Motor Learnin

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0-07-292176-5 T/A MAGILL: MOTOR LEARNING AND CONTROL

Motor Learning
and Control
Concepts and Applications
Seventh Edition

Richard A. Magill
Louisiana State University

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IL

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 7

The McGraw-Hill Companies

Higher Education

MOTOR LEARNING AND CONTROL: CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS, SEVENTH

EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Magill. Richard A.
Motor learning and control : concepts and applications/Richard A. Magill. — th

ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-07-255722-2 (hard cover : alk. paper)
1 . Motor learning and control. I. Title

BF295.M36 2004
152.3'34— dc21
2003051309

www.mhhe.com
 Detailed Contents

Preface vii Discussion, 37

Dedication xiv Ability and Motor Ability, 37

Unit II Introduction to Motor

Unit I Introduction to Motor Skills
and Abilities 1
Control 49
4 Motor Control Theories, 50
1 The Classification of Motor
Application, 50
Skills, 2 Discussion, 51
Application, 2 Theory and Professional
Discussion, 3 Practice, 51
Skills, and Movements,
Actions, 3 Motor Control Theory, 53
One-Dimension Classification Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control
Systems, 5 Systems, 56
Gentile 's Two-Dimensions Two Theories of Motor Control, 57
Taxonomy, 9 The Present State of the Control
2 The Measurements of Motor Theory Issue, 70

Performance, 18 5 Performance Characteristics

Application, 18 of Complex Skills, 75
Discussion, 19 Application. 75
Reaction Time, 19 Discussion, 76
Error Measures, 23 Speed-Accuracy Skills, 76
Kinematic Measures, 27 Prehension, 77
Kinetics, 29 Handwriting, 82
EMG Measures, 32 Bimanual Coordination Skills, 83
Measuring Coordination, 33 Gait, 85
3 Motor Abilities, 37 6 Proprioceptive and Vision, 90
Application, 37 Application. 90

111
 1

iv mhhe.com/magill7e DETAILED CONTENTS

Discussion, 91 Remembering and Forgetting, 1 75

Proprioception and Motor Assessing Remembering and

Control, 91 Forgetting, 175

Vision and Motor Control, 96 The Causes of Forgetting, 177
Vision and Manual Aiming, 98 Movement Characteristics Related to

Vision and Prehension, 101 Memory Performance, 181

Vision and Handwriting, 104 Strategies That Enhance Memory
Vision and Locomotion, 105 Performance, 182
Vision and Jumping from Practice-Test Context Effects, 185
Heights, 109
Vision and Catching, 109
Unit IV Introduction to Motor Skill
Vision and Striking a Moving
Object. 1 14
Learning 191
10 Defining and Assessing
7 Action Preparation, 118
Application. 118 Learning, 192
Discussion, 119 Application, 192
Action Preparation Requires Discussion, 192
Time, 119 Performance Distinguished from
Task and Situation Learning, 192
Characteristics Influencing General Performance Characteristics
Preparation, 119 of Skill Learning, 193
Performer Characteristics Influencing Assessing Learning by Observing

Preparation, 126 Practice Performance, 194

What Occurs during Assessing Learning by Retention

Prepa ration ? 129 Tests, 199

Assessing Learning by Transfer
Tests, 200
Unit III Attention and Memory 139
Assessing Learning from
8 Attention as a Limited Capacity Coordination Dynamics, 201
Resource, 140 Practice Performance May
Application, 140 Misrepresent Learning, 203
Discussion. 141 1 The Stages of Learning, 207
Attention and Multiple Task Application, 207
Performance. 142 Discussion, 208
Procedures for Assessing A ttention The and Posner Three-Stage
Fitts
Demands, 147 Model, 208
Focusing Attention, 148 Gentile's Two-Stage Model, 210
Attention and Automaticity, 151 Performer and Performance
Visual Selective Attention, 152 Changes across the Stages of
Procedures for Investigating Visual Learning, 213
Search in Motor Skills, 153 A Performer Characteristic That
How We Select Visual Cues, 155 Does Not Change across the Stages
Visual Searchand Action of Learning, 221
Preparation, 157 Expertise, 221
Training Visual Search Predicting Future Achievement, 224
Strategies, 163 Relating Initial and Later
9 Memory Components, Forgetting, Achievement, 224
and Strategies, 167 12 Transfer of Learning, 231
Application, 167 Application, 231
Discussion, 168 Discussion, 231
Memory Structure, 168 What Is Transfer of Learning? 232
Working Memory, 169 Why Is Transfer of Learning
Long-Term Memory, 172 Important? 232
DETAILED CONTENTS

Why Does Positive Transfer Organizing Variable Practice, 310

of Learning Occur? 234 Accounting for the Contextual
Negative Transfer, 237 Interference Effect, 317
Bilateral Transfer, 240 16 The Amount and Distribution
of Practice, 321
Unit V Instruction and Augmented Application. 321

Feedback 247 Discussion, 322

Overturning and Learning Motor
13 Demonstration and Verbal
Skills, 322
Instructions, 248
The Overlearning Strategy Can Lead
Application, 248
to Poor Test Performance, 325
Demonstration, 249
Overlearning and Other Practice
Verbal Instructions and Cues, 258
Variables, 326
14 Augmented Feedback, 268 The Distribution of Practice, 326
Application, 268 Defining Massed and Distributed
Discussion, 269 Practice, 327
The Feedback Family, 270 The Length and Distribution
Types of Augmented of Practice Sessions, 328
Feedback, 270 The Intertrial Interval and Practice
The Roles of Augmented Feedback Distribution, 331
in Skill Acquisition, 272
17 Whole and Part Practice, 336
How Essential is Augmented
Application, 336
Feedback for Skill Acquisition ? 2 72
Discussion, 336
The Content of Augmented
Skill Complexity and
Feedback, 276
Organization, 337
Augmented Feedback Issues, 276
Practicing Parts of a Skill, 338
Types of Knowledge of
An Attention Approach to Involving
Performance, 283
Part Practice in Whole
Timing Issues Related
Practice, 345
to Augmented Feedback, 289
18 Mental Practice, 348
Concurrent and Terminal Augmented
Application, 348
Feedback, 289
Discussion, 349
The KR-Delay and Post-KR
Two Roles for Mental Practice, 349
Intervals, 292
Mental Practice Aids Skill
Frequency of Presenting Augmented
Acquisition, 350
Feedback, 296
Mental Practice Aids Performance
Techniques That Reduce Augmented
Preparation, 353
Feedback Frequency, 298
Why Is Mental Practice
Effective? 355
Unit VI Practice Conditions 305 Mental Practice and Imagery
15 Practice Variability, 306 Ability, 356
Application, 306
Discussion, 306
References 361
The Future Performance Benefit
Glossary 381
of Practice Variability, 307
Implementing Practice Name Index 389
Variability, 309 Subject Index 395
 PREFACE

The goal of this text continues in the path of earlier in previous editions shows that motor control is-

editions: to offer an introduction to motor learning sues such as motor control theories, motor control
and motor control for students who aspire to be- of complex skills, the roles of proprioception and
come practitioners in a variety of professions. In vision in the control of motor skills, and action
some of these professions, individuals will work preparation, have consistently been included in
with people who perform motor skills very well, previous editions. It is important for users of previ-
such as elite athletes; in others, work with
they will ous editions of this book to understand that the title
people who have difficulty performing motor change does not mean that the emphasis of this edi-
skills, such as those with physical disabilities. Re- tion has changed; only the title has been changed
gardless of the characteristics and needs of the peo- to reflect the content of the book more accurately.
ple with whom the practitioner works, he or she
Chapter Restructuring
will need a solid understanding of the concepts and
Reviewers of the sixth edition expressed their con-
applications of motor learning and motor control.
cern that the book contained more chapters than
With this understanding as a foundation, the prac-
could be covered in a typical one-semester course.
titioner can adapt to the specific demands of each
Although it is difficult to write a textbook that
professional setting.
would be an exact fit for every user's semester or
This edition includes specific changes de-
instructional term, I have addressed this issue by
signed to enhance the quality of the book as well
reducing the number of chapters. The seventh edi-
as the educational experience of the student. The
tion includes 18 chapters, rather than 23 chapters,
changes are the result of welcomed comments from
as in the sixth edition. This reduction was achieved
instructors who use the book in their classes and
by combining several of the sixth-edition chapters:
from the reviewers of the previous edition.
• Chapter 8 (Attention) combines the
separate chapters on attention and visual
NEW TO THIS EDITION selective attention.
New Title • Chapter 1 1 (The Stages of Learning)
This new edition features the term motor control combines the sixth edition's chapters on
added to the title. The incentive to add this term the stages of learning and predicting
came from reviewers of the text, who indicated performance for later learning stages.

they were not aware that motor control issues are • Chapter 14 (Augmented Feedback)
included in the book. However, a comparison of the combines the three chapters that formerly

chapter titles in this seventh edition with the titles addressed this topic.

vu
viii mhhe.com/magill7e PREFACE

• Chapter 16 (Amount and Distribution Chapter Objectives

of Practice) combines the sixth edition's Each chapter now begins with a list of chapter ob-
chapters on the amount of practice and jectives. This new feature encourages students to
the distribution of practice. focus on the key topics, making it easier for them
to learn and review the content of each chapter.
In addition to the combining of several sixth-
edition chapters, this new edition reverses the order
Lab Links
of two chapters in the first unit: Chapter 2 (The
The Online Learning Center developed for this
Measurement of Motor Performance) was Chapter
book includes a laboratory manual that features
3 in the sixth edition, and Chapter 3 (Motor Abili-
laboratory experiences designed for most chapters
ties) was Chapter 2 in that edition.
in this text. To direct students' attention to these ac-
tivities, this edition includes a Lab Links box that
New Research highlights a specific online laboratory activity that
One of the exciting aspects of the study of motor corresponds to a particular chapter topic. Most of
learning and motor control is the amount of the chapters have one Lab Links box, and some
research activity that takes place throughout the have more than one.
world. In fact, this activity appears to be increasing
every year. Therefore it becomes especially impor-
tant to regularly update this textbook in order to
NEW OR EXPANDED TOPICS
offer the students the most current information.
Each chapter in the seventh edition includes an up- This new edition has undergone a thorough revi-
dating of research in the text, the A Closer Look sion that includes updating in all chapters. Each
boxes, and the Related Readings section. chapter features topics that are either new to this
revision or covered in greater depth than in the last

Greater Emphasis on Motor Skills Applications edition. Following is a sampling of these new or
As in previous editions, numerous types of motor expanded topics:

skills are used as examples throughout the book

Chapter 1: The Classification of Motor Skills
to allow students to apply the various motor • New figure to illustrate examples of skills
learning and control concepts to specific motor
associated with the three motor skill clas-
skills with which they are familiar. However, the
sification systems based on one dimension
number of practical applications has been in-
of motor skills
creased to demonstrate how teachers, coaches, • Revised table presenting skill categories
physical and occupational therapists, and athletic
of Gentile's taxonomy to include examples
trainers can use motor learning and control in their
of motor skills
fields.
• New A Closer Look box to offer examples
My own teaching experience with undergrad-
of use of Gentile's taxonomy to evaluate
uates has convinced me that students acquire a bet-
movement capabilities in physical therapy
ter understanding of the concepts discussed in this
and physical education
book when they can relate them to their own skill

performance or learning experiences. Because of Chapter 2: The Measurement of Motor

the variety of backgrounds, interests, and profes- Performance
sional aspirations of students who use this book, • New A Closer Look box to present exam-
the specific skills included throughout the book re- ple of calculation and use of absolute
late to a wide range of types of motor skills, includ- error, constant error, and variable error
ing activities of daily living, physical education, • New figure to illustrate calculation of
fitness activities, sports, and dance. radial error
PREFACE IX

• Revised figure showing displacement, • New A Closer Look box to describe a study
velocity, and acceleration with examples investigating initial difficulties people have
based on wrist movement in dart throwing trying to control upper-extremity prosthe-
• Expanded discussion of kinetics ses when performing a prehension task
• Expanded discussion of EMG • New section on head stability and
locomotion
Chapter 3: Motor Abilities
• Expanded discussion of specificity view Chapter 6: Proprioception and Vision
of motor abilities • Expanded discussion of the role of propri-
• Expanded intercorrelation table oception in control of human movement
(Drowatzky and Zuccato experiment) with • New A Closer Look box featuring the use
added descriptions of balance tests of eye tracking in the study of eye and
• Added section on balance and timing as hand movements
motor abilities • Expanded discussion of the roles of central

• New A Closer Look box presenting (foveal) and peripheral vision in control of

Henry's 1961 study of the relationship human movement

between reaction time and movement time • Added discussion on maintaining of pos-
• New table focusing on definitions, tural balance and the role of optical flow
tests, and motor skill examples of the • New A Closer Look box describing an
perceptual-motor abilities categories of experiment that demonstrates how skilled

Fleishman's taxonomy gymnasts use vision on the balance beam

• New A Closer Look box highlighting
Chapter 4: Motor Control Theories research evidence concerning the informa-
• Expanded discussion of the definition tion that vision provides people during
of coordination stair climbing
• New A Closer Look box presenting a • New A Closer Look box describing mathe-
demonstration used by Bernstein to demon- matical models that answer the question,
strate the degrees-of-freedom problem What control strategy does a person use to
• Added discussion of the relationship be- catch a ball that requires running some
tween invariant features and parameters of distance to catch it?
a generalized motor program • New A Closer Look box featuring conclu-
• Revised figure showing the results of a sions derived from research concerning
study by Shapiro and colleagues to illus- the question, Do general vision training
trate the differences between relative time programs for athletes improve sports
characteristics of walking and running performance?
• Added discussion concerning intrinsic
Chapter 7: Action Preparation
coordinative structures
• New A Closer Look box presenting a
• Expanded discussion of perception-action
historical look at the use of reaction time
coupling
to study action preparation
• Revised discussion of the present state of
• Added discussion of the Stroop effect
the control theory issue
in the section on stimulus-response
Chapter 5: Performance Characteristics compatibility
of Complex Skills • Expanded discussion of postural preparation
• Revised figure of examples of tasks with • Added discussion of setting of the amount
different indexes of difficulty to show of force in preparation for manipulating an
approximate movement times object
x mhhe.com/magill7e PREFACE

• Added discussion of preparation of of freedom as an early stage of learning

sequences of simple movements strategy
• Revised and expanded discussion of
Chapter 8: Attention as a Limited Capacity
changes in energy cost
Resource
• New A Closer Look box featuring a recent
• Expanded discussion of changes in visual

selective attention
research study on attention and cell-phone
use while driving a vehicle
• Expanded discussion of changes in error

detection and correction capability

• New A Closer Look box describing a
physical therapy study that demonstrates
• New discussion of specificity of use of
sources of feedback as a performer charac-
the use of dual-task procedure to investi-
demands of gait for people
teristic that does not change across stages
gate attention
of learning
with Parkinson's disease
• New discussion of a comparison of focus-
• New A Closer Look box presenting views

movements versus move- of researchers and practitioners about the

ing attention on
ment effects
use of mirrors in dance studios and weight

• Added discussion of visual search and

training rooms
intended actions
Chapter 12: Transfer of Learning
• New A Closer Look box about a study
• Expanded discussion on assessing effec-
concerning the influence of distractors on
tiveness of practice conditions
prehension and implications for physical
• New discussion concerning what consti-
rehabilitation treatment protocols
tutes "component part" of a skill
Chapter 9: Memory Components, Forgetting, • New A Closer Look box describing
and Strategies research study concerning use of bilateral
• New A Closer Look box to describe a transfer as occupational therapy treatment
series of studies concerning the influence strategy
of proactive interference on gymnastic
judges Chapter 13: Demonstration and Verbal
• Expanded discussion of the use of visual Instructions
imagery and verbal labels to aid motor • Expanded discussion of frequency and
skill learning timing of demonstrations
• Chapter content revised and reduced for • Revised and expanded discussion of audi-
clarity tory modeling
• Expanded discussions of cognitive media-
Chapter 10: Defining and Assessing
tion theory and dynamic view
Learning
• New discussion of the action effect
• Clarification of examples of performance
hypothesis in relation to verbal
curves for kinematic measures
instructions
• Expanded discussion of assessing learning
• New A Closer Look box describing a
based on coordination dynamics
research study concerning the use of im-
Chapter 11: The Stages of Learning plicit learning-based instructional
• Expanded and updated terminology in the strategy to train anticipatory skills in
discussion of Gentile's model tennis
• Expanded discussion of the relationship • New A Closer Look box focusing on po-
between the degrees-of-freedom problem tential instruction-related problems experts
(Chapter 4) and the freezing of degrees may expect with beginners
PREFACE \i

