition 1, 4: The output is the actual Fesponse obtained froma Control system, It May of may not
be equal tothe specified responeg implied by the in ee
7 Tees
Inputs and outputs can have Many different forms. Inputs, for
Sxample, may be physical variables,
syste’ abstract quantities such reference, setpoint, os desinag values
systera,
OF the output of the control
jen the system is examined ie detail,
in the description of any ¥pe of system, whether of
sy be Part ofa larger systen, oe Which case itis called
Ystem, and its inputs and outputs ‘may then be internal varisbles the larger
zi the Switch on or off may be (roideted as the inpue. That i uke input can be in one of two sats, on
oF Off. The output is the flow oe oaRw (1W0 states) of electricity
‘The electe switch is one ofthe tat rudimentary contol systems
Vase ese
RAWLS: | A terete contoled heater. fuinace. crckmatcaly regulating the temperorary of room or
RGD Stier eel ict tlre emg a
sitll spected by appropriately
SOUSE A thermostat, The output is ae scfaal temperature of the room oe enclosure.
EXAMPLE 1.3. The be anne simple at of pointing ar on dik tha iingerrecuires a bictogeal control system
and fi Precise direction of the
rection with respect to
EXAMPLE 1A. A part ot the human te
Of the air exterior tothe aka Becomes too hi
sumption. Secretions are redeere When the
suficiently
The input 10 this: system may be
‘emperature, a physical variable. TH, utp
ise -_—
er e 4
‘CHAP. I} INTRODUCTION 3
EXAMPLES. The contro system consisting of a person diving on axtomzile has componéns which are clay
‘both manufactured and biological. The driver wanis to keep the automobile inthe appropriate lane of the roadway.
He or sbe accomplishes this by constantly watching the direction ofthe automobile with respect 16 the direction of
‘Ge road. In this cas, the direction or heading ofthe road, represented by the painted guide line or lines on either
1ide of the lane may be considered as the input. The heading of the automobile is the output of the system. The
deiver controls this output by constantly measuring it with his or her eyes and brain, and corrécting it with his or
beer hands on the steering wheel. The major components of this control system are the driver's hands, eyes and
‘brain, and the vehicle.
13. OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control systems are classified i ‘categories: open-loop and closed-loop’ systetns. The
distinction is determined by ora ‘quantity responsible for activating the system to
roduce the output, Z.
Pro“The term control action is classlGar tn The control systems literature, but'the word action in this
expression does not always directly imply change, motion, or activity. For example, the control action i
system designed to have an object hit a target is usually the distance between the object and the U
“Distance, ay sch, is not en acion, but action (otic) is implied here, becuse the goal of such
control system is to reduce this distance to zero.
Definition 1.5: An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the
_Sutput ae
Defaition 1.6:° A closed-loop control system is oat in which the control action is somehow.
dependent on the output. ae ‘
‘Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To calibrate-means to
establish or reestablish the input-output relation to obtain a desired system accuracy.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability, a concept to be subsequently
discussed in detail.
Closed-loop control systems are more commonly called feedback control systems, and are consid-
cred in more detail beginning in the next section.
To classify a.control system as open-loop or closed-loop, we must distinguish clearly the compo-
nents of the system from components that interact with bet are not part of the system. For example, the,
driver in Example 1.5 was defined as part of that control sysiem, but a human operator may or may not
‘be a component of a system.
EXAMPLE 1.6. Most automatic toasters are opex-loop systems because they are controlled by a timer. The time
required to make “good toast” must be estimated by tbe user, who it not part of the system. Control over the
quality of toast (the output) is removed once the time, which is both the input and the control action, has been set.
‘The time is typically set by means of a calibrated dial or switch.
EXAMPLE 1.7. An autopilot mechanism and the airplane i conirol isa closed-loop (leedback) control system. lis
purpose is to maintain a specified airplane beading. despite atmospheric changes. It performs this task by
continuously measuring the actual sirplane beading. and asiomaticaly adjusting the airplane control surfaces
(udder, ailerons, ete) #0 as to bring the actual airplane beading into correspondence with the specified heading,
‘The human pilot or operator who presets the autopilot is not past of the control system. eae
4 INTRODUCTION (CHAP. 1
14 FEEDBACK
Feedback is that characteristic of closed-loop conitol systems which distinguishes them from
open-loop systems.
