UNIT- III

Thermal Systems

Thermal Systems: Stoichiometry, Boilers, Furnaces and Thermic Fluid Heaters – Efficiency
Computation and Encon Measures. Steam: Distribution & Usage: Steam Traps, Condensate
Recovery, Flash Steam Utilization, Insulators & Refractories.

3.1 Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the study of the relationship between relative amounts of
substances. The formula of a compound provides information about the relative
amount of each element present in either one molecule of the compound or one mole
of the compound. For example, one molecule of CaCl2 contains 1 mol Ca2+ ions and
2 mol Cl− ions.
Stoichiometry can be used to determine the chemical formula of a compound by
studying the relative amounts of elements present or can be used to study the relative
amounts of compounds that are consumed and produced during a chemical reaction

3.2 Boilers
A boiler is an enclosed pressure vessel that provides means for combustion heat to be
transferred into water until it becomes steam. The steam under pressure is then usable for
providing heat for an industrial process. When water is boiled into steam, its volume
increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder.
This makes a boiler an extremely dangerous piece of equipment that must be treated with
utmost care.

A boiler system comprises three parts:

1. A feed water system,
2. A steam system, and
3. A fuel system.

The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet
the steam demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam
system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a
 piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated
using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all the
equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The equipment required in
the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used by the system.

Boiler and other fired systems, such as furnaces and ovens, combust fuel with air for the
purpose of releasing the chemical heat energy. The purpose of the heat energy may be to
raise the temperature of an industrial product as part of a manufacturing process, it may be
to generate high-temperature high-pressure steam in order to power a turbine, or it may
simply be to heat a space so the occupants will be comfortable.

3.3 Efficiency computation of Boilers

Efficiency testing helps us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away
from the best efficiency. Any observed abnormal deviations could therefore be
investigated to pinpoint the problem area for necessary corrective action. Hence it is
necessary to find out the current level of efficiency for performance evaluation,
which is a pre requisite for energy conservation action in industry.

Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753

and BS845 are designed for spot measurement of boiler efficiency. Basically Boiler
efficiency can be tested by the following methods:

1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and
steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
 2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses
and the energy input.

3.2.1 The Direct Method Testing

This is also known as 'input-output method' due to the fact that it needs only the
useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This
efficiency can be evaluated using the formula:

x 100

Example 3.1Water consumption and coal consumption were measured in a coal-fired

boiler at hourly intervals. Weighed quantities of coal were fed to the boiler during the trial
period. Simultaneously water level difference was noted to calculate steam generation
during the trial period. Blow down was avoided during the test. The measured data is given
below.
[Link] Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
 Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
 Requires few parameters for computation
 Needs few instruments for monitoring

Demerits
 Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
 Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
 Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly wet due to
water carryover.
3.2.2 The Indirect Method Testing

The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers
using the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the direct method can be
overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat losses associated with boiler.
The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from [Link]
important advantage of this method is that the errors in measurement do not make
significant change in efficiency.
The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler:

L1 - Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)

L2 - Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3 - Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
L4 - Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
L5 - Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6 - Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted

Boiler Efficiency by indirect method = 100 – (L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6)

Energy Conservation Opportunities in Boilers

1. Stack Temperature
The stack temperature (Temperature used to remove water vapor in the exhaust
condenses on the stack walls) should be as low as possible. An estimated 1% efficiency loss occurs
with every 22 °C increase in stack temperature.
2. Feed Water Preheating using Economizer
Feed Water Preheating using economizer would reduce the exit temperature to 65 °C,
thereby increasing thermal efficiency by 5%.
3. Combustion Air Preheat
Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feed water pre-heating. In order to
improve thermal efficiency by 1%, the combustion air temperature must be raised by 20 °C using pre-
heater.
4. Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor
distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke, and must be corrected
immediately.
5. Excess Air Control
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas
losses; for every 1% reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency.
6. Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and
piping.
7. Automatic Blow down Control
Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very wasteful. Automatic blow down controls
can be installed that sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH. A 10% blow
down in a 15kg/cm2 boiler results in 3% efficiency loss.

8. Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses

In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat
transfer. Any such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. It is estimated that 3 mm of soot
can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to increased flue gas temperatures.
Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air
heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn deposits.
9. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
The possibility of replacing the dampers by a VSD should be improve the system
efficiency.

10. Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency

The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-
thirds of the full load.
12. Proper Boiler Scheduling
Operate a fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than to operate a large number at low
loads.
13. Boiler Replacement
The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in
overall efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing boiler is :
 old and inefficient
 not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
 over or under-sized for present requirements
 not designed for ideal loading conditions
3.4 Efficiency computation of Furnaces
A furnace is an equipment u s e d to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change of
shape(rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat treatment).
The main ways in which heat is transferred to the steel in a reheating furnace are shown in
Figure 40. In simple terms, heat is transferred to the stock by:
 Radiation from the flame, hot combustion products and the furnace walls and roof;
 Convection due to the movement of hot gases over the stock surface.
At the high temperatures employed in reheating furnaces, the dominant mode of
heat transfer is wall radiation. Heat transfer by gas radiation is dependent on the gas
composition (mainly the carbon dioxide and water vapour concentrations), the
temperature and the geometry of the furnace.

The efficiency of a furnace is the ratio of useful output to heat input. The furnace
efficiency can be determined by both a direct and an indirect method.

Direct method testing. The efficiency of the furnace can be computed by measuring
the amount of fuel consumed per unit weight of material produced from the furnace.

The quantity of heat to be imparted (Q) to the stock can be found from
Q = m × Cp (t1 – t2)
Where
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal
m = Weight of the stock in kg
Cp = Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg°C
t1 = Final temperature of stock desired, °C
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace, °C

Indirect method testing. Similar to the method of evaluating boiler efficiency by indirect
methods, furnace efficiency can also be calculated by an indirect method. Furnace
efficiency is calculated after subtracting sensible heat loss in flue gas, loss due to moisture
in flue gas, heat loss due to openings of the furnace, heat loss through the furnace skin,
and other unaccounted losses from the input to the furnace.

Example 3.2
An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340°C.
Average fuel consumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature is 750 °C after air
pre-heater. Air is preheated from ambient temperature of 40 °C to 190 °C through an air pre-
heater. The furnace has 460 mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m
high (D) and 1 m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the
furnace by direct method.
Exit flue gas temperature = 750°C
Ambient temperature = 40°C
Preheated air temperature = 190°C
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92
Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr
= 400 × 0.92 =368 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12%
Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr
Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/°C
Average surface temperature of heating + soaking zone = 122 °C
Average surface temperature of area other than heating and soaking zone = 80 °C
 Area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18 m2
Area other than heating and soaking zone = 12.6 m2
Solution:
Heat input = 400 litres / hr
= 368 kg/hr
Heat output = m × Cp × ΔT
= 6000 kg × 0.12 × (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal
Efficiency = 936000 × 100 / (368 × 10000)= 25.43 %
= 25% (app)
Losses = 75% (app)

3.5 Energy Conservation measures in Furnaces

1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air

2) Correct heat distribution
3) Operate furnace at the desired temperature
4) Reduce heat losses from furnace openings
5) Maintain correct amount of furnace draught
6) Optimum capacity utilization of furnace will give maximum thermal
efficiency
7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases improves system efficiency
8) Minimum refractory losses
The appropriate choice of refractory and insulation materials goes a
long way in achieving fairly high fuel savings in industrial furnaces
9) Use of Ceramic Coatings in furnace chamber promotes rapid and efficient
transfer of heat, thereby extended life of refractories.

3.6 Thermic Fluid Heaters

Thermic Fluid is used as a heat transfer mechanism in some industrial process and
heating applications. Thermic Fluid may be a vegetable or mineral based oil and the oil may
be raised to a high temperature without the need for any pressurization. The relatively high
flow and return temperatures may limit the potential for flue gas heat recovery unless some
other system can absorb this heat usefully. Careful design and selection is required to achieve
best energy efficiency.
Thermic fluid heaters are used just to heat the water, not necessarily producing steam.
Water is heated by passing hot thermic fluid in tubes submerged in water. This arrangement is
similar to the fire-tube boiler .

The combustion air enters through the fan inlet, travels upwards through the space
between the inner shell & the outer shell, gets pre-heated & enters the top mounted burner Hot
flue gases travel down the full length of the vessel creating the first (radiant) pass The flue
gases then travel upwards through the space between the inner coil & the outer coil creating
the second (convection) pass The third (convection) pass is downwards through the space
between the outer coil & the inner shell to the flue gas outlet.
 3.7 Steam: Concept, Properties & Usage
Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution.
Steam is used for generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar,
paper, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fiber and [Link]
following characteristics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry:

 Highest specific heat and latent heat

 Highest heat transfer coefficient
 Easy to control and distribute
 Cheap and inert

Water can exist in the form of solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (steam) respectively.
If heat energy is added to water, its temperature rises until a value is reached at which the
water can no longer exist as a liquid. We call this the "saturation" point and with any
further addition of energy, some of the water will boil off as steam. This evaporation
requires relatively large amounts of energy, and while it is being added, the water and the
steam released are both at the same temperature. Equally, if steam is made to release the
energy that was added to evaporate it, then the steam will condense and water at same
temperature will be formed.