Chapter 14: Augmented Feedback • Expanded discussion of methods for re-

• Expanded discussion of types of ducing task difficulty as practice strategy
augmented feedback
• New A Closer Look box featuring a Chapter 18: Mental Practice
research study that describes the stages
• Expanded definition of the term mental
skilled athletes progress through in learn- practice

ing to use videotape replays as augmented • New A Closer Look box to describe an

feedback experiment demonstrating the use of men-

• New A Closer Look box to describe some tal practice in a physical therapy treatment

forms that concurrent augmented feedback program

can take, with examples
• Expanded discussion of mental practice

• Expanded discussion of self-selected aug- and imagery ability

mented feedback
• Revised discussion of summary technique SUCCESSFUL FEATURES
to include average augmented feedback
technique Motor Learning and Control: Concepts and Appli-
cations offers the following helpful features to en-
Chapter 15: Practice Variability
hance student learning.
• Expanded discussion of future
performance benefits of practice variability Definition Boxes
• New A Closer Look box to describe an Key terms, which are highlighted in the text in
experiment comparing constant and vari- boldface type, are defined in corresponding boxes
able practice for learning to shoot free for easy reference. Other important terms in the
throws in basketball text appear in italics for emphasis.
• New A Closer Look box to describe an ex-
Applications
periment demonstrating the application of
the contextual interference effect for physi-
Each chapter begins with an Applications section
that explains the chapter concept in practical
cal therapy for stroke patients
terms. This feature helps students understand the
• Expanded discussion of explanations for
relevance of the concept to professional practice.
the contextual interference effect
• New A Closer Look box to discuss the Discussion
relationship of practice variability to
This section explains how the chapter concept will
practice specificity and contextual
be presented. It gives students the rationale for this
interference
presentation, making the concept easier to under-
stand at the outset.
Chapter 16: The Amount and Distribution
of Practice Summary
• Expanded discussion of how overlearning Each chapter concludes with a summary that pre-
strategy can lead to poor test performance sents the main ideas and their significance. Using
• New section on explanations for distrib- this tool, students can return easily to a chapter
uted practice benefit in relation to distribu- topic for clarification or study.
tion of practice sessions across days
Related Readings
Chapter 17: Whole and Part Practice For students who want to know more about a par-
• More motor skill examples in discussion ticular topic, this list at the end of each chapter of-
of practicing skills involving asymmetric fers carefully selected journal articles and books
limb coordination for exploration.
 —

xii mhhe.com/magill7e PREFACE

Study Questions Online Learning Center

A set of questions appears at the end of each chap- www.mhhe.com/magill7e
ter to encourage students to review and analyze the The Online Learning Center to accompany this text
chapter content. offers a number of additional resources for both
students and instructors. Visit this website to find
Glossary
useful materials such as the following:
At the end of the text, all terms that are defined in
the definition boxes are included in a comprehen-
For the instructor:
sive glossary. This glossary is useful for quick ref-
• Downloadable PowerPoint presentations
erence and helpful for review in preparation for
• Lecture outlines
examinations.
• Links to professional resources

Name Index
For the student:
In addition to the regular subject index, this book
• Self-scoring chapter quizzes and online
features a name index, which highlights important
study guides
names in the field of motor learning and control
both past and present.
• Flashcards for learning key terms and their
definitions
• Online laboratory manual
SUPPLEMENTS • Web links for study and exploration of
topics in the text
Computerized Test Bank CD-ROM
• Information on careers in this field
ISBN: 0-07-255724-9

Brownstone's Computerized Testing is the most

flexible, powerful, easy-to-use electronic testing PageOut: The Course Website Development
program available in higher education. The Diploma Center
system (for Windows users) allows the test maker www.pageout.net
to create a print version, an online version (to be who McGraw-
PageOut, free to instructors use a
delivered to a computer lab), or an Internet version
Hill textbook, is an online program you can use to
of each test. Diploma includes a built-in instructor
create your own course web site. PageOut offers
gradebook, into which student rosters and files can
the following features:
be imported. The CD-ROM includes a separate
testing program, Exam VI, for Macintosh users. • A course home page
• An instructor home page
Health and Human Performance Website • A syllabus (interactive and customizable,
www.mhhe.com/hhp including quizzing, instructor notes, and
links to the text's Online Learning Center)
McGraw-Hill's Health and Human Performance
• Web links
website provides a wide variety of information for
• Discussions (multiple discussion areas
both instructors and students, including monthly
per class)
articles about current issues, downloadable supple-
• An online gradebook
ments for instructors, a "how to" technology guide,
• Links to student web pages
study tips, and exam preparation materials. It in-
cludes information about professional organiza- Contact your McGraw-Hill sales representative to
tions, conventions, and careers. obtain a password.
PREFACE xui

PowerWeb cate this new edition and to whom wasI recently

www.dushkin.com/online married, for both her patience and her efforts as

The PowerWeb website is a reservoir of course-

"taskmaster" throughout my work on this revision.

specific articles and current events. Students can I am pleased to have had the same develop-

visit PowerWeb to take a self-scoring quiz, com- mental editor and project manager who worked on
the sixth edition. I thank them both for their direc-
plete an interactive exercise, click through an inter-
tion, suggestions, patience, and other qualities that
active glossary, or check the daily news. An expert
in each discipline analyzes the day's news to show
made the revision experience a smooth process.
Finally, as I have in each of the previous edi-
students how it relates to their field of study.
PowerWeb is packaged with many McGraw- tions, I wish to thank the many undergraduate and
Hill textbooks. Students are also granted full ac-
graduate students who have been in my motor
learning classes. Few of them will ever know how
cess to Dushkin/McGraw-Hill's Student Site,
where they can read study tips, conduct web re- much I have learned from them and how they have
search, learn about different career paths, and fol-
influenced much of the content of this book.

low fun links on the web.

The publisher's reviewers made especially helpful
Primis Online comments and suggestions to guide my revision of
www.mhhe.com /primis /online this textbook. I greatly appreciate these contribu-

Primis Online is a database-driven publishing sys- tions from the following reviewers:
tem that allows instructors to create content-rich
For the seventh edition
textbooks, lab manuals, or readers for their courses
Diane Hurlbut
directly from the Primis website. The customized
Central Connecticut State University
text can be delivered in print or electronic (eBook)
form. A Primis eBook is a digital version of the Gerard G. Lyons
customized text (sold directly to students as a file Idaho State University
downloadable to their computer or accessed online Larry W. McDaniel
by a password). Chadron State College
Erin McLaughlin Hall
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS California State University
No new edition of a textbook could be accom- Dawn L. Patel
plished without the support of colleagues, friends,
University of Indianapolis
and loved ones. In particular, I want to acknowl-
Geraldine L. Pellecchia
edge the level of support I continue to receive from
University of Hartford
Amelia Lee, my department chair in the Depart-
ment of Kinesiology at Louisiana State University. Shannon D. Robertson
Without support and encouragement from her, as Arizona State University
well as from others in the department, this new edi-
Marco Santello
tion would not have been possible. I also want to
Arizona State University
recognize colleagues from around the world who
have regularly sent me Tina Stoeckmann
their ideas and suggestions
concerning ways to make the book work better for Marquette University
them in the classes they teach.

On
a personal level, I want to publicly ac- Richard A. Magill
knowledge and thank Susan Koff, to whom I dedi- Baton Rouge, Louisiana
to my lovely wife
Susan Ruth Koff

XIV
 UNIT

Introduction
to Motor Skills
and Abilities

Chapter 1

The Classification of Motor Skills

Chapter 2
The Measurement of Motor Performance

Chapter 3
Motor Abilities
 Chapter

The Classification

of Motor Skills

Concept: Motor skills can be classified

into general categories

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Define and distinguish the terms action and movement, and give examples of each

• Describe the one common motor skill characteristic for each of three motor skill classifica-
tion systems, the two categories of skills in each system, and examples of motor skills in
each category of each system

• Describe the two dimensions used to classify skills in the Gentile taxonomy of motor skills
and the classification characteristic included within each dimension

• Discuss ways to use the Gentile taxonomy of motor skills in physical rehabilitation or physi-
cal education and sport contexts

Application emphasize the similarities rather than the differ-

ences among skills.

When people run, walk with an artificial limb, For example, the skill of maneuvering a wheel-

throw a baseball, hit a tennis ball, play the piano, chair through acrowded hallway and that of hitting
dance, or operate a wood lathe, they are engaged in a pitched baseball seem quite distinct. However,
the performance of a type of human behavior called both skills have one characteristic in common.
motor skills. In this book, the focus is on helping People must perform both skills in an "open" envi-
you understand how people learn, and how you can ronment. This means that to perform the skill suc-
help people learn, motor skills such as these. must adapt certain aspects of his
cessfully, a person
As you engage in this study, you will find it use- or her movements to changing characteristics in the
ful todraw general conclusions, applying what you performance environment. For the wheelchair skill,

learn to a broad range of motor skills, rather than this means must be able to maneu-
that the person
making many specific statements about many ver successfully through a crowded hallway in
skills. The starting point for doing this is the clas- which people are walking. For the baseball-hitting
sification of motor skills into broad categories that skill, the changing environment involves the ball
CHAPTER 1 THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS

itself as it moves toward the person. For both of piano playing includes a motor skill because it is

these skills, performance success requires the per- a skill that requires voluntary body, head, and/or
former to adapt quickly and accurately to changing limb movement to achieve its goal, which is to play
conditions. When we view them in terms of this the piano. Looked at this way, the skill of piano
common characteristic, we can see that these two playing involves the goal of striking the correct
seemingly diverse skills are related. keys in the proper sequence and at the appropriate
time, and it requires finger and hand movement to
Discussion achieve that goal.
In the motor learning and control research liter-
To begin your study of motor learning, you should ature, a term that has become increasingly more
understand some things about the skills that are at common to designate a specific motor skill is the
the heart of this study. To enhance this understand- term actions. For our purposes, we can consider
ing, two important points about motor skills will be this term as synonymous and interchangeable with
discussed. First, we will define motor skills, con- the term motor skills. That is, actions are goal-
sidering what distinguishes them from other skills; directed activities that consist of body, head, and/
as we do so, we will define some other commonly or limb movements.
used terms related to the term motor skill. Second, Note several characteristics that are common to
we will discuss four different approaches to classi- motor skills. First, there is a goal to achieve. This
fying motor skills into categories that identify com- means that motor skills have a purpose. Sometimes
mon characteristics of various skills. The benefit of you will see the term action goal used to refer to
classifying skills is that it can provide you with an the goal of a motor skill. Second, the types of
appropriate basis for establishing generalizations, motor skills of interest in this text are performed
or principles, about how we perform and learn voluntarily; in other words, we are not considering
motor skills. These generalizations will enable you reflexes as skills. Although an eye blink may have
in turn to develop theories about skill performance a purpose and involve movement, it occurs invol-
and learning. Additionally, they help establish untarily and is therefore not a skill in the sense in
guidelines for instructors, coaches, and therapists which we are using the term. Third, a motor skill
who must develop effective strategies that will en- requires body, head, and/or limb movement to ac-
hance motor skill learning and rehabilitation. complish the goal of the task. This characteristic is

especially important because it is the basis for dis-

tinguishing motor skills from other types of human
SKILLS, ACTIONS, AND MOVEMENTS skills. For example, although solving math prob-
lems is a skill, it does not require body and/or limb
Several terms in the motor learning literature are
movement to achieve its goal. We commonly refer
related to the term motor skills. These are skills,
actions, and movements. Each term is used in a spe-
cific way you should understand and use correctly.

skill (a) an action or task that has a specific goal to

Skills and Actions achieve; (b) an indicator of quality of performance.
The term skill is a commonly used word that you
motor skill a skill that requires voluntary body
will see in this text denotes a task that has a spe-
and/or limb movement to achieve its goal.
cific goal to achieve. For example, we commonly
say that "multiplication is a fundamental skill of action a goal-directed activity that consists of
mathematics," or "playing the piano is a skill that body and/or limb movements.
takes practice." Of these two examples, the skill of
4 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

A CLOSER LOOK
Examples of Skills, Actions, Goals, and Movements

The following examples illustrate how a skill or action can have various goals, which would require movements
that differ according to the action goal. For each of the goals within a skill/action, consider how the movements
would differ to allow the person to achieve the goal while carrying out the same skill/action.

Skills/Actions Goal

1. Walking a. To walk from the front of an empty room to the back of the room
b. To walk from one store to another store in a crowded mall
c. To walk several blocks on a sidewalk

2. Throwing a. To accurately throw a small round ball at a target on the wall

b. To throw a small round ball as far as possible

c. To throw a beach ball to a friend to catch

Reaching a. To pick up a full coffee mug from a table and drink from it

and grasping b. To pick up a bowl of soup to move it from one location on a table to another location

an object on the table

c. To pick up a can of juice and shake it

to the solving of math problems as a cognitive and legs move in different and ways when
distinct
skill. we walk on a concrete sidewalk and when we walk
One additional characteristic further identifies on an icy sidewalk — or on a sandy beach. However,
the types of motor skills of interest in this text: they although the actual movements may differ, the
need to be learned, or relearned, in order for a per- motor skill we perform in each of these different
son to achieve the goal of the skill. In our example, situations is walking.
the piano playing clearly must be learned. But con- The important point here is that a variety of
sider a skill like walking. Although walking may movements can produce the same action and
seem to be something that humans do "naturally," thereby accomplish the same goal. For example,
it must be learned by the infant who is attempting walking up a set of stairs is an action. The goal is to
to move in his or her new and
environment by this get to the top of the stairs. However, to achieve this
exciting means of locomotion. And walking is a goal a person can use a variety of different move-
skill some people may need to relearn. Examples ments. A person can take one step at a time very
are people who have had strokes, or hip or knee slowly, or take each step very quickly, or take two
joint replacements, as well as people who must steps at a time, and so on. In each situation, the ac-
learn to walk with artificial legs. tion is the same but the movements the person pro-
duces to achieve the goal of the action are different.
Movements
In the motor learning and control research litera- Why distinguish movements from skills and ac-
ture, the term movements indicates behavioral tions? There are three reasons why it is important,
characteristics of the body, the head, and/or a spe- and useful, to consider movements as distinct from
cific limb or combination of limbs. This means that motor and actions. First, people learn motor
skills
movements are the component parts of motor skills and actions. Although people must produce
skills
and actions. A variety of body, head, and limb be- movements to perform a motor skill or action, dif-
havior characteristics can occur that enable a per- ferent people may produce different movement
son to walk successfully. For example, our arms characteristics to achieve the same action goal. For
CHAPTER 1 THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS

example, how many golfers swing a golf club ex-

actly alike? All golfers must learn the action of hit-
ting a golf ball with a golf club, but each person will
likely have some unique movement characteristics.
Second, people adapt movement characteristics
to achieve a common action goal. Why do golfers
have different swing characteristics but yet achieve
the same action goal? People differ in physical fea-

tures that limit the movement characteristics they

can produce to perform a skill. This physical fea-
ture limitation is an especially critical concern to
take into account when working with people in
may
physical rehabilitation settings. Although there
be a "preferred" way for people to walk, certain
sensory or motor impairments may not allow a per-
son to walk in that way. But people can make move-
ment characteristic adjustments and still be able to
successfully walk. Even though their gait pattern
may look different from the nondisabled pattern,
they can successfully achieve the action goal.
Third, as you will see in chapter 2, people eval-
uate actions and movements with different types of
measures. We typically evaluate actions in terms of
measures that relate to the outcome of the action,
such as the distance a person walked, the length of The action of hitting a golf ball typically involves different
movement characteristics from one shot to the next.
time it took a person to run a certain distance, or
thenumber of points a basketball shot was worth.
Movements, on the other hand, are evaluated by
teristic is more like, rather than requiring that the
measures that relate to specific characteristics of
characteristic fit one category exclusively.
body, head, limb, and/or muscle activity, such as
Consider an analogy. The concepts "hot" and
kinematic, kinetic, and electromyographic (EMG)
"cold" represent two categories of temperatures. Al-
measures. (These measures of movement charac-
though we typically consider them as distinct cate-
teristics will be defined and discussed in chapter 2.)
gories, we also can view hot and cold as words
describing opposite ends of a temperature contin-
ONE-DIMENSION CLASSIFICATION uum, because there are degrees of hot or cold that

SYSTEMS do not fit exclusively into one or the other category.