Definition 1.7: Feedback is that property of a Glosed-loop system which permits the output (or
iilore generally, feedback is said to exist in a system when a closed sequence of cause-and-effect
relations exists between system variables.
Som he Davigation instruments, measuring the heading, to the comparing eens” In practice, the comparison
device may be integrated within the autopilot mechaniser
LS CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDBACK
‘The presence of feedback typically imparts the following Properties to a system.
1. iporeased accuracy. For example, the ability to fithully reproduce the input. This property is
illustrated throughout the text.
2 Tetidency toward oscillation or insiability. This all-important characterist
detail in Chapters 5 and 9 through 19,
3. Reduced sensitivity ofthe ratio of output to input to variations in system parameters and other -
characteristics (Chapter 9),
4. Reduced effects of nonlinearities (Chapters 3 and 19).
8. Reduced effects of extemal disturbances or noise (Chapters 7, 9, and 10).
considered in
16 ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
‘The signals in a control system, for example, the input and the ‘output waveforms, ‘are typically
functions of some independent variable, usually ime, denoted +
Definition 18: A signal dependent on a continuum of values of the independent variable 1 is called
Geena atstime signal or, more generally, a continuous-data signal or (lea ee
Quently) an analog signal,
Péfnition 19: signal defined at, or of interest at, only discrete Gistinet) instants of the
seasPendent variable «(upon which it depends) is called a dlscretecine discrete
data, 2 sampled-data, or a digital signal, : INTRODUCTION 5
‘We remark that digital is a somewhat more specialized term, particularly in other contexts. We use
its a synonym here because it is the convention in the control systems literature.
EXAMPLE 1.9. The continuous, sinusoidally varying voltage (1) or alternating current i(1) available from an
‘ordinary household electrical receptable is a continuous-time (analog) signal, because itis defined at each and every
‘Instant of time ¢ electrical power is available from that outlet. .
EXAMPLE 1.10. If a lamp is connected to the receptacle ia Example 1.9, and it'is switched on and then
immediately off every minute, the light from the lamp is a discrete-time signal, on only for an instant every minute.
EXAMPLE 1.11. The mean temperature T in a room at precisely 8 a.m. (08 hours) each day is a discrete-time
Signal. This signal may be denoted in several ways, depending on the application; for example T(8) for the
temperature at 8 o'clock —rather than another time; T(1), 7(2),... forthe temperature at 8 o'clock on day 1, day 2,
te» oF, equivalently, using a subscript notation, 7,7, ete. Note that these discrete-time signals are sampled values
‘of & continuous-time signal, the mean temperature ofthe room at all ies, denoted 7(1).
EXAMPLE 1.12. The signals inside digital computers and microprocessors are inherently discrete-time, or
diserete-data, or digital (or digitally coded) signals. At their most basic level, they are typically in the form of
sequences of voltages, currents, ight intensities, or other physical variables, at either of two constant levels, for
example, 15 V; lighton, lightoff; etc. These binary signals are usually represented in alphanumeric form
(aumbers, letters, or other characters) at the inputs and outputs of such digital devices. On the other hand, the
‘Signals of analog computers and other analog devices are continuous-time.
Control systems can be classified according to the types of signals they process: continuous-time
(analog), discrete-time (digital, or a combination of both (hybrid).
Defnition 1.10: Continuous-time control systems, also called continvous-data control systems, or
analog control systems, contain or process only continuous-time (analog) signals and
‘components. "
Defaition 1.11: Diserete-time control systems, also called diserete-data control systems, of sampled-
data control systems, have discrete-time signals or components at one or more points
in the system.
‘We note that discrete-time control systems can have continuous-time .as‘well as discrete-time
signals; that is, they can be hybrid. The distinguishing factor is that a discrete-time or digital control
system must include at least one discrete-data signal. Also, digital control systems, particularly of
sampled-data type, often have both open-loop and closed-loop modes of operation.
EXAMPLE 1.13, A target tracking and following system, such as the one described in Example 1.3 (tracking and
pointing at an object with a finger), is usually considered an analog or continuous-time control system, because the