3.8 Steam Distribution

The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and
the steam user. Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is essential if
steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the steam
using equipment. Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important issues,
and must be considered at the design stage.
 Figure 3.2 Steam Distribution System

As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a
very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes
the steam to flow through the pipes. The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed
through pipe work to the point where its heat energy is required. Initially there will be one
or more main pipes, or 'steam mains', which carry steam from the boiler in the general
direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the
individual pieces of equipment. A typical steam distribution system is shown in Figure 3.2.

3.9 Steam Traps

The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain fast heating of the product and
equipment by keeping the steam lines and equipment free of condensate, air and non-
condensable gases. A steam trap is a valve device that discharges condensate and air from
the line or piece of equipment without discharging the steam.
The three important functions of steam traps are:
• To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
• Not to allow steam to escape.
 • To be capable of discharging air and other incondensible gases.

3.9.1 Types of Steam Traps

There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall, all three are
classified by International Standard ISO 6704:1982.

Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature) - The temperature of saturated

steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of
evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any further
heat loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass
condensate when this lower temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the
temperature increases and the trap closes.

Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density) - This range of steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. These steam traps include
'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the
presence of condensate, opening a valve which passes the denser condensate. With the
'inverted bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut
the valve. Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.

Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics) - Thermodynamic steam traps

rely partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group includes
 'thermodynamic', 'disc', 'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.

3.10 Condensate Recovery

Figure 3.3 Heat Content of Steam and Condensate at the Same Pressure

The steam condenses after giving off its latent heat in the heating coil or the jacket of
the process equipment. A sizable portion (about 25%) of the total heat in the steam leaves
the process equipment as hot water. Figure 3.3 compares the amount of energy in a
kilogram of steam and condensate at the same pressure. The percentage of energy in
condensate to that in steam can vary from 18% at 1 bar g to 30% at 14 bar g; clearly the
liquid condensate is worth reclaiming. If this water is returned to the boiler house, it will
reduce the fuel requirements of the boiler. For every 60°C rise in the feed water
temperature, there will be approximately 1% saving of fuel in the boiler.

3.10.1 Benefits of Condensate Recovery

• Water charges are reduced.

• Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
• Fuel costs are reduced.
• More steam can be produced from the boiler.
• Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
• Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.
3.11 Flash Steam Recovery

Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is reduced to a lower pressure
and can be used for low pressure heating.
The higher the steam pressure and lower the flash steam pressure the greater the
quantity of flash steam that can be generated. In many cases, flash steam from high
pressure equipments is made use of directly on the low pressure equipments to reduce use
of steam through pressure reducing valves.

The flash steam quantity can be calculated by the following formula with the help of a
steam table:

Flash steam available % = (S1 –S2) / L2

Where: S1 is the sensible heat of higher pressure condensate.

S2 is the sensible heat of the steam at lower pressure (at which it has been
flashed). L2 is the latent heat of flash steam (at lower pressure).

Figure 3.4 Quantity of Flash Steam Graph

 Flash steam can be used on low pressure applications like direct injection and can
replace an equal quantity of live steam that would be otherwise required. The demand for
flash steam should exceed its supply, so that there is no build up of pressure in the flash
vessel and the consequent loss of steam through the safety valve. Generally, the simplest
method of using flash steam is to flash from a machine/equipment at a higher pressure to a
machine/equipment at a lower pressure, thereby augmenting steam supply to the low
pressure equipment.

In general, a flash system should run at the lowest possible pressure so that the
maximum amount of flash is available and the backpressure on the high pressure systems
is kept as low as possible.

Flash steam from the condensate can be separated in an equipment called the 'flash
vessel'. This is a vertical vessel as shown in the Figure 3.5. The diameter of the vessel is
such that a considerable drop in velocity allows the condensate to fall to the bottom of the
vessel from where it is drained out by a steam trap preferably a float trap. Flash steam
itself rises to leave the vessel at the top. The height of the vessel should be sufficient
enough to avoid water being carried over in the flash steam.