By considering hot and cold as anchor points on a
We can classify motor skills by determining which
continuum, we can maintain the category distinc-
skill characteristics are similar to those of other
tions, while at the same time we can more accurately
skills. The most prevalent approach has been to cat-
egorize skills according to one common character-
istic. This common characteristic is divided into
two categories, which represent extreme ends of a movements behavioral characteristics of specific
continuum rather than dichotomous categories. limbs or a combination of limbs that are component
This continuum approach allows a skill to be clas- parts of an action or motor skill.

sified in terms of which category the skill charac-

6 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

1. Size of primary musculature required

Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

Primary musculature Primary musculature
required = Large muscles required = Small muscles
Primary musculature required
Walking Large and small muscles Signing a check
Hopping Pitching a baseball Buttoning a button
Jumping Shooting an arrow in archery on a shirt
Putting a golf ball Typing a word on
a keyboard

2. Specificity of where actions begin and end

Continuous Motor Skills Discrete Motor Skills

Arbitrary beginning and Specified beginning
end of the action; and end of the action;
repetitive movements single movement
Serial Motor Skills
Continuous series of discrete
Steering a car Flipping a light switch
movements
Walking Hittinga piano key
Playing a song on a piano
Swimming Depressing the clutch
Typing a sentence on a
pedal in a car
computer keyboard
Shifting gears in a standard-
shift car

3. Stability of the environmental context

Open Motor Skills Closed Motor Skills

Supporting sudace, Supporting surface,
objects, and/or other objects, and/or other
people in motion people stationary

Driving a car Picking up a cup

Catching a thrown ball Buttoning a shirt
Walking on a crowded Shooting a free-throw
sidewalk in basketball

FIGURE 1.1 Three one-dimension motor skill classification systems. Each is illustrated as a continuum of
the two skill classification categories for the dimension on which the system is based. Also shown are some exam-
ples of motor skills for each of the two categories. For the first two classification systems, skills are also shown that
best fit on the continuum between the two categories.

classify various temperature levels that do not fit Size of Primary Musculature Required
into only one or the other category. One characteristic that distinguishes categories of
We will consider three motor skill classification motor skills is the size of muscle groups required
systems that use the one-dimension approach to toperform the skill. Skills like walking and hop-
categorize skills. These classification systems are ping do not require as the prime movers muscle
summarized in figure 1.1. groups of the same size as those used for skills like
CHAPTER 1 THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS

piano playing and eating with chopsticks. By dis- system in rehabilitation environments. Physical ther-
tinguishing skills based on the size of the muscle apists typically work with patients who need to
groups required to accomplish the actions, re- rehabilitate gross motor skills such as walking,
searchers have established a motor skill classifica- whereas occupational therapists more commonly
tion system which there are two categories,
in deal with patients who need to learn fine motor
known motor skills.
as gross and fine skills. People who are involved in early childhood
To achieve the goals of gross motor skills, people development also find the gross/ fine categorization
need to use large musculature to produce the actions. useful and have developed tests of motor develop-
These skills need less movement precision than fine ment along the gross/fine dimension. Also, indus-
motor skills do. We classify skills such as the so- and military aptitude tests commonly use the
trial

called fundamental motor skills —walking, jumping, gross and fine motor skill distinction.

throwing, leaping, etc. — as gross motor skills.

Fine motor skills fall at the other end of this clas- The Specificity of Where Actions Begin and End
sification continuum. Fine motor skills require Another way to classify motor skills is on the basis
greater control of the small muscles, especially those of how specific the beginning and end locations are

involved in hand-eye coordination, and require a high for an action. If a skill requires a specified beginning

degree of precision in hand and finger movement. and end location, we categorize the skill as a discrete

Handwriting, typing, drawing, sewing, and fastening motor skill. Discrete skills include flipping a light

a button are examples of motor skills that are on the switch, depressing the clutch of an automobile, and

fine motor skill end of the continuum in the muscle hitting a piano key. Each of these skills involves a

size classification system. Note that whereas large specified place to begin and end the action. Also,

muscles may be involved in the action of a fine note from the examples that discrete skills typically

motor skill, the small muscles are the primary mus- are simple, one-movement skills.
cles involved to achieve the goal of the skill. At the opposite end of this classification system
Some motor skills involve both large and small continuum fall continuous motor skills, which are
muscles as the primary muscles required to achieve skills with arbitrary beginning and end locations.

the action goal. We cannot categorize these types In addition, continuous skills usually contain repet-

of skills as gross or fine, but, as shown in figure 1.1,

itive movements. We can classify skills such as
these skills would be located along the continuum steering an automobile, tracking a moving cursor
between these two categories. For example, to
shoot an arrow at a target in archery requires the
precision in hand and finger control of fine motor gross motor skill a motor skill that requires the use
skills, and the involvement of the larger arm and of large musculature to achieve the goal of the skill.

shoulder muscles that characterizes gross motor

fine motor skill a motor skill that requires control
skills. Although many fine motor skills may also
of small muscles to achieve the goal of the skill;
involve the arm and shoulder muscles (e.g., the
typically involves eye-hand coordination and
three examples in figure 1.1), these do not consti-
requires a high degree of precision of hand and
tute the primary musculature required. A person
finger movement.
could achieve the action goals of these skills with
the arms restricted in such a way that he or she discrete motor skill a motor skill with clearly
defined beginning and end points, usually requiring
would have to use hand and finger movements only.
a simple movement.
The use of the gross/fine distinction for motor
skills is popular in a number of settings. In educa- continuous motor skill a motor skill with
tion settings, special education and adapted physical arbitrary beginning and end points. These skills

education curricula and tests commonly distinguish usually involve repetitive movements.
skills on this basis. We also find this classification
8 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

on a computer monitor with a joystick, swimming, and/or other people involved in the performance
and walking as continuous skills. Although some situation. For example, if a person is hitting a
continuous skills, such as walking and swimming, ball, the relevant feature of the environmental con-
have distinct beginning locations, the end location text is the ball. For the skill of walking, the rele-
is arbitrary, and the movements are repetitive. vant environmental features are the surface on
Sometimes a skill requires a series or sequence which the person must walk and the characteristics
of discrete movements, such as shifting gears in a of the environment in which the person must walk.
standard shift car, or playing a piece on a piano. We According to this classification scheme, the
refer to these types of skills as serial motor skills. term stability refers to whether the relevant envi-
As figure 1.1 indicates, these skills include the ronmental context features are stationary (i.e., sta-

repetitive movements characteristic of continuous ble) or in motion (i.e., not stable). When the
skills and the specified beginning and end points of supporting surface, object, or other people involved
each movement that characterize discrete skills. As in the performance of a skill are stationary, the skill

a result, it is best to locate serial motor skills on the is a closed motor skill. For these skills, the rele-

continuum between the continuous and discrete vant environmental context features are stationary,
skills categories. The gear shifting example is a which means they do not change locations during
good illustration. To shift gears in a car, the driver the performance of a skill. For example, picking up
must perform a sequence of discrete movements. a cup from a table while you are sitting on a chair
To shift from second to third gear, the driver per- is a closed motor skill; the chair (i.e., supporting
forms a sequence of seven discrete movements. surface) and the cup do not move be-
(i.e., object)
First he or she lifts a foot off the accelerator, then tween the time you decide to pick up the cup and
depresses the clutch with the other foot, then the moment you pick it up. Walking in a room full
moves the gear shift forward to neutral, then to the of furniture is also a closed motor skill, because
right, then forward again to third gear, then releases nothing in the environmental context moves or
the clutch, and finally depresses the accelerator. changes location while you are walking. Other ex-
This classification system has been especially amples of closed motor skills are shooting an arrow
prevalent in motor skills research literature when at a stationary target, buttoning a shirt, climbing a
authors are focusing on the control of movement. flight of stairs, and hitting a ball off a tee. For each
Researchers have found, for example, that certain of these skills, the performer initiates the move-
phenomena about how we control movement are ments involved in performing the skill when he or
applicable to discrete skills but not to continuous she is ready to do so. Because of this timing of
skills, and vice versa. The distinction between dis- movement initiation characteristic, some motor
crete and continuous skills is especially popular in learning and control researchers have referred to
the research literature of those who view motor these types of skills as self-paced.
skill performance from the perspectives of human Conversely, an open motor skill is a skill that a
engineering and human factors. person performs in an environment in which ob-
jects, other people, and/or supporting surfaces are
The Stability of the Environmental Context in motion while the person performs the skill. To
One classification system has its roots in industrial perform this type of skill successfully, the per-
as well as educational and rehabilitation settings. former must act according to the movement of an
Researchers base this system on the stability of the object, other people, and/or supporting surfaces.
environmental context in which the skill is per- Accordingly, some motor learning and control re-
formed (Gentile, 2000). For this classification sys- searchers have referred to these types of skills as
tem, the term environmental context refers to the externally paced. This means that for open motor
supporting surface on which the person performs skills, the relevant environmental context features
the skill, objects involved in performing the skill. determine when people can initiate the movements
CHAPTER 1 THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS

required to perform a skill. Some examples of open must step onto a moving escalator, the timing or
motor skills that involve the performer's support- when the first step can be initiated must conform
ing surface in motion include driving a car and to the speed and position of the escalator. And for
stepping onto a moving escalator; skills that in- many open skills, changes can occur while an ac-
volve objects in motion include striking a moving tion is in progress that will require the person to
balland catching a thrown ball; and skills that in- make movement adjustments to conform to these
volve other people in motion include walking on a environmental changes. For example, the spin of a
sidewalk crowded with people walking and run- tennis ball will influence the direction and height
ning a distance race with other runners. of its bounce, which may require the tennis player
Notice that two paragraphs, we have
in the last to adjust his or her planned movements to return a
classified the skill of walking as both an open and a serve after the ball hits the ground.
closed skill. The distinguishing characteristics con- The open/closed classification system has
cern whether or not there are objects or other people achieved a large degree of popularity in instruc-
in the environmental context, and, when there are tional methodology contexts and increasing popu-
objects or other people, whether they are stationary larity in rehabilitation contexts. A likely reason for
or in motion. Also taken into consideration for this this is that the closed and open skill categories re-
distinction is whether the supporting surface on late so easily to the types of motor skills involved
which a person walks is stationary or in motion. This in these settings. Skills in each of these categories
means that when walking occurs in a hallway with follow common principles of instruction that in-
no objects or other people, walking is a closed skill. structors and therapists can readily apply to spe-
Walking is also a closed skill if objects and/or other cific situations. The closed and open distinction
people are in the hallway, but stationary. However, if between motor skills alsohas become increasingly
the objects and/or other people are in motion, walk- common in the motor learning research literature,
ing becomes an open skill. Similarly, walking is an undoubtedly because of its simplicity and its abil-

open skill when a person walks on a treadmill, which ity to accommodate both complex "real-world"
means the supporting surface is in motion. We can skills and laboratory skills.

make the same distinction for several other motor

skills. For example, hitting a ball from a tee is a GENTILE'S TWO-DIMENSIONS
closed skill, whereas hitting a pitched ball is an open TAXONOMY
skill. And, throwing a ball is a closed skill when
throwing to a stationary person, but an open
A problem with the one-dimension basis for the
skill
classification of motor skills is that it does not
when throwing to a person who is moving.
always capture the complexity of many skills that a
Consider how closed and open skills differ in

terms of the performance demands placed on the

person. A person can initiate his or her movements
at will when performing a closed skill. In addition,
serial motor skill a motor skill involving a series
the person does not need to adjust the movements
of discrete skills.
to changing conditions while the performance is in
progress. For example, to climb a set of stairs, a closed motor skill a motor skill performed in

person can initiate his or her first step at will. How- a stable or predictable environment where the

ever, quite the opposite when someone performer determines when to begin the action.
is the case
performs open To perform an open skill suc-
skills.
open motor skill a motor skill that involves a
cessfully, a person must time the initiation of nonstable, unpredictable environment where an
movement to conform to the movement of the sup- object or environmental context is in motion and
porting surface, other people, and/or object in- determines when to begin the action.
volved in the action. If, for example, the person
10 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

practitioner must take into account when making classification scheme based on the stability of
decisions about instruction or practice routines. To the environmental context. The term regulatory
overcome this limitation. Gentile (2000) broadened conditions refers to those features of the environ-
the one-dimension approach by considering two mental context that specify the movement charac-
general characteristics of all skills: ( 1 ) the environ- teristics a person must implement to successfully
mental context in which the person performs the perform an action. Recall from our earlier discus-
skill and (2) the function of the action characteriz- sion about open and closed motor skills that the en-
ing the skill. She then subdivided these two char- vironmental context features include the surface
acteristics to create an expansive taxonomy that that supports performer or object, and any objects
yields sixteen skill categories, depicted in table 1.1. or other people that may be involved during the
A taxonomy is a classification system that is orga- performance of an action.
nized according to relationships among the com- The following skill performance situation that
ponent characteristics of whatever is being involves walking presents some examples of regu-
classified. For example, taxonomies have been de- latory conditions. If a person's action goal is to
veloped in biology to provide systematic classifi- walk from one location to another, the surface on
cation systems for plants and animals. Gentile's which the person walks is a regulatory condition
taxonomy presents a similar approach to the classi- that determines the movement characteristics the
fication of motor skills. person must use to achieve the action goal on that
In addition to providing a classification system surface. The surface may be soft or hard, rough or
for motor skills. Gentile proposed this taxonomy smooth, flat or inclined, among other possible char-
as a functional guide for physical therapists to as- acteristics. To walk on a sandy beach, you would
sist them in determining the movement problems very likely move your body, legs, and feet differ-
characterizing patients and selecting functionally ently from the way you would walk on a concrete
appropriate activities for patients. However, the sidewalk. Similarly, you would use different move-
taxonomy is not limited to the physical therapy ments as you walked on a flat surface compared to
context. It provides an excellent basis for under- a steep incline. Objects and other people may also
standing the performer demands for a wide variety be regulatory conditions in the walking environ-
of motor skills. Everyone who is involved in teach- mental context. For example, how would your
ing motor skills should appreciate this taxonomy. walking movements differ if a child's tricycle were
It is an excellent means of becoming aware of the in the pathway from a situation in which no object
skill characteristics that make skills distinct from, was there? And how would your walking move-
as well as related to, other skills, and is an excellent ments compare when another person walked be-
guide for establishing practice or training routines. side you, behind you, or in front of you?
We can see additional examples of regulatory
Environmental Context conditions in the environmental context when a
The first dimension of Gentile's taxonomy can be person must manipulate an object. If a person's ac-
seen in the first column of table 1.1. This dimen- tion goal is to throw a ball to another person, or to
sion is the environmental context in which a person catch a ball thrown by another person, important
performs a skill. Two characteristics are involved regulatory conditions relate to certain characteris-
in this dimension. We see these in the category la- tics of the ball, such as size, shape, and weight. For
bels in the first column in table 1.1. example, throwing a baseball and throwing a bas-
The first environmental characteristic concerns ketball would require distinctly different arm,
regulatory conditions. This is the term Gentile used hand, and finger movements to achieve the throw-
to describe the "relevant environmental context ing action goal. Similarly, a person could catch a
features," which we discussed previously in this tennis ball with one hand, but may need to use two
chapter in the section concerning the motor skills hands to catch a beach ball.
CHAPTER 1 THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS 11

Crfft _
A CLOSER LOOK
^fe
^P» Examples of Stationary and In-Motion Regulatory Conditions

Stationary Environmental Context In-Motion Environmental Context

spatial features of the environment control spatial spatial and timing features of the environment con-
movement characteristics of an action; the timing trol spatial movement characteristics and timing of
of the initiation of an action is controlled by the the initiation of an action
performer

e.g. picking up a cup e.g. stepping onto an escalator

walking up a flight of stairs standing in a moving bus

hitting a ball from a tee hitting a pitched ball

throwing a dart at a target catching a batted ball

In Gentile's taxonomy, an important distinction variability is present when someone walks through
for differentiatingmotor skills is whether the regu- different rooms in which various objects are lo-
latory conditions during performance are stationary cated in different places, because each room re-

or in motion. Sometimes the regulatory conditions quires the person to walk with different movements
are stationary; this is the case when you walk on a to avoid colliding with the objects.
sidewalk or hit a ball off a tee. Sometimes the reg-
ulatory conditions are in motion; this occurs when The Function of the Action
you must step onto an escalator or hit a pitched The function of the action is the second dimension
ball. It is important to note that in this part of Gen- on which the taxonomy is based. This dimension
tile's taxonomy, you can see the application of the is presented in the top row of table 1.1. Gentile

closed and open motor skills categories. Skills for specified that we can determine the function of an
which the regulatory conditions are stationary are action by deciding whether or not performing a
closed skills, whereas those for which they are in
motion are open skills. However, this closed/open
distinction is too limiting to capture the wide range
of skills that people perform every day. Because of taxonomy a classification system organized

this limitation, Gentile added another environmen- according to relationships among the component
characteristics of the group of items or objects being
tal context characteristic.
classified.
The second environmental characteristic in the
taxonomy is intertrial variability, which refers to regulatory conditions characteristics of the envi-
whether the regulatory conditions during perfor- ronmental context that determine (i.e., "regulate") the
mance are the same or different from one attempt movement characteristics needed to perform an action.

to perform the skill to another. We can distinguish

intertrial variability an environmental charac-
motor skills according to whether intertrial vari- taxonomy of motor The
teristic in Gentile's skills.
ability is absent or present. For example, when a
term refers to whether the regulatory conditions that
person walks through an uncluttered room, inter- exist for the performance of a skill in one situation
trial variability is absent, because the regulatory or for one trial are present or absent in the next
conditions do not change each time the person situation or trial.

walks across the room. On the other hand, intertrial

12 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

TABLE 1.1 Gentile's Taxonomy of Motor Skil

Action Function

Body Stability Body Transport

Environmental No Object Object No Object Object
I Context Manipulation Manipulation Manipulation Manipulation

1A IB 1C ID
Stationary Body stability Body stability Body transport Body transport
Regulatory No object Object No object Object
Conditions Stationary regulatory Stationary regulator)' Stationary regulatory Stationary regulatory
and conditions conditions conditions conditions
No Intertrial No intertrial variability No intertrial variability No intertrial variability No intertrial variability

Variability • Standing alone in a •Brushing teeth standing • Climbing stairs • Climbing stairs while
room cdone at a sink • Running through a holding a book
•Practicing a basketball • Shooting basketball basketball play several • Running through a

free-throw shot without free-throws times without a ball basketball play several
a ball times with a ball

Ik 2B 2C 2D
Stationary Body stability Body stability Body transport Body transport
Regulatory No object Object No object Object
Conditions Stationary regulatory Stationary regulatory Stationary regulatory Stationary regulatory
and conditions conditions conditions conditions
Intertrial Intertrial variability Intertrial variability Intertrial variability Intertrial variability

Variability • Standing on different • Standing on different • Walking on different • Walking on different

surfaces surfaces while holding a surfaces surfaces while carrying a
• Swinging a baseball bag of groceries • Running through bag of groceries
bat at different ball • Hitting baseballs offa several basketball plays • Running through
locations without a bat batting lee; varying ball without a ball several basketball plays
or ball locations for each swing with a ball

3A 3B 3C 3D
In-Motion Body stability Body stability Body transport Body transport
Regulatory No object Object No object Object
Conditions Regulatory conditions Regulator)' conditions Regulatory conditions Regulatory conditions
and in motion in motion in motion in motion

No Intertrial No intertrial variability No intertrial variability No intertrial variability No intertrial variability

Variability • a wheelchair
Sitting in •Wheeling a wheelchair •Walking on a treadmill • Walking on a treadmill
being pushed along an along an empty hallway at a constant speed at a constant speed while
empty hallway •Catching a series of • Running through a holding a cup of water
• Passing basketballs to thrown at the
softballs basketball play without • Running through a
a moving player running same speed by a piti lung a ball but with moving basketball play with a
the same pattern several machine defenders ball and moving
times, without a ball defenders

4A 4B 4C 4D
In-Motion Body stability Body stability Body transport Body transport
Regulatory No object Object No object Object
Conditions Regulator) conditions Regulatory conditions Regulatory conditions Regulatory conditions
and in motion in motion in motion in motion
Intertrial Intertrial variability Intertrial variability Intertrial variability Intertrial variability

Variability • Sitting in a moving car • Sitting in a moving car • Walking in a crowded • Walking in a crowded

•Passing basketballs to holding a baby mall mall carrying a baby

a moving player running • Catching softballs • Practicing several • Practicing several
different patterns, thrown at various speeds soccer plays without a soccer plays with a ball
without a ball by a pitching machine ball but with defenders and defenders

Note: ( I ) The number/letter labels for each skill category were not included in Gentile's original presentation of the taxonomy, but are included here to
provide an easy reference to each skill category. The numbers 1-4 represent the four environmental context subdimensions; the letters A-D represent
the four action function subdimensions. (2i The two examples of skills for each of the 16 categories include an example of a daily activity skill and one
of a sport /physical education skill.
CHAPTER 1 • THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS 13

given involves moving the body, and whether

skill
LAB LINKS
or not performance involves manipulating an ob-
ject.She viewed these characteristics as parts of Lab 1 in the Online Learning Center Lab Manual
two broad action functions: body orientation and for chapter 1 provides an opportunity for you to

manipulation. become more familiar with Gentile's Taxonomy

of Motor Skills by applying it to sports skills or to
Body orientation refers to the changing or main-
motor skills we experience in the everyday world.
taining of body location. Two body orientation
roles are important for classifying motor skills.

Body stability is the orientation role for skills that

involve no change in body location during the per- are the simplest; those that demand the most are the
formance of the skill, such as standing, drinking most complex. Accordingly, the skill categories in
from a cup, and shooting an arrow in archery. For table 1.1 are organized in terms of increasing com-
skills that require the body to move from one place plexity, beginning at the top leftmost category with
to another, the orientation role is body transport. the simplest skills and progressing to the most com-
Skills such as walking, running, and swimming in- plex skills in the bottom rightmost category.
volve body transport. It is important to note that Gentile (2000) based the taxonomy on the view
body transport role for motor skills includes active that any motor skill must be considered in terms of
and passive changes of body locations. This means the environmental context in which it is performed
that both walking, which involves the active chang- and the functional role it plays when performed.
ing of body location, and standing in a moving bus, As a result, thesetwo dimensions form the basis
which involves the passive changing of body loca- for creating sixteen categories of motor skills. The
tion, serve body transport roles. environmental context dimension includes the reg-
The second type of action function concerns ob- ulatory conditions towhich the performer of a skill
ject manipulation. Some motor skills require us to must conform, and whether these conditions
change or maintain the position of an object, such change from one performance attempt to the next.
as a ball, a tool, or another person. We perform The action function dimension establishes that all
other skills with no object manipulation. It is im- motor skills are performed to serve a specific pur-
portant to note that when a person must manipulate pose, or function. The action function may require
an object, the skill increases in complexity and dif- the maintaining or changing of the performer's
ficulty, because the person must do two things at body location, and/or the maintaining or changing
once. First, the person must manipulate the object of the position of objects.
correctly, and second, he or she must adjust body A closer inspection of table 1 . 1 reveals that the
posture to accommodate for the imbalance created skill categories in each row of the environmental
by the object. context dimension can be considered in terms of
the closed and open skills categories discussed ear-
The sixteen skill categories. The interaction of the lier in this chapter. When these two categories in-
four environmental context characteristics and the clude whether intertrial variability is present or
four action function characteristics creates sixteen absent in the skill performance situation, it is pos-
skill categories. Table 1.1 shows the critical char- sible to create a four-skill continuum, which you
acteristics of these sixteen categories, along with can see in figure 1 .2. At the extreme left end of this

two examples of skills in each category. Gentile continuum are completely closed skills (stationary
specified that each skill category poses different de- regulatory conditions with no intertribal variabil-
mands on the performer in terms of the characteris- ity); completely open skills (regulatory conditions
tics and number of variables the performer needs to in motion with intertribal variability) are located at

pay attention to and control to achieve the action the extreme right end. In between are closed skills
goals. Skills that demand the least of the performer with intertrial variability and open skills with no
14 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

A CLOSER LOOK
A Practical Application of the Closed/Open Motor Skills Continuum to Organizing
Instruction for Teaching Open Skills
l

Those who teach motor skills can apply Gentile's taxonomy to the teaching of open skills by applying the
closed/open skills continuum in figure 1.2 to develop a logical progression from totally closed to totally open
skills from these components. Consider the following example of a practice sequence when the performance

goal of a person is to hit a baseball thrown by a pitcher under game conditions.

1. Practice begins with a closed version of the open conditions "in motion" but intertrial variability
skill; the instructor or coach keeps the regulatory "absent."
conditions "stationary" and has intertrial variabil- m a pitching machine that can keep the speed
ity "absent." and location of each pitch constant puts the
^ the learner bats the ball from a batting tee at ball in motion
the same height on each practice attempt Finally, the instructor or coach has the learner
2. Next, the instructor or coach keeps the regulatory practice the completely open skill itself; the regu-
conditions "stationary" but has intertrial variabil- latory conditions are "in motion" and intertrial

ity "present." variability is "present."

^ the learner bats the ball from a batting tee, but m a live pitcher pitches the ball using different
from different heights on each practice attempt speeds and locations on each practice attempt.
3. Next, practice proceeds to an open version of the
skill; the instructor or coach has the regulatory

1
For research evidence supporting the effectiveness of this progression for helping people learn an open skill, see Hautala
and Conn (1993).

intertrial variability. When we relate this contin- Practical Application of the Taxonomy
uum of skill characteristics to the action function Gentile proposed that the taxonomy has practical
dimension of Gentile's taxonomy, each of the four value for professionals. First, it can be a useful
skill categories expands by including the stability guide for evaluation of movement capabilities and
or transport body orientation function of the skill, limitations. The professional can determine defi-
and by involving or not involving an object that the ciencies by systematically altering environmental
person must manipulate in some way. contexts and/or action functions to identify skill

Completely Completely
closed skill open skill

Stationary Stationary In motion In motion

No intertrial Intertrial No intertrial Intertrial

variability variability variability variability

FIGURE 1.2 A skill category continuum for open and closed motor skills. The four subdimensions of the
Environmental Context dimension of Gentile's Taxonomy of Motor Skills on a continuum from the most closed
to most open skills.
CHAPTER 1 - THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS 15

A CLOSER LOOK
Examples of Using the Gentile Taxonomy to Evaluate Movement Capabilities
and Limitations

Physical Therapy Physical Education

An evaluation of the static and dynamic standing pos- An evaluation of a student's ball-catching capabili-
ture capabilities and limitations of a neurologic or or- ties and limitations could use the following sequence
thopedic patient could follow the sequence of of taxonomy categories. The student
taxonomy categories by progressing across the top
1. catches a ball thrown from the same distance at
row of categories. The patient
the same speed for several trials (category 3B)
1. stands without assistance (category 1A) 2. catches a ball thrown from various distances at
2. stands without assistance while holding a book the same speed for several trials (category 4B)
(category IB) 3. catches a ball while running along a line parallel
3. walks without assistance a specified distance in
to the thrower for several trails. The ball should
an uncluttered walkway (category 1C) be thrown the same distance and at the same
4. walks without assistance a specified distance in
speed in each trial, and the student should run at
an uncluttered walkway while holding a book the same speed in each trial (category 3D)
(category ID) 4. catches a ball while running along a line parallel
Further assessments could then include standing and to the thrower for several trials. The ball should
walking activities that would follow the progression be thrown the same distance but at various
of skill requirements in the three other rows of skill heights, and the student should run at the same
categories in the taxonomy. speed in each trial (category 4D).

performance characteristics that pose difficulty for he or she needs to do to help the person improve
an individual. For example, a physical therapist his or her performance capabilities.

could evaluate a neurological patient for static and After the professional assesses performance
dynamic standing posture capabilities. The assess- problems, the taxonomy then becomes a valuable
ment could follow the taxonomy by beginning with tool for systematically selecting a progression of
the simplest skill situation (category 1A) and then functionally appropriate activities to help the per-
systematically progress to include more complex son overcome his or her deficits and increase his or
skill requirements of categories IB, 1C, and ID. her skill performance capabilities. This is an impor-
Similarly, a physical education teacher could use tant feature of the taxonomy, because it emphasizes
the taxonomy to evaluate a student's ball-catching the complementary part of the rehabilitation or skill
capabilities and limitations. Because this skill in- training process. To assess skill deficits is important,
volves in-motion regulatory conditions and the ma- but the effectiveness of any rehabilitation or training
nipulation of an object, the evaluation would protocol depends on the implementation of appro-
include only those taxonomy categories that in- priate activities to achieve functional goals for the
volve these characteristics (i.e., categories 3B, 3D, patient or student. In the activity selection process,
4B, and 4D). And to evaluate the simpler skills be- the therapist or teacher begins selecting activities re-
fore themore complex skills, the teacher should lated to the taxonomy category in which the person
begin with the body stability action function cate- is not capable at first of handling the demands of the
gories (3B and 4B), and then progress to those skill. Then, the professional can develop a program
involving body transport (3D and 4D). By identi- of rehabilitation or instruction by systematically in-

fying the specific characteristics limiting perfor- creasing the complexity of the skills included in the
mance, the therapist or teacher can determine what program. A third practical use of the taxonomy is as
16 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

a means of charting the individual progress of pa- Gentile'staxonomy of motor skills is a two-
tients or students as they work to attain their rehabil- dimension classification system that describes
itation or physical activity performance goals. sixteen categories of skills that are created from
Gentile emphasized the benefit of using the taxon- characteristics associated with the environmen-
omy to create a "profile of competencies" that can tal context in which the skill is performed and
aid the therapist or teacher in the assessment of the the function of the action. The taxonomy pro-
effectiveness of the rehabilitation or instructional vides a means of understanding the factors that
program he or she developed for the patient or stu- influence motor skill complexity and the unique
dent.Because the taxonomy follows a simple-to- requirements placed on a person when he or she
complex progression of skills, it provides an performs skills of different complexity. The tax-
objective basis for determining progress in over- onomy can serve as (1) a useful guide for the
coming skill performance deficits and increasing evaluation of movement capabilities and limita-
skill performance capabilities. When used in this tions, (2) a valuable tool for selecting a progres-

way, the taxonomy provides an effective way for the sion of functionally appropriate activities to
therapist or teacher to establish a record that can sat- help a person overcome his or her skill perfor-

isfy demands for accountability of his or her time mance deficits and increase performance ca-
and effectiveness. pabilities, and (3) a means of charting the
individual progress of physical rehabilitation
patients and students as they work to attain spe-

SUMMARY cific physical activity performance goals.

Motor skills and actions are terms that were

RELATED READINGS
defined similarly, in that both refer to goal-
directed activities that involve voluntary body,
Kincaid. A. E., Duncan. S.. Scott, S. A. (2002). Assessments of
head, and/or limb movements. The term move- fine motor skill in musicians and nonmusicians: Differences
ments refers to the behavioral characteristics of in timing versus sequence accuracy in a bimanual fingering
the body, head, and/or specific limb or combi- task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95, 245-257.

nation of limbs that serve as components of ac- Maraj, B., Allard, F., & Elliott, D. (1998). The effect of nonreg-
ulatory stimuli on the triple-jump approach run. Research
tins and motor skills.
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 129-135.

Motor skills are often classified according to Mulder. T., & Geurts, S. (1991). The assessment of motor dys-
functions: Preliminaries to a disability-oriented approach.
common characteristics. One-dimension classifi-
Human Movement Science, 10, 565-574.
cation systems place skills into categories based
on one common characteristic; two-dimension
classification systems place skills into categories
STUDY QUESTIONS
based on two common characteristics.

Three one-dimension classification systems dis- 1. Discuss how the terms actions and movements
tinguish skills on the basis of (a) the size of the are related to motor skills. Give an example that
primary musculature required to perform the skill, illustrates this relationship.

classifying skills as gross or fine; (b) the speci-

2. What are three reasons for distinguishing be-
ficity of where performance of the skill begins,
tween actions and movements?
classifying skills as continuous or discrete; and
(c) the stability of the environmental context in 3. Describe the one dimension that distinguishes
which the skill is performed, classifying skills the two categories in each of the following skill

as open or closed. classification schemes, and give three examples

CHAPTER 1 THE CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR SKILLS 17

of motor skills for each category: (a) gross vs. (a) What does the term regulatory conditions
finemotor skills; (b) discrete vs. continuous refer to in Gentile's skill classification system?
motor skills; (c) closed vs. open motor skills. (b) Why are regulatory conditions important to
consider when categorizing skills?
(a) What are the two dimensions used to clas-
sify skills in the Gentile taxonomy? (b) De- Discuss how you would implement the three
scribe the four classification characteristics practical uses Gentile described for her taxon-
included under each of these two dimensions. omy of motor skills.
 Chapter

The Measurement
of Motor Performance

Concept: The measurement of motor performance

is critical to understanding motor learning

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Describe the differences between and give examples of performance outcome measures and
performance production measures

• Describe the differences among simple, choice, and discrimination RT situations

• Describe three measures for measuring performance outcome accuracy for skills that require

discrete spatial and/or temporal accuracy in one and two dimensions, and for continuous
skills that require spatial and temporal accuracy

• Define three kinematic measures of motion and describe one way to calculate each measure
for a specific movement
• Describe ways that EMG can be used to provide information about human movement
• Describe how angle-angle diagrams provide useful information about the coordination
characteristics of limbs or limb segments

Application Now, imagine that you are a physical therapist

helping a stroke patient learning to walk again.
Suppose that you are a physical educator teaching How will you measure your patient's progress to
your students a tennis serve. What characteristic of determine if what you are doing is beneficial to his

performance will you measure to assess students' or her rehabilitation? You have several possible
progress? Consider a few possibilities. You could walking characteristics to choose from. For exam-
count the number of serves that land in and out of ple,you could count the number of steps made or
the proper service court. Or you could mark the ser- the distancewalked on each walking attempt; these
vice court in some way so that the "better" serves, measures could give you some general indicators
in terms of where they land, are scored higher than of progress. If you wanted to know more about
others. Or you could develop a measure that is con- some specific walking-related characteristics, you
cerned with the students' serving form. could measure the balance and postural stability of