Figure 3.5 Flash Steam Recovery

The condensate from the traps (A) along with some flash steam generated passes through vessel (B). The
flash steam is let out through (C) and the residual condensate from
(B) goes out through the steam trap (D). The flash vessel is usually fitted with a 'pressure gauge' to know
the quality of flash steam leaving the vessel. A 'safety valve' is also provided to vent out the steam in case
of high pressure build up in the vessel.

3.12 Insulators:

A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low thermal conductivity. Insulation

is used in buildings and in manufacturing processes to prevent heat loss or heat gain. Although

its primary purpose is an economic one, it also provides more accurate control of process

temperatures and protection of personnel. It prevents condensation on cold surfaces and the

resulting corrosion. Such materials are porous, containing large number of dormant air cells.

Thermal insulation delivers the following benefits:

• Reduces over-all energy consumption

• Offers better process control by maintaining process temperature.

• Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated system above dew point

• Provides fire protection to equipment

• Absorbs vibration

Types and Application

The Insulation can be classified into three groups according to the temperature ranges for which

they are used.

[Link] Temperature Insulations (up to 90 °C)

This range covers insulating materials for refrigerators, cold and hot water systems, storage

tanks, etc. The commonly used materials are Cork, Wood, 85% magnesia, Mineral Fibers,

Polyurethane and expanded Polystyrene, etc.

[Link] Temperature Insulations (90 – 325 °C)

Insulators in this range are used in low temperature, heating and steam raising equipment, steam

lines, flue ducts etc. The types of materials used in this temperatures range include 85%

Magnesia, Asbestos, Calcium Silicate and Mineral Fibers etc.

[Link] Temperature Insulations (325 °C – above )

Typical uses of such materials are super heated steam system, oven dryer and furnaces etc. The
most extensively used materials in this range are Asbestos, Calcium Silicate, Mineral Fibre,

Mica and Vermiculite based insulation, Fireclay or Silica based insulation and Ceramic Fibre.

Heat Loss Calculation:

Surface heat loss can be calculated by,

S = [10+(Ts–Ta)/20] x (Ts–Ta)

• Where S = Surface heat loss in kCal/hr m2

• Ts = Hot surface temperature in °C

• Ta = Ambient temperature in °C

• Total heat loss/hr (Hs) = S × A

• Where A is the surface area in m2

3.13 Refractories
Any material can be described as ‘refractory’, if it can with stand the action of abrasive or corrosive
solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of operating conditions in which
refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a range of refractory materials with different
properties. Refractory materials are made in varying combinations and shapes and for different
applications.

The general requirements of a refractory material can be summed up as :

• Ability to withstand high temperatures.

• Ability to withstand sudden changes of temperatures.

• Ability to withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot gases, etc.

• Ability to withstand load at service conditions.

• Ability to withstand load and abrasive forces.

• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.

• Should be able to conserve heat.

• Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact.

Properties of Refractories:

Some of the important properties of refractories are:

Melting point: Pure substances melt sharply at a definite temperature. Most refractory materials consist of high
melting particles bonded together. At high temperature, glass fuses and as the temperature rises, the resulting
slag increases in quantity by partial solution of the refractory particles. The temperature at which this action
results in failure of a test pyramid (cone) to support its own weight is called, for convenience, the melting point
of the refractory.
Size: The size and shape of the refractories is a part of the design feature. It is an important feature in
design since it affects the stability of any structure. Accuracy and size is extremely important to enable
proper fitting of the refractory shape and to minimize the thickness and joints in construction.
Bulk density: A useful property of refractories is bulk density, which defines the material present in a
given volume. An increase in bulk density of a given refractory increases its volume stability, its heat
capacity, as well as resistance to slag penetration.
Porosity: The apparent porosity is a measure of the volume of the open pores, into which a liquid can
penetrate, as a percentage of the total volume. This is an important property in cases where the
refractory is in contact with molten charge and slags. A low apparent porosity is desirable since it
would prevent easy penetration of the refractory size and continuity of pores will have important
influences on refractory behaviour. A large number of small pores is generally preferable to an
equivalent number of large pores.
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE): Temperature at which a refractory will deform under its own
weight is known as its softening temperature which is indicated by PCE.
Reversible Thermal Expansion: Any material when heated, expands, and contracts on cooling. The
reversible thermal expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that occur during heating and
cooling.