18
CHAPTER 2 THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 19

the person as he or she walked. Or you eould as- These measures relate to performance characteris-

sess the biomechanical progress the person was tics that produced the outcome. As a result, they
making by analyzing the kinematic characteristics can tell us such things as how the nervous system
of the movements of the legs, trunk, and arms. is functioning, how the muscular system is operat-

Each of these measurements can be valuable, and ing, and how the limbs or joints are acting before,
will tell you something different about the person's during, or after a person performs a skill.

walking performance. Although additional categories of performance

In both of these performance assessment situa- measures could exist, these two represent the motor
tions, your important concern as an educator or skill performance measures found in this text.

therapist is using a performance measure, or mea- Table 2. 1 presents examples of these two categories
sures, to make an assessment. As a first step in ad- of measures. For the remainder of this discussion,

dressing this problem, you must determine which we will discuss several of the more common per-
aspects of performance you should measure to formance measures found in the motor learning re-

make a valid performance assessment. Then, you search literature.

must determine how to measure those aspects of
performance. The following discussion will help
you to know how to accomplish this two-step mea-
surement process by describing several different
REACTION TIME
motor skill performance measures. Throughout this The common measure indicating how long it takes
text, we will refer to the various measures intro- a person to prepare and initiate a movement is
duced in this section, especially as researchers use reaction time (RT). Figure 2.1 shows that RT is
these measures to investigate various concepts. the interval of time between the onset of a signal
(stimulus) that indicates the required action and the
Discussion initiation of the action. Note that RT does not

There are a variety of ways to measure motor skill

performance. A useful way to organize the many

types of motor performance measures is by creat- performance outcome measures a category of
ing two categories related to different levels of motor skill performance measures that indicates the

performance observation. We will call the first cat- outcome or result of performing a motor skill (e.g.,

egory performance outcome measures. Included how far a person walked, how fast a person ran a

in this category are measures that indicate the out- certain distance, or how many degrees a person
flexed a knee).
come or result of performing a motor skill. For ex-
ample, measures of how far a person walked, how performance production measures a category of
fast a person ran a certain distance, and how many motor skill performance measures that indicates the
degrees a person flexed his or her knee all are based performance of specific aspects of the motor control
on the outcome of the person's performance. system during the performance of an action (e.g.,

Notice that performance outcome measures do limb kinematics, force, EEG, EMG, etc.).

not tell us anything about the behavior of the limbs

reaction time (RT) the interval of time between
or body that led to the observed outcome. Nor do the onset of a signal (stimulus) and the initiation
these measures provide any information about the of a response (e.g., the amount of time between
activity of the various muscles involved in each the "go" signal for a swimming sprint race start and
action. To know something about these types of the beginning of the feet moving off the starting

characteristics, we must use measures in the cate- block).

gory called performance production measures.

20 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

TABLE 2.1 Two Categories of Motor Skill Performance Measures

Category Examples of Measures Performance Examples

1 . Performance outcome Time to complete a response, Amount of time to run a mile, or

measures e.g., sec, min, hr type aword
Reaction time (RT), e.g., sec, msec Time between starter's gun and
beginning of movement
Amount of error in performing criterion Number of cm away from the target in
movement, e.g., AE, CE, VE reproducing a criterion limb position
Number or percentage of errors Number of free throws missed
Number of successful attempts Number of times the beanbag hit the

target
Time on/off target Number of seconds stylus in contact
with target on pursuit rotor
Time on/off balance Number of seconds stood in stork stance
Distance Height of vertical jump
Trials to completion Number of trials it took until all

responses correct
2. Performance production Displacement Distance limb traveled while performing
measures action
Velocity Speed limb moved while performing
action
Acceleration Acceleration/deceleration pattern while
moving
Joint angle Angle of each joint of arm at impact
in hitting ball

Joint torque Net joint torque of the knee joint at

takeoff on a vertical jump

Electromyography (EMG) Time at which the biceps initially fired

during a rapid flexion movement

Electroencephalogram (EEG) Brain cortex activation pattern while
shooting an arrow in archery

include any movement related to the action, but step. Finally, to assess optimal RT, some type of
only the time before movement begins. warning signal should be given prior to the stimulus
The stimulus (or "go") signal is the indication to signal.
act. In laboratory or clinical settings, the signal can
take one of a variety of forms, such as a light, a Types of RT Situations
buzzer, a shock, a word on a screen, or a spoken Figure 2.2 depicts three of the most common types
word or sound. As such, the signal can relate to any of RT situations. For illustration purposes, this fig-

sensory system, i.e., vision, hearing, or touch. The ure shows a light as the stimulus signal and lifting
person can be required to perform any type of a finger from a telegraph key as the required move-
movement. For example, the person might be re- ment. However, the three types of RT situations
quired to lift a finger off a telegraph key, depress a discussed here do not need to be limited to these
keyboard key, speak a word, kick a board, or walk a characteristics.
CHAPTER 2 • THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 21

Warning "Go" Initiation Termination

signal signal of the response of the response

Foreperiod

Time-
Reaction time (RT) Movement time (MT)
I
Response time

FIGURE 2.1 The events and time intervals related to the typical measurement of reaction time (RT) and movement time (MT).

When a situation involves only one signal and and come to a complete stop. If the light is yellow,
requires only one action in response, the RT situa- you need to prepare to stop. And if the signal is
tion is known as simple RT. In the example pre- green, you can continue to keep the accelerator
sented in figure 2.2 the person must lift a finger pedal depressed to move through the intersection.
from the telegraph key when a comes on. An-
light Joggers experience discrimination RT situations
other type of RT situation is choice RT, where when they find something in their path that indi-
there is more than one signal to which the person cates they need to step over it, such as a log or a
must respond, and each signal has a specified re- curb. There are many different stimuli in the jog-
sponse. The example in figure 2.2 indicates that ger's environment, but only those with specific, dis-
the person must respond to the red light by lifting tinct features will specify to the jogger to engage in

the index finger from a telegraph key, to the blue the action of stepping up and over an object. Thus
light by lifting the middle finger, and to the green the jogger engages in this specific action only when
light by The third type of RT
lifting the ring finger. the environmental stimuli have these features.
situation is discrimination RT, where there is also
more than one signal, but only one response. In the RT Interval Components
figure 2.2 example, the person is required to lift Through the use of electromyography (EMG) to
his or her finger from the telegraph key only when measure the beginning of muscle activity in anRT
the red light comes on. If the blue or green light is situation, a researcher can fractionate RT into two
illuminated, the person should make no response. component parts. The EMG recording will indicate
Although the examples of simple, choice, and
discrimination RT situations just described refer to
laboratory conditions, these different types of RT
situations also exist in everyday life and in sport
simple RT the reaction time when the situation
involves only one signal (stimulus) that requires
environments. For example, a sprinter in track is
only one response.
involved in a simple RT situation when he or she
starts a race. He or she hears a verbal warning sig- choice RT the reaction time when the situation

nal from the starter, then hears the gun sound, involves more than one signal and each signal

which is the signal to begin to run. Choice RT situ- requires its own specified response.

ations are more common in everyday activities, discrimination RT the reaction time when the
such as when driving a car you come to an intersec- situation involves more than one signal but only one
tion with a traffic signal, which has three possible response, which is to only one of the signals; the
signals, each of which requires a different action. If other signals require no response.
the light is red, you must depress the brake pedal
22 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

Choice RT Discrimination RT

Red Blue Green Red Blue Green

Stimulus
light(s)

Response
key(s) Index Index Middle Ring Index
finger finger
fingers

FIGURE 2.2 Three different types of reaction time (RT) test situations: simple RT.
choice RT, and discrimination RT.

the time at which the muscle shows increased ac- motor time interval indicates that there is muscle
tivity after the stimulus signal has occurred. How- activity before observable limb movement occurs.
ever, there is a period of time between the onset of Researchers commonly agree that this activity in-
the stimulus signal and the beginning of the mus- dicates a time lag in the muscle that it needs in
cle activity. This "quiet" interval of time is the first order to overcome the inertia of the limb after the
component part of RT and is called the premotor muscle receives the command to contract.
time. The second component is the period of time
from the increase in muscle activity until the actual The Use of RT in Research
beginning of observable limb movement. This RT Reaction time has a long history as a popular mea-
component is called the motor time. You can see sure of human motor skill performance. Although
some examples of fractionated RTs at the end of RT can be used as a performance measure to assess
this chapter in figure 2.8, which presents examples how quickly a person can initiate a required action,
of EMG recordings. The RT interval is shown researchers also use it as a basis for inferring other
along with EMG recordings for three muscle characteristics. The most common is to identify the

groups. Although not indicated in the figure, the environmental context information a person may
premotor time for each EMG recording is the in- use while preparing to produce a required action,
terval of time prior to the beginning of muscle ac- which will be the topic of discussion in chapter 7.
tivity; the motor time is the remainder of the RT For example, if one performance situation yields a
interval in which muscle activity is recorded. longerRT than another situation, the researcher can
By fractionating the RT interval into two parts, determine what may have led to the different RT
researchers interested in understanding the action lengths, which then can tell us something about in-
preparation process are able to obtain more specific fluences on the amount of time it takes us to pre-
insights intowhat occurs as a person prepares to pare an action.
move. Most researchers agree that the premotor Another use of RT is to assess the capabilities of
time is a measure of the receipt and transmission a person to anticipate a required action and deter-
of information from the environment, through the mine when to initiate it. In a sport situation, a bas-
nervous system, to the muscle itself. This time in- ketball coach may want to know how long it takes a
terval seems to be an indicator of perceptual and point guard to recognize that the defender's actions
cognitive decision-making activity in which the indicate the guard should pass the ball rather than
person engages while preparing an action. The shoot it. When used in this way, RT provides infor-
CHAPTER 2 THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 23

mation about decision making. Thus, in addition to

LAB LINKS
indicating how fast a person responds to a signal,
RT also provides a window for examining how a Lab 2 in the Online Learning Center Lab Manual

person interacts with the performance environment for chapter 2 provides an opportunity for you to

while preparing to produce a required action. measure and compare RT and MT.

Relating RT to Movement Time

and Response Time sures also tell us about possible causes of per-
In any situation which a person must perform an
in formance problems. This is especially true if per-
action in response to a signal, two additional per- formance is assessed for more than one trial. For a
formance measures can be assessed. These were series of trials (typical in a sport skill instruction or
shown in figure 2.1 as movement time (MT) and a rehabilitation setting), the instructor or therapist
response time. Movement time (MT) begins when can determine whether the observed movement in-
RT ends. It is the interval of time between the initi- accuracy is due to problems associated with con-
ation and the completion of an action. Response sistency or to those associated with bias. These
time is the total time interval, involving both RT important measures provide the professional with
and MT. a basis for selecting the appropriate intervention to
An important characteristic of RT and MT is help the person overcome the inaccuracy. Consis-
that they are relatively independent measures. This tency problems indicate a lack in acquiring the
means that RT does not predict MT, or vice versa. basic movement pattern needed to perform the
The independence of RT and MT as performance skill, whereas bias problems indicate that the per-
measures indicates that if one person in a group of son has acquired the movement pattern but is hav-
people has the fastest RT in a performance situa- ing difficulties adapting to the specific demands of
tion, that person may not have the fastest MT in the the performance situation.
group. Thus, RT and MT measure different aspects
of human performance. You will learn more about Assessing Error for One-Dimension Action Goals
the independence of these two performance mea- When a person must move a limb a specified
sures in chapter 3. amount in one dimension, as when a patient at-
tempts to achieve a certain knee extension, the re-

sulting error will be a certain distance short of or

ERROR MEASURES
past the goal. Similarly, if a pitcher in baseball is

The amount of error a person makes as a result of attempting to throw the ball at a certain rate of
performing a skill has had a prominent place in speed, the resulting error will be either too slow or
human performance research and in everyday liv- too fast in relation to the goal. Measuring the
ing activities and sport. Error measures allow us to amount of error in these situations simply involves
evaluate performance for skills for which accuracy
is the action goal. Skills such as reaching to grasp
a cup, throwing a dart at a target, walking along a
prescribed path, and driving a car on a street movement time (MT) the interval of time

require people to perform actions that demand spa- between the initiation of a movement and the

completion of the movement.

tial and/or temporal accuracy. To assess perfor-
mance outcome for this type of skill, the amount of response time the time interval involving both
error a person makes in relation to the goal is a reaction time and movement time; that is, the time
meaningful performance measure. from the onset of a signal (stimulus) to the

Error measures not only provide indicators of completion of a response.

performance accuracy; certain types of error mea-
24 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

A CLOSER LOOK
Examples of the Use of RT and MT to Assess Skill Performance Problems
in Decision-Making Situations

Sport Skill Example Car Driving Example

An offensive lineman in football must perform his Suppose you are helping a student in a driving simu-
assignment as quickly as possible after the center lator to reduce the amount of time he or she requires
snaps the ball. If the lineman is consistently slow in to stop the car when an object suddenly appears in
carrying out his assignment, the problem could be the street. Separating RT and MT would let you know
that he is not giving enough attention to the ball if the slow stopping time is related to a decision-
snap, he is not sure about his assignment, or he making or a movement speed problem. If RT (the
moves too slowly when carrying out his assignment. time between the appearance of the object and the
The first two problems relate to RT (the time be- person's foot release from the accelerator) increases
tween the ball snap and the beginning of foot move- across various situations, but MT (the time between
ment); the third relates to MT (the time between the the foot release from the accelerator and foot contact
beginning of foot movement and the completion of with the brake pedal) is constant, you know that the
the assignment). By assessing both RT and MT in an problem is primarily related to attention or decision
actual situation, the coach could become more aware making. But if RT remains relatively constant but MT
of the reason for the lineman's problem, and begin changes across various situations, you know the prob-
working on helping the lineman improve that spe- lem is movement related. In either case, you can more
cific part of the problem. specifically help the person to improve his or her per-

formance in these situations.

subtracting the achieved performance value (e.g., shoot or to undershoot the goal, which is referred
15 cm, 5°, 20 sec) from the target or goal amount. to as performance bias. To obtain this information,

We can calculate at least three error measures to we must calculate constant error (CE), which is

assess the general accuracy characteristics of per- the signed (+/-) deviation from the goal. When cal-
formance over repeated performances, and to as- culated over a series of mean-
trials, CE provides a
sess what may be causing the accuracy problems. ingful index of the person's tendency to be
To obtain a general indicator of how successfully directionally biased when performing the skill.
the goal was achieved, we calculate absolute error Calculating CE involves making the same calcula-
(AE). AE is the absolute difference between the ac- tions used to determine AE, except that the alge-
tual performance on each trial and the goal. For braic signs are used for each trial's performance.
multiple-trial situations, summing these differ- Another reason for performance inaccuracy for
ences and dividing by the number of trials will give a series of trials performance consistency
is (or,

you the average absolute error for the trials. AE is measured by

conversely, variability), which cal-
provides useful information about the magnitude culating variable error (VE). To determine this

of error a person has made on a trial or over a se- consistency index, calculate the standard deviation
ries of trials. This score gives you a general index of the person 's CE scores for the series of trials.
of accuracy for the session for this person. But
evaluating performance solely on the basis of AE Assessing Error for Two-Dimension
hides important information about the source of the Action Goals
inaccurate performance. To obtain this information, When the outcome of performing a skill requires
we need two additional error measures. accuracy in the vertical and horizontal directions,
One reason a person's performance may be in- the person assessing error must make modifications
accurate is that the person has a tendency to over- to the one-dimension assessment method. The gen-
CHAPTER 2 THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 25

A CLOSER LOOK
Calculating and Using Error Scores to Assess Accuracy, Bias, and Consistency

Suppose that you are a physical therapist working Note that both Joe and Sam have the same AE, but that
with Joe and Sam. You are working with them to
• Joe has a high negative CE but a low VE, which
maintain a consistent 50 cm stride length while walk-
means that his 6 strides tend to be consistently
ing. To determine the intervention approach each of
short of the target stride length for his stride lengths
them will need, you have both of them walk six
• Sam has a low positive CE but a high VE, which
strides on a runway. The following illustration shows
means that his 6 strides are inconsistently long and
their performance for each stride. The 50 cm distance
short of the target stride length
targets for each stride are marked as vertical lines
across the runway; the numbers represent the loca- Discussion question: Based on the CE and VE differ-

tion of the foot placement on each stride by showing ences, would the physical therapist have a more diffi-

the direction (+ = too far; - = too short) and distance cult rehabilitation problem ahead with Joe or Sam?
(cm) Joe and Sam missed the target stride length. Why?

Sam + 15 + 10 -12 + 12 +5
Joe -15 -12 -10 -12 -12 -5

Calculating the average AE, average CE, and VE:

AE AE CE CE
Stride No. Joe Sam Joe Sam
1 15 15 -15 15

2 12 12 -12 -12
3 10 10 -10 10

4 12 12 -12 -12
5 12 12 -12 12

6 5 5 -5 5

Total 66 66 -66 18

Avg 11 11 -11 3

VE(SD) 3.3 12.1

absolute error (AE) the unsigned deviation from

eral accuracy measure for the two-dimension situa- the target or criterion, representing amount of error.
tion is called radial error (RE), which is similar to A measure of the magnitude of an error without
AE in the one-dimension case. To calculate RE for regard to the direction of the deviation.

one trial, calculate the hypotenuse of the right-

constant error (CE) the signed (+/-) deviation
angle triangle formed by the intersection of the X-
from the target or criterion; it represents amount and
axis (extended horizontally from the center of the direction of error and serves as a measure of
target) and the Y-axis (extended vertically from the performance bias.
center of the location of the performance result).
variable error (VE) an error score representing
This calculation involves the following steps:
the variability (or conversely, the consistency) of
• Measure the length of the error in the horizon- performance.
tal direction (i.e., X-axis); square this value
26 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

• Measure the length of the error in the vertical

direction (i.e., Y-axis); square this value

• Add the squared X-axis and Y-axis error val-

ues; take the square root of the total

An example of the calculation of RE is shown in

figure 2.3. To determine the average RE for a se-
ries of trials, simply calculate the mean of the total

RE for the series.

Performance bias and consistency are more diffi-

cult to assess for the two-dimension case than in one

dimension, because the algebraic signs + and - have
little meaning for the two-dimension case. Han-
cock, Butler, and Fischman (1995) have presented a
detailed description of calculating measures of bias FIGURE 2.3 An example of measuring radial error (RE)
to assess performance accuracy. The performance situation
and consistency in the two-dimension situation.
involves a person throwing a dart at a circular target. The goal
Rather than go into the details of this calculation,
of the throw is to hit the center of the target (represented by
we will consider a general approach to the problem the +). The throw hit the location indicated by the O. RE is the
here. For a series of two-dimensional movements, a hypotenuse ( h) of the right-angle triangle formed by the inter-

researcher can obtain a qualitative assessment of section of the X-axis and Y-axis. The following example
of X-axis and Y-axis distances associated with this location
bias and consistency by looking at the actual group-
demonstrates the calculation of RE for this throw.
ing of the movement locations. If the grouping tends
to be in one quadrant of the target, then a perfor- X-axis distance = 10 cm —> 10 2
= 100

mance bias is evident, whereas responses scattered

Y-axis distance = 5 cm —> 5 = 2
25
Sum = 125
in all quadrants would indicate no apparent perfor-
RE = M25 - 11.2cm
mance bias. Consistency in these two examples
would be much better in the former than in the latter
case. Again, as for the one-dimension situation, the A common error score for continuous skills is

practical benefit of assessing these characteristics is the root-mean-squared error (RMSE), which
that the strategies used to improve performance you can think of as AE for a continuous task. To
would differ for the bias and the consistency cases. understand how this error measure is determined
and used, consider the following example, taken
Assessing Error for Continuous Skills from performing a continuous skill known as pur-
The error measures described in the preceding two suit tracking. To perform this skill, subjects move a
sections are based on accuracy goals for discrete joystick, steering wheel, or lever to make an object,
skills. Continuous motor skills also require accu- such as a cursor, follow a specified pathway. The
racy. For example, when a person must walk along a criterion pathway can be described kinematically
specified pathway, performance assessment can in- as a displacement curve. Figure 2.4 provides an ex-
clude measuring how well the person stayed on the ample. A displacement curve can represent the sub-
pathway. Or, if a person is in a car simulator and ject's tracking performance. To determine how
must steer the car along the road as projected
on a accurately the subject tracked the criterion path-
screen, a measure of performance can be based on way, we would calculate an RMSE score.
how well the person kept the car on the road. Error Calculate RMSE by determining the amount of
measures for these types of skills must be different errorbetween the displacement curve produced
from those used to assess discrete skill performance. by the subject's tracking performance and the
CHAPTER 2 THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 27

Error

Response

Stimulus

j i L J I I I I I I I I I L J I I I I I L
t
*1 2 t
3 Time

Period

FIGURE 2.4 The difference between the subject's response and the stimulus at each specified time
interval is used to calculate one root-mean-squared error (RMSE) score. [From Franks, 1. M.etal. (1982).
The generation of movement patterns during the acquisition of a pursuit tracking task. Human Movement Science,
1:251-272. Copyright © 1982 Elsevier/ North-Holland, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Reprinted by permission.]

displacement curve of the criterion pathway (see refer to an object's changes in position, its speed,

figure 2.4). The actual calculation of RMSE is and its changes in speed. The terms used to refer to

complex and requires a computer program that can these kinematic characteristics are displacement,
sample and record the subject's position in rela- velocity, and acceleration.
tion to the criterion pathway at specified points of Kinematic measures are performance produc-
time, such as 100 times each second (100 Hz; note tion measures that are based on recording the
that 1 Hz = 1 time/sec). At each sampling point, movement of specific body segments while a per-
the difference between the criterion pathway loca- son is performing a skill. A typical procedure is

tion and the subject's location is calculated. For first to mark the joints associated with the body
the 100-Hz example, this yields 100 error scores segments of interest in a distinctive way with tape,

each second. If the criterion pattern were 5 sec, a marking pen, special light-reflecting balls, or
there would be 500 error scores for the trial. The
computer then derives one score, RMSE, from
these by calculating an average error score for the
total pathway. root-mean-squared error (RMSE) an error
measure used for continuous skills to indicate the

amount of error between the performance curve

KINEMATIC MEASURES produced and the criterion performance curve for a
specific amount of time during which performance
Kinematic measures, traditionally associated with
is sampled.
biomechanics, have become important descriptors
of performance in research on motor learning and kinematics the description of motion without
control.The term kinematics refers to the descrip- regard to force or mass; it includes displacement,
tion of motion without regard to force or mass. velocity, and acceleration.
Three of the most common of such descriptors
28 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The researcher then

records the person's performance of the skill on

videotape, or by using special LED-reading cam-

eras. Computer software developed to calculate
kinematic measures then analyzes the recordings.
This approach is used in commercially available
movement analysis systems.
Another way to obtain kinematic measures is to
record the person's movement of an object, which
was the case for the pursuit tracking task described
earlier and depicted in figure 2.4. Here, a computer
samples (i.e., detects at a specified rate per second)
and records the movements of the tracking device.
In this example, a horizontal lever on a tabletop was
the movement device. A potentiometer attached to
the axle of the lever provided movement-related
information that the computer sampled. Similar
samplings of movement can be taken from the
movement of a joystick, a mouse, or a rollerball.

Displacement
The first kinematic measure of interest is displace-
ment, which is the spatial position of a limb or
joint during the time period of the movement. Dis-
placement describes changes in spatial locations as
This participant in a research study has reflective markers
a person carries out a movement. We calculate dis- attached to various joints, and body and head locations for
placement by using a movement analysis system kinematic movement analysis purposes.

to identify where the movement device or marked

joint is in space (in terms of its X-Y coordinate in
two-dimensional analysis or itsX-Y-Z coordinate object position with respect to time. That is, how
in three-dimensional analysis) at a given time. The rapidly did this change in position occur and in
system then determines the location of that joint what direction was this change (faster or slower
for the nextsampled time. The analysis system than its previous rate)? Movement analysis systems
samples these spatial positions at specific rates, derive velocity from displacement by dividing it by
which vary according to the analysis system used. time. That is, divide a change in spatial position
For example, a common videotape sampling rate is (between time 1 and time 2) by the change in time
60 Hz. Faster sampling rates are possible, depend- (from time 1 to time 2). Velocity is always pre-
ing on the analysis system used. Thus, the spatial sented on a graph as a position-by-time curve (see
location of a movement device or limb can be plot- figure 2.5, in which the velocity curve is based on
ted for each sampled time as a displacement curve. the same movement as the displacement curve). We
refer to velocity in terms of an amount of distance
Velocity per an amount of time. The example in figure 2.5
The second kinematic measure of interest is veloc- shows velocity as the number of degrees per sec-
ity, which is a time-based derivative of displace- ond. As the slope of this curve steepens, it repre-
ment. Velocity, which we typically call speed in sents increasing velocity, whereas negative velocity
everyday terms, refers to the rate of change in an is represented by a slope that goes downward. Zero
CHAPTER 2 • THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 29

velocity is indicated by no change in positive or vide an insightful means of examining movement

negative position of the curve. by looking at between two joints
the relationship
during a movement. The angle-angle diagram usu-
Acceleration ally plots the angle between two adjacent body seg-

The third kinematic measure is acceleration, which ments against the angle of one body segment.
describes change in velocity during movement. We In figure 2.6, the angular displacement of the
derive acceleration from velocity by dividing knee joint is compared to that of the thigh during
change in velocity by change in time. We also de- the four discrete events of a running stride: takeoff,
pict acceleration curves as a function of time, as you opposite footstrike, opposite foot takeoff, and op-
can see in the acceleration graph in figure 2.5, posite footstrike. Note that this angle-angle dia-
which is based on the displacement and velocity gram produces a heart-shaped pattern, which is the
graphs also in that figure. The acceleration curve classic knee-thigh relationship pattern during gait.
depicts the speeding up and slowing down of the The bottom part of the figure shows similar dia-
movements as the subject moves. Rapid accelera- grams for three persons who have had amputation
tion means that a velocity change occurred quickly. below the knee. What is noticeable here is that the
amputees do not flex the knee joint at the begin-
Linear and Angular Motion ning of the stance as the skilled runner does. These
In kinematic descriptions of movement, the mea- examples demonstrate that an important benefit of
sures of displacement, velocity, and acceleration kinematic measures is that they allow us to de-
can refer to either linear or angular motion. The dis- scribe the characteristics of critical components of
tinction between these types of motion is important a skill during movement.
to understand, and is a critical distinction in the
analysis of movement. Linear motion refers to mo-
KINETICS
tion in a straight line and involves all the body or
objectmoving the same distance over the same The term kinetics refers to the consideration of
amount of time. Angular motion, which is some- force in the study of motion. Whereas kinematics
times called rotary motion, refers to motion that oc- refers to descriptors of motion without concern
curs about an axis of rotation and involves specific for the cause of that motion, kinetics refers to
body segments as they rotate about joints, which
are the axes of rotation for body segment move-
ment. For example, if you want to describe the
kinematics of walking, linear motion descriptions displacement a kinematic measure describing
are appropriate for movement from one location to changes in the spatial positions of a limb or joint
another, because the whole body is moving linearly. during the time course of the movement.
However, if you want to describe the foot move-
velocity a kinematic measure describing the rate
ment characteristics during walking, angular mo-
of change of an object's position with respect to
tion descriptions are more appropriate, because the
time. It is derived by dividing displacement by time
foot rotates about the ankle joint during walking.
(e.g., m/sec, km/hr).
A common way researchers describe angular
motion is by measuring the motion of a limb seg- acceleration a kinematic measure that describes

ment as it rotates about a joint while a movement change in velocity during movement; we derive it

from velocity by dividing change in velocity by

is occurring. Two examples are shown in figure 2.6.
change in time.
The top part of this figure shows an angle-angle di-
agram for a skilled runner. According to Enoka kinetics the study of the role of force as a cause of
(2002), because we move by rotating body seg- motion.
ments about each other, angle-angle diagrams pro-
30 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

Wrist Displacement

Dart
Release

o
]T 15

-5 -
-15 -
-25 -
-35
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of Arm Movement Time

Wrist Ve slocity
^o 100
9

n •
Dart
~-100 Release

O -200

15-300
3
c -400
<
-500

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

FIGURE 2.5 Recordings of dis- % of Arm Movement Time

placement, velocity, and accelera-
tion of the wrist joint during the
Wrist Acceleration
performance of a dart throw. The
X-axis in each graph is the percent
of the movement time of the
total

arm movement for the dart throw.

The vertical line in each graph
indicates the release of the dart,
which occurred at approximately
51% of the total movement time
of the arm movement. [Data from
one participant in an experiment
that was part of: Jeansonne, J.J.

(2003). The effect of environmen-

tal context on performance out-
comes and movement coordination
changes during learning of com-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 100
plex motor skill. Ph.D. dissertation.
Louisiana State University.] % of Arm Movement Time
CHAPTER 2 THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 31

Skilled runner

Trial ID 612
Extension Speed 4.2 m/s

Knee
(rad)

Flexion

3 4

Backward Thigh
rotation (rad) rotation

Three below-knee amputees

12314 432
2.7 m/s 3.8 m/s

Knee
(rad)

Thigh (rad)

FIGURE 2.6 Angle-angle diagrams showing knee-thigh relationships during running by a skilled runner (top) and three
below-knee amputees (bottom). The abbreviations indicate ipsilateral (left) footstrike (IFS), ipsilateral takeoff (ITO). con
tralateral (right) footstrike (CFS). and contralateral takeoff (CTO), which are the four components of a running stride.

[From Enoka. R. M. et al. (1978). Below knee amputee running gait. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 61. 70-78.
Copyright © 1978 Williams & Wilkins Company. Baltimore. Maryland. Reprinted by permission.]
32 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

force as a cause of motion. Susan Hall (2003), in Newton's second law of motion allows us to

her textbook on biomechanics, states that "a force measure force indirectly by taking into account the
can be thought of as a push or pull acting on a relationship of force to velocity or acceleration and
body" (p. 63). Human movements can involve to the mass of the object: force = mass x accelera-
both external and internal sources of force. For ex- tion.Because of this, we can calculate force with-
ample, gravity and air resistance are external out needing to use mechanical and electronic force
forces that influence running and walking; water measurement instruments, if acceleration can be as-
resistance is an external force that influences sessed from a kinematic analysis of the movement.
swimming movements. Muscles provide the basis
for internal forces by pushing and pulling on joints
of the body.
EMG MEASURES
One way to see the importance of the role of Movement involves electrical activity in the mus-
force in our understanding of human movement is cles, which can be measured by electromyogra-
to note that all three of Newton's laws of motion phy (EMG). Researchers commonly accomplish
refer to the role of force. In his first law, force is this by either attaching surface electrodes to the
presented as necessary to start, change, or stop mo- skin over muscles, or inserting fine wire electrodes
tion. His second law indicates that force influences into a specific muscle. These electrodes detect
the rate of change in the momentum of an object. muscle electrical activity, which then can be
And his third law presents force as being involved recorded by a computer or polygraph recorder. Fig-
in the action and reaction that occurs in the inter- ure 2.8 shows some EMG recordings of electrical
action between two objects. activity in the ipsilateral biceps femoris (BFi) and
An important force-related characteristic of contralateral biceps femoris (BFc) of the legs and
human movement is that human motion involves the anterior deltoid (AD) of the shoulder girdle for
rotation of body segments around their joint axes. a task that required the person to move his or her
The effect of a forceon this rotation is called joint arm, on a signal, from the reaction-time key to a
torque, or rotary force (see figure 2.7 for an exam- position directly in front of the shoulder. The EMG
ple of how to graphically present joint torque). Be- signals presented for these muscles show when
cause of the many different types of force, and their electrical activity began in the muscles; we can
influence on human movement, researchers study- identify this activity by the increase in the fre-
ing motor skill learning and control are increas- quency and height of the traces for each muscle.
ingly including the measurement of forces as part The actual beginning of movement off the RT key
of their research. is designated in the diagram by the vertical line at
Researchers can measure certain forces directly the end of the RT recording (line 5 of figure 2.8).
using devices such as force plates, force transduc- Researchers can use EMG information in a va-
ers, and They use force plates to
strain gauges. riety of ways. One that is most relevant to motor
measure ground reaction forces, which are in- learning and control issues is the use of EMG
volved in the interaction between an object, such recordings to indicate when a muscle begins and
as a person, and the ground. Force plates are popu- ends activation. Muscle activation begins when the
lar force measurement devices in laboratories and EMG recording increases in frequency and height
clinics in which locomotion research and rehabili- compared to when the muscle is not active. When
tation take place. Researchers use force transduc- EMG recordings include several muscles involved
ers and strain gauges to measure force that is in the same movement, researchers can gain insight
muscle produced; these are popular in laboratory into the process of movement coordination by ob-
and clinical settings to determine the magnitude of serving the sequence of muscle activation patterns.
force generated while a subject is performing limb For example, in figure 2.8, the first muscle to show
movement tasks. activation after the signal to move the arm was the
CHAPTER 2 THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 33

900
S3 Trial 1 Knee
S3 Trial 5 Knee
S3 Trial
S3 Trial PH
ou Knnn
r\nee
S3 Trial 180 Knee
600

§ 300
- /
//•••
...A A n
A/-. \ \ \

-/2^ \W
/^ \w \ \

^ \ '-\
\
\
V
/\

\ ' V. _s
-300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400

Time (msec)

FIGURE 2.7 Results of an experiment by Sanders and Allen showing knee torques for one
subject during contact with a surface after the subject drop-jumped from a platform and imme-
diately initiated a vertical jump for maximum height. Each line on the graph represents perfor-
mance for the trial noted in the key on the graph. [Reprinted from Sanders, R. H., & Allen, J. B.

(1993). Human Movement Science, 12, pp. 299-326, with kind permission of Elsevier Science-NL, Sara
Burgerharstraat 25, 1055 KV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.]

ipsilateral biceps femoris (Bfi), which is a leg mus- sis, kinematic measurement of movement was an
cleon the same side of the body as the arm that expensive, labor-intensive, and time-consuming
moved; next in sequence was the anterior deltoid process involving frame-by-frame analysis of
(AD), which moves the arm for the type of move- slow-motion film. With the development of the
ment in the experiment. This activation sequence computer-based movement analysis systems, there
tells the researcher that more than arm muscle ac- has been a dramatic increase in research involving
tivity is involved for the simple arm movement per- complex skills.

formed in the experiment. The researcher would A measurement issue that has developed in the
interpret the sequence of muscle activity as indi- study of complex skills concerns how best to as-
cating that the body prepares itself for an arm sess coordination. As you will study in chapter 4,
movement like this one by first activating leg mus- coordination involves the movement of limb seg-
cles responsible for stabilizing body posture. ments in specific time- and space-based patterns.
We can easily observe these patterns in angle-angle

MEASURING COORDINATION
One of the more interesting phenomena of recent electromyography (EMG) a measurement
motor learning and control research is the investi- technique that records the electrical activity of a
gation of complex skills. One reason for this is muscle or group of muscles. It indicates the muscle
methodologically based. Prior to the advent of activity.

computer-based technology for movement analy-

34 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

Task Order
muscle
Stimulus
Anterior onset
deltoid
(AD)

2. BFi

Postural
muscles 3. AD L iiUkU
Ipsilateral
Key release biceps femoris 4. BFc L
(BR)
Reaction time
(RT)
Contralateral
biceps femoris
5. RT L r
(BFc)

FIGURE 2.8 Using EMG recordings to measure a movement response. The figure on the left shows the reaction-time appa-

ratus and where each electrode was placed to record the EMG for each muscle group of interest. The figures on the right show the
EMG recordings for each of the three muscle groups and the reaction-time interval for the response. [From Lee. Wynne. (1980). Journal
of Motor Behavior, 12. 187. Reprinted by permission of the author.]

plots of the movements of limb segments, such as technique. Attempts to establish appropriate quan-
the ones depicted in figure 2.6. However, a mea- titative techniques continue (e.g., Sidaway, Heise,
surement issue has arisen concerning angle-angle & Schoenfelder-Zohdi, 1995). Until researchers
diagrams. Many researchers report only these can resolve this issue, qualitative presentations of
qualitative kinematic descriptions and do not pro- limb segment relationships will remain the norm
vide quantitative assessments of them. Some re- for assessing coordination.
searchers question whether the qualitative pattern
representation of limb segment relationships is suf-
ficient for inferring coordination and suggest that SUMMARY
quantitative assessment of these descriptions is

needed as well. An essential element in understandingmotor learn-

A problem in resolving this issue is that there is ing is measurement of motor performance. All
the
little agreement among researchers about how to concepts presented in this text are based on re-
quantify coordination patterns such as the one in search in which researchers observed and measured
figure 2.6. Although several researchers have sug- motor performance. Measuring motor performance
gested techniques (see, e.g., Sparrow et al., 1987; is essential for the assessment of motor deficien-

Newell & van Eminerik, 1989; Vereijken et al., cies, as well as for the evaluation of performance
1992), each has inherent problems, contributing to by students or patients as they progress through
the current lack of general acceptance of any one practice and therapy regimes. In this chapter, we
 .

CHAPTER 2 • THE MEASUREMENT OF MOTOR PERFORMANCE 35

A CLOSER LOOK
Quantifying Coordination Patterns

Motor control researchers have suggested several lation indicates strong coordination between the
techniques for quantifying the angle-angle plots that joints, whereas a low correlation shows little

are popular for describing coordination patterns, such between-joint coordination.

as the classic heart-shaped pattern of the knee-hip Sidaway, Heise, and Schoenfelder-Zohdi (1995)
joints relationship during gait. While the regularity of argue that a correlation approach is flawed because
the pattern is easy to observe, this qualitative ap- it assumes a linear relationship between the joints.
proach does not allow for statistical between-pattern In contrast, angle-angle plots of movement pat-
comparisons to determine reliable differences or sim- terns are typically nonlinear. To accommodate
ilarities. Following are two quantitative approaches both linear and nonlinear situations, they propose
to this problem. a normalized root-mean-squared error technique,
which they call NoRMS. This method involves
• The most common method is to cross-correlate comparing a number of cycles of a continuous
time-related position changes in the angle of one task, or a series of trials for a discrete task. From
joint with changes in another joint, (e.g., Newell & this series, the mean of the angle-angle plots is
van Emmerik, 1989; Vereijken et al., 1992). The calculated. Then the root-mean-squared error
resulting correlation coefficient is interpreted as a (RMSE) is determined for each cycle or trial of the
ratio expressing the extent to which the two joints series, totaled, and then normalized with respect to

follow similar patterns of movement. A high corre- the number of cycles or trials.

focused on different ways to measure motor per- Concerns about the qualitative and quantitative
formance, along with the ways we can use these measurement of movement coordination
measurements in motor learning research and ap-
plied settings.
The performance measurement issues and ex-
amples discussed in this chapter were these: RELATED READINGS

• Two categories of performance measures: per- Clarys, J. P., Cabri, J., De Witte, B., Toussaint, H., de Groot, G..

formance outcome measures (which measure Huying, P., & Hollander, P. (1988). Electromyography
applied to sport ergonomics. Ergonomics, 31, 1605-1620.
the result of the performance of a movement ac-
Kim, J., Chung, S., Tennant, L. K., Singer, R. N., & Janelle, C. M.
and performance production measures
tivity)
(2000). Minimizing error in measurement of error: A pro-
(which measure movement-related characteris- posed method for calculation of error in a two-dimensional
tics that produce the performance outcome of a motor task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 90, 253-261
movement activity) Mah, C. D., Hulliger, M., Lee, R. G., & Marchand, A. R. (1994).
Quantitative analysis of human movement synergies: Con-
• Performance outcome measure examples: reac- structive pattern analysis for gait. Journal of Motor Behavior,
movement time (MT), and three
tion time (RT), 26, 83-102.

measures of performance outcome error (AE, Reeve, T. G., Fischman, M. G., Christina, R.W., & Cauraugh,
J. H. (1994). Using one-dimensional task error measures to
CE, and VE)
assess performance on two-dimensional tasks: Comment on
"Attentional control, distractors, and motor performance."
• Performance production measures examples:
Human Performance, 7, 315-319.
three kinematic measures (displacement, veloc-
Soderberg, G. L., & Knutson, L. M. (2000). A guide for use and
ity,and acceleration), joint torque as a kinetic interpretation of kinesiologic electromyographic data. Physi-
measure, and EMG cal Therapy, 80, 485^*98.
36 iiihlic.com/iiiagill7e UNIT 1 • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

Sparrow, W. A. ( IW2). Measuring changes in coordination and AE, CE, and VE when performance accuracy
control. In J. J. Summers (Ed.). Approaches to the study
is the movement goal?
of motor control and learning (pp. 147-162). Amsterdam:
Elsevier. How can performance error be determined for
a continuous skill such as pursuit tracking?

Describe three kinematic measures of move-

STUDY QUESTIONS
ment and explain what each measure tells us
about the movement.
1. (a) Describe the differences between perfor-
mance outcome measures and performance What is meant by the term kinetics as it is re-
production measures, (b) Give three examples lated to measuring human movement?
for each of these measures of motor perfor-
mance.
What information about a movement can be ob-
tained by using EMG?
2. (a) how simple RT, choice RT, and
Describe
discrimination RT situations differ, (b) What How can angle-angle diagrams be used to tell

us something about the coordination character-

does it mean to fractionate RT? (c) How does
of two limbs or two limb segments?
MT differ from RT? istics

3. What different information can be obtained

about a person's performance by calculating
 Chapter

Motor Abilities

Concept: A variety of abilities underlie

motor skill learning and performance success

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Define the term ability and distinguish it from the term skill

• Explain the difference between the general motor ability hypothesis and the specificity of
motor abilities hypothesis

• Name and describe several motor ability categories, and explain how researchers have identi-
fied the various motor ability categories

• Describe how motor abilities relate to motor skill performance

Application serve parallel differences in other physical activity

situations, such as dance classes, driving instruc-
Some people perform many different physical ac-
tion classes, and physical therapy sessions.
tivities very well. Why is this the case? Are they
born with some special "motor ability" that enables
Discussion
them to be successful at all they do? Have they had
an abundance of good training and practice in a In chapters 1 and 2, you were introduced to motor
wide variety of activities? Are they really good at skills and the measurement of motor skill perfor-

everything, or only at certain activities? mance. Now, you will be introduced to a type of
Also, people differ in how quickly and success- personal characteristic known as ability, which in-
fully they learn motor skills. If you observe a phys- fluences the way people perform and learn motor
ical activity class for beginners, you will see skills.

various degrees of success and failure during the

first few days. For example, in a beginning golf
class, when the students first start to hit the ball,
ABILITY AND MOTOR ABILITY
some will spend an inordinate amount of time sim-
ply trying to make contact with the ball. But some One of the difficulties in studying the concept of
will be at the other extreme, able to hit the ball ability as it relates to motor skill performance is

rather well.The remainder of the class usually will that the term ability is used in so many different
be distributed somewhere along the continuum of ways. For example, physical and occupational ther-
success between these two extremes. We can ob- apists refer to "functional ability"; a baseball coach

37
38 inhhe.com/magill7e UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

might refer to a player's "running ability"; educa- ample, people with differing levels of the motor
tors often refer to students' "cognitive ability" or abilities important for playing tennis will have dif-
"intellectual ability." The list of examples could go fering achievement potentials in tennis. This exam-
on, but these few examples illustrate the problem. ple indicates that various motor abilities underlie
As a result, it is important to specify the precise the performance of a complex motor skill such as
manner in which the term will be used. tennis, and that people have different levels of these
For this discussion, the term ability will be used abilities. It also indicates that if two people have
according to its meaning in the area of psychology the same training experiences and amount of prac-
that involves the study of individual differences. tice, but differ in their levels of the motor abilities
People who study individual differences are con- important for playing tennis, the one with the
cerned with the identification and measurement of higher levels of the appropriate abilities has the po-
abilities that characterize and differentiate individ- tential to perform at a higher level. Although re-
uals. Individual-difference psychologists also in- searchers generally agree with this view, they
vestigate the relationship between abilities and the debated formany years, especially in the 1950s and
performance and learning of skills. In this context, 1960s, how motor abilities relate to one another
the term ability means a general trait or capacity within the same person.
of the individual that is a relatively enduring char-
acteristic which serves as a determinant of a per- The controversy over general versus specific
son achievement potential for the performance of
's motor abilities. In the debate about the relationship
specific skills. When the term motor ability is used of motor abilities, one viewpoint holds that motor
in this context, it refers to an ability that is specifi- abilities are highly related to each other. The oppo-
cally related to the performance of a motor skill. It site view is that they are relatively independent of
is important to note that some researchers and prac- one another. This debate is not commonly pursued
titioners use terms such as "psychomotor ability" in the current research literature. However, an un-
and "perceptual motor ability" to refer to what we derstanding of the different points of view will fa-
will call motor ability.
1

cilitate your application of the concept of motor

The identification of specific motor abilities is abilities tomotor skill performance achievement.
not an easy task. As a result, few researchers have The general motor ability hypothesis main-
ventured into this area of study. However, those tains that although many different motor abilities
who have undertaken this challenge have provided can be identified within an individual, they are
us with useful information that helps us have a bet- highly related and can be characterized in terms of
ter understanding of an important factor related to a singular, global motor ability. It holds that the
determining why people differ in achievement lev- level of that ability in an individual influences the
els of motor skill performance. ultimate success that person can expect in perform-
ing any motor skill. This viewpoint has been in ex-
Abilities as Individual-Difference Variables istence for quite some time (e.g., Brace, 1927;
The individual differences we observe in the levels McCloy, 1934). This hypothesis predicts that if a
of success that people achieve in the performance person is highly skilled in one motor skill, then he
of a motor skill depends in large part on the degree or she has the potential to be highly skilled in all
to which the person has the motor abilities that are motor skills. The reasoning behind this prediction
important for the performance of that skill. For ex- is that there is one general motor ability. In fact,

one proponent of this view developed a motor abil-

ity test battery that he proposed could be used to
1

Although the terms motor ability, psychomotor ability, and

perceptual-motor ability can have speeilie meanings, they are classify students into one of five homogeneous
sufficiently similar, for purposes of this book, to use the term motor ability subgroups for purposes of teaching
motor ability to refer to all three terms. and engaging in physical activities (Barrow, 1957).
CHAPTER 3 MOTOR ABILITIES 39

But contrary to the expectations of proponents to see, hear, or feel a stimulus (i.e., a "go" signal)
of the general motor ability hypothesis, very little and then initiate the required movement; movement
research evidence supports this viewpoint. One time is the amount of time from the initiation of the
suspects that the basis for the continued existence movement to its completion. The common result
of this hypothesis is its intuitive appeal. Tests of from many experiments from Henry's laboratory
general motor ability are convenient, appealing to Henry, 1961a, 1961b) was that reaction time
(e.g.,

those who seek an easy explanation for why cer- and movement speed are uncorrelated, which
tain people are successful or unsuccessful at per- means that each is an independent motor ability.
forming motor skills. The fact that these tests are
poor predictors of specific motor skill performance Balance and timing abilities. Although re-

has not diminished the appeal of the general motor searchers now generally accept the specificity of
ability hypothesis. motor abilities hypothesis, some have raised ques-
The alternative perspective, for which there has tions about the generality of certain specific motor
been substantial support, is the specificity of abilities. That is, do certain motor abilities repre-

motor abilities hypothesis. Franklin Henry is gen- sent one ability, or are there several variations
erally credited with deriving the specificity hypoth- of these abilities, each of which is task specific
esis to explain results from his research that the and relatively independent of the other(s)? Two
general motor ability hypothesis could not explain examples of these motor abilities are balance and
(e.g., Henry, 1961). This specificity view states that timing.
individuals have many motor abilities, and these Although static and dynamic balance are gener-
abilities are relatively independent. This means, for ally regarded as two types of balance, balance is

example, that if a person exhibited a high degree of often regarded as one motor ability. This means
balancing ability, we could not predict how well that static balance, which refers to the maintaining

that person would do on a test of reaction time. of equilibrium while in a stationary position, is

Support for the specificity hypothesis has come considered to be a simpler variation of dynamic
from experiments that were reported primarily in balance, which refers to the maintaining of equi-
the 1960s. These experiments were based on the librium while in motion. This viewpoint is seen,
common assumption that if motor abilities are spe- for example, when rehabilitation protocols specify
cific and independent, then the relationship between that a person should develop static postural balance
any two abilities will be very low. Thus, in the sim-
plest of cases, the relationship would be very low
between any two abilities such as balance and reac- ability a general trait or capacity of an individual
tion time, or between reaction time and speed of that is a determinant of a person's achievement
movement, or between static and dynamic balance. potential for the performance of specific skills.
The research evidence in the 1960s that pro-
motor ability an ability that is specifically related
vided most of the initial support for the specificity
to the performance of a motor skill.
hypothesis, and became an impetus for further re-
search, came from the laboratory of Franklin Henry general motor ability hypothesis a hypothesis

at the University of California, Berkeley. This re- that maintains that the many different motor abilities

search was based on the premise that motor abili- that exist in an individual are highly related and can

ties are relatively independent. Henry and his be characterized in terms of a singular, global motor
ability.
colleagues reasoned that they could demonstrate
this independence rather simply by investigating specificity of motor abilities hypothesis a hypoth-
the relationship between reaction time and arm esis that maintains that the many motor abilities in

movement speed. Recall from the discussion in an individual are relatively independent.
chapter 2 that reaction time is the amount of time
 1

40 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

A CLOSER LOOK
The Relationship between Reaction Time (RT) and Movement Time (MT) as Support
for the Specificity of Motor Abilities Hypothesis

Franklin Henry's research concerning the RT-MT re- which was a forward arm movement of 1 17 cm to a

lationship are now considered the classic experiments string target); a two-part movement (Movement B,
for establishing evidence against the traditional gen- which was an initial upward arm movement followed
eral motor ability hypothesis. These experiments typ- by a forward movement of 30 cm to a ball-grasp tar-
ically involved participants responding to either an get); and a three-part movement (Movement C, which

auditory or a visual signal by lifting their finger from was an initial upward and lateral movement, followed
a telegraph key and then moving their arm in a speci- by a downward direction reversal to a target,
lateral

fied direction, or directions, to hit a target, such as a and then a forward movement to a target).
ball hanging on a string. Results of these experiments In addition to gender and movement complexity
were notably consistent in producing low correla- effects on the RT-MT relationship, Henry also re-

tions between RT and MT. The following is a sum- ported the following results:
1

mary of the results of several of these experiments,

Stimulus complexity effects: For simple, choice, and
which Henry reported in a Research Quarterly article
discrimination RT situations, the average RT-MT
published in 1961 These results demonstrate the type
.

correlation was 0.02.

of evidence on which Henry and others concluded
that motor abilities are independent. Maturation effects: For participants in five age
The first of these experiments investigated the RT- groups (8, 12, 18, 24, and 30 yrs) for movements A
MT relationship for gender and the complexity of the and B described above, the average RT-MT correla-
movement. Among the various levels of movement tion was 0. 1 .

complexity were a simple movement (Movement A,

Movement A B C
Gender Males Males Females Males Females
RT 225 ms 195 ms 205 ms 204 ms 219ms
MT a
195 ms 93 ms 130 ms 481 ms 522 ms
RT-MT
Correlation 0.01 -0.32 0.10 0.18 0.29
a
Note that the longer MT tor Movement A than forMovement B occurred because
A involved a much longer movement than B, even though B involved two parts.

A correlation is u statistical technique to determine the relationship between two performance measures. The number that results from
a correlation, referred to as a coefficient, will be within the range of -1 .0 to +1.0. A indicates no relationship between the measures; a
1 .0 indicates a high relationship. The minus and plus indicate the direction of the relationship; the minus indicates that when the value
of one measure increases, the other measure decreases, and the plus indicates that the values of both increase or decrease.

capabilities before engaging in activities requiring Research evidence also indicates that several
dynamic postural balance, such as walking. How- relatively independent variations of static and dy-
ever, research evidence consistently indicates that namic balance exist. Drowatzky and Zuccato
static and dynamic balance are relatively indepen- (1967) reported an excellent example of this re-
dent motor abilities. For example, Rose et al. search many years ago. In this experiment, partici-
(2002) reported that 14 of 2.3 children with gait dis- pants performed six different balancing tasks that
orders related to cerebral palsy showed normal generally have been regarded as measures of either
standing balance characteristics. static or dynamic balancing ability. The results of
CHAPTER 3 • MOTOR ABILITIES 41

TABLE 3.1 Results from the Experiment by Drowatzky and Zuccato (1967) Showing the Correlations
among Six Different Tests of Static and Dynamic Balance

Static Balance Tests Dynamic Balance Tests

1 2 3 4 5 6
Bass Stepping Balance
Test Stork Stand l Diver's Stand 2 Bass Stick Stand 3 Sideward Leap 4 Stone Test 5 Beam Test 6

1 — 0.14 -0.12 0.26 0.20 0.03

2 — -0.12 -0.03 -0.07 -0.14
3 — -0.04 0.22 -0.19
4 — 0.31 0.19
5 0.18
6

1
Stork stand —Person stands for as long as possible on the foot of the dominant leg while placing the other foot on the inside of the
supporting knee and the hands on the hips.
2
Diver's stand —Person stands erect with both feet together, arms extended in front. When ready he or she rises onto the balls of the
feet, closes his or her eyes, and maintains this position for as long as possible.

*Bass stick test —Person stands for as long as possible, up to 60 sec, with the ball of the foot of the dominant leg crosswise on a 1 in.

wide X 1 in. high X 12 in. long stick; the other foot must be off the floor.

^Sideward leap —Person stands on the left foot, leaps sideward to the right to a mark on the floor (distance = person's leg length),
leans forward to push small object off a mark ( 1 8 in. in front of landing mark), then holds balance for 5 sec.

5
Bass stepping stone test —Person stands on the right foot on the starting mark, then leaps to a series of targets located in front of the
person, alternating left and right feet. At each target, the person maintains balance for as long as possible, up to 5 sec.

^Balance beam test —On a balance beam (4 in. wide, 4.5 in. off the floor, 10 ft long) person walks, with hands on hips, heel to toe
for 10 steps or until falls; if falls, gets back on beam, continues walking; stops walking at 10 steps or second fall.

Source: From Drowatzky. J. N. & Zuccato, F. C. (1967). Interrelationships between selected measures of static and dynamic balance.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 38, 509-5 10. Copyright © 1967 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation, and Dance. Reprinted by permission.

the correlations among all the tests (table 3.1) Timing, as a motor ability, concerns the external
showed that the highest correlation (.31) was be- timing required to precisely time a bat swing with a
tween the sideward stand and the Bass stand. Most pitched ball in baseball, and the internal timing re-
of the correlations ranged between 0.12 and 0.19. quired to perform a well-timed sequence of move-
A more recent study by Tsiglis, Zachopoulou, and ments, such as those produced by a skilled dancer
Mavridis (2001) supported the Drowatsky and Zu- or pianist. Some researchers propose that people
dynamic balance.
catto results for various types of possess a general timing ability that underlies the
The highest correlation between two of three dif- performance of skills involving both external and
ferent types of dynamic balance tests was .22. The internal timing (e.g., Ivry & Hazeltine, 1995). Oth-
two other correlations between the tests were .05 ers argue that timing is specific to the requirements
and. 13. of a skill, which means that there are various types
On the basis of results such as these, it would of timing abilities. According to Zelaznik and his
be difficult to conclude that only one test could be colleagues (e.g., Zelaznik, Spencer, & Doffin,
considered a valid measure of balancing ability. 2000), research that supports a general timing abil-
We need to subdivide the ability we generally call ity have restricted the comparison of skills to those
"balance" into various types of balance. that have similar timing characteristics, such the
42 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

^ |
LAB LINKS performance levels
ties,
in a variety of physical activi-
a close inspection of those activities reveals
Lab 3 in the Online Learning Center Lab Manual many foundational motor abilities in common. We
for chapter 3 provides an opportunity for you to would expect a person exhibiting high levels for a
experience several different types of balance tests variety of abilities to do well in activities for which
and compare your results to the predictions of the
those abilities were foundational to performance.
general motor ability and specificity of motor abil-
However, we would expect average performance if
ities hypotheses.
this person engaged in activities for which those
abilities were less important, activities based on
other abilities, of which the person possessed only
repetitive tapping of a finger at either a preferred average levels.
rate of speed (referred to as self-paced, or unpaced,
timing) or in time with a metronome (externally- Identifying Motor Abilities
paced timing). When Zelaznik et al. (2000) com- As a capacity, an ability is a relatively enduring at-
pared externally-paced rates of repetitive finger tribute of an individual. Researchers who study in-
tapping and continuous circle drawing, which in- dividual differences assume that we can describe
volve similar timing requirements for different the skills involved in complex motor activities in
types of tasks, the correlations were generally low. terms of the abilities that underlie their perfor-
Thus, it seem reasonable to conclude that although mance. For example, the ability called spatial visu-

people are capable of precise timing when perform- alization is related to the performance of such
ing motor skills, timing ability is specific to the re- diverse tasks as aerial navigation, blueprint read-
quirements of the skill being performed rather than ing, and dentistry (Fleishman, 1972). An important
a general timing ability. step in understanding how abilities and skill per-

formance are related is identifying abilities and

The "all-around athlete." If motor abilities are nu- matching them with the skills involved.
merous and independent, then how can we explain When researchers and practitioners identify spe-
the so-called "all-around athlete," the person who cific motor abilities, they usually refer to the work
is very proficient at a variety of physical activities? of Edwin Fleishman (see Fleishman & Quaintance,
According to the specificity view, abilities fall 1984, for a description of this work). His research,
somewhere along a range containing low, average, which was carried out for four decades beginning
and high amounts within individuals. Because peo- in the 1950s, continues to influence our under-
ple differ, it seems reasonable to expect that some standing and study of motor abilities and how they
people have a large number of abilities at an aver- relate to motor skill performance. Perhaps the most
age level, and other people have a majority of abil- significant achievement of Fleishman's work was
ities at either the high or the low end of the scale. the development of a taxonomy of motor abilities,
According to the specificity hypothesis, the per- which he designed to identify the fewest possible
son who number of physical activ-
excels in a large ability categories that could be applied to the great-
ities has high levels of a large
number of abilities. est variety of motor skills.
We would expect that a person would do very well
in those activities for which the underlying abili- A taxonomy of motor abilities. From the results of
ties required for successful performance matched extensive batteries of perceptual motor tests given to
the abilities for which the person was at the high many people, Fleishman developed a "taxonomy of
end of the scale. human perceptual motor abilities" (Fleishman,
In actual fact, the true all-around athlete is a rare 1972; Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984). The goal of
individual. Typically, when a person shows high the taxonomy was "to define the fewest independent
CHAPTER? MOTOR ABILITIES 43

A CLOSER LOOK
A Value of Identifying Motor Abilities
Identifying and assessing motor abilities can allow a teacher, coach, or therapist to

Identify the source of problems or difficulties in Develop appropriate physical activities to improve
performing a skill. Often a person has difficulty performance in a variety of skills involving the
learning a new skill because he or she lacks ade- same motor ability.

quate experience involving the motor ability essen-

Example: Dynamic balance is a foundational abil-
tial to performing that particular skill.
ity to many different skills. As a result, movement
Example: A child may be having difficulty catch- experiences that provide people the opportunity to
ing a thrown ball because of a poorly developed develop their dynamic balance ability in a variety

ability to visually track a moving object. of movement situations should benefit learning
skills requiring dynamic balance.

ability categories which might be most useful and rapid trunk-flexing movements; (7) gross body co-
meaningful in describing performance in the widest ordination, the ability to coordinate the action of
variety of tasks" (Fleishman, 1967, p. 352). The tax- body while the body is in mo-
several parts of the
onomy included two broad categories of human abil- tion; (8) gross body equilibrium, the ability to
ities in the perceptual motor and physical domains: maintain balance without visual cues; and (9) sta-
perceptual motor abilities and physical proficiency mina, the capacity to sustain maximum effort re-
abilities. Table 3.2 presents and defines the eleven quiring cardiovascular effort.
perceptual motor ability categories Fleishman pro- We should not consider Fleishman's lists to be
posed. Note that table 3.2 also includes an example exhaustive inventories of all the abilities related
of one of the tests he used to assess each ability and to motor skill performance, because Fleishman
an example of a motor skill whose performance wanted number of abilities
to identify the smallest
would be associated with the ability category. that would describe the tasks performed in the test
In addition to perceptual motor abilities, Fleish- battery. Although he used hundreds of tasks to
man also identified nine abilities that he designated identify those abilities, the inclusion of additional
as physical proficiency abilities. These abilities dif- types of tasks besides those Fleishman used could
fer from the perceptual motor abilities in that they lead to the identification of other motor abilities.
are more generally related to gross motor skill For example, Fleishman did not include the follow-
performance. Most people would consider these ing abilities in his two lists:

abilities physical fitness abilities. The physical pro-

ficiency abilities identified by Fleishman are as

• Static balance —The ability to maintain pos-
follows: (1) static strength, the maximum force that
tural stability on a stable surface or when not
a person can exert against external objects; (2) dy-
engaging in locomotor activities (e.g., standing

namic strength, the muscular endurance used on the floor while reading a book)
in ex-

erting force repeatedly; (3) explosive strength, the • Dynamic balance —The ability to maintain
ability to mobilize energy effectively for bursts of postural stability on a moving surface or when
muscular effort; (4) trunk strength, the strength of engaging in locomotor activities (e.g., walking
the trunk muscles; (5) extent flexibility, the ability on a sidewalk)
to flex or stretch the trunk and back muscles; • Visual acuity —The ability to see clearly and
(6) dynamic flexibility, the ability to make repeated, precisely (e.g., reading a street sign)
TABLE 3.2 Perceptual Motor Ability Categories Identified by Fleishman (1972) as a Result of Numerous Research
Studies. The Ability Labels, Definitions, and Tests Are as Fleishman Presented Them in Two Reports on His Work
(Fleishman. 1972, pp. 1019f; Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984, pp. 164f ).

Ability Ability Category Test and Related Motor

Category Definition Skill Example

Multilimb Ability to coordinate movements of a number Complex coordinator task: Person simultaneously
coordination of limbs simultaneously controls two levers, one with each hand, and two
pedals, one with each foot, in response to signals
Skill example: Playing the piano or organ, where both
hands and feet are involved

Control Ability to make rapid and precise movement Rotary pursuit task: Person keeps a hand-held stylus
precision adjustments of control devices involving in contact with a small disk embedded in a

single arm-hand or leg movements; adjust- phonograph-like turntable as it rotates at 60 rpm

ments are made to visual stimuli Skillexample: Operating a joy stick in a computer
video game

Response Ability to make a rapid selection of controls to Visual discrimination tasks, e.g., choice reaction time
orientation be moved or the direction to move them in task: Person responds as quickly as possible when
one of several visual signals illuminates
Skill example: Soccer player with the ball responding
to defensive player's movements by dribbling past
the player, passing, or making a shot at the goal

Reaction time Ability to respond rapidly to a signal when it Visual or auditory simple reaction time task: Person
appears responds as quickly as possible to a visual (e.g., a
light) or auditory (e.g., a buzzer) signal
Skill example: Start of a sprint in swimming
Speed of arm Ability to rapidly make a gross, discrete arm Two-plate reciprocal tapping task: Person moves a
movement movement where accuracy is minimized hand-held stylus back and forth between two metal
plates, 25 cm apart, as rapidly as possible for 10 sec
Skillexample: Throwing a ball for speed rather than
for accuracy

Rate control Ability to time continuous anticipatorymove- Pursuit tracking task: Person moves a computer
ment adjustments in response to speed and/or mouse to move a cursor on a computer monitor to
direction changes of a continuously moving maintain contact with a target cursor that changes in
target or object speed and direction
Skill example: Driving a car on a highway
Manual dexterity Ability to make skillful arm-hand movements Minnesota Manual Dexterity task: Person picks up
tomanipulate fairly large objects under with one hand and turns over as quickly as possible
speeded conditions a series of wooden pegs in holes
Skill example: Dribbling and maintaining control
of a basketball while running
Finger dexterity Ability to make skillful, controlled manipula- Purdue Pegboard task: Person picks up and assembles
tions of tiny objects involving primarily the small peg, washer, and collar units and inserts them
fingers into small holes
Skill example: Buttoning a shirt

Arm-hand make precise arm-hand positioning

Ability to Track tracing task: Person moves a hand-held stylus
steadiness movements where strength and speed are through a trough in a board without touching the
minimized; includes maintaining arm-hand and
sides of the trough;
steadiness during arm movement or in a sta- Hand-steadiness task: Person holds a stylus in a small
tic arm position hole without touching the sides of the hole
Skill example: Applying eye-liner
Wrist, finger Ability to make rapid and repetitive move- Tapping task: Person holds a pencil and taps its point
speed ments with the hand and fingers, and/or ro- as many times as possible in a large circle for a
tary wrist movements when accuracy is not specified amount of time
critical Skill example: Handwriting for speed
Aiming Manual aiming task: Person holds a pencil and rapidly
Ability to rapidly and accurately move the makes a dot in a series of very small circles
hand to a small target Skill example: A drummer rapidly moving a stick from
a snare drum to a small cymbal

44
CHAPTER 3 MOTOR ABILITIES 45

A CLOSER LOOK
The Relationship between Perceptual Motor Abilities and Handwriting Speed

Slow handwriting speed can affect children's school performance by preventing them from completing hand-
written work that must meet time constraints. To investigate factors that are associated with slow handwriting,
Tseng and Chow (2000) administered three perceptual or motor abilities tests and a vigilance test to 7- to 11-
year-old Chinese schoolchildren who were either slow or normal speed handwriters.

Handwriting speed: The amount of time required for Results: The following abilities were predictors of
the children to copy in pencil a previously studied slow handwriting:
text (speed = the number of Chinese characters writ- • Arm speed and hand dexterity
ten per minute) • Focusing and maintaining attention

The abilities tests assessed:

• Visual memory
• Visual-motor integration
• arm movement speed and hand dexterity
• nonmotor visual perception (including
• Visual sequential memory
discrimination, sequential memory, figure Author's conclusion: These results suggest that "in-
closure, etc.) tervention for slow handwriting should focus on fa-
• visual-motor integration (which required the cilitating visual processing, including memory and
copying in sequence of a set of geometric visual-motor integration, rather than the fine motor
forms) training so often emphasized in occupational therapy
• ability to focus and maintain attention over time programs" ( p. 87).

• Visual tracking —The ability to visually follow motor abilities as one of three categories of human
a moving object (e.g., watching the flight of a abilities that affect motor skill performance. One
ball that is thrown to you to catch) category is general intelligence, or general ability.
• Eye-hand or eye-foot coordination —The abil- Included are cognitively oriented abilities and
ity to perform skills requiring vision and the memory-related processes, such as acquiring, stor-

precise use of the hands (e.g., correctly typing ing, retrieving, combining, and comparing memory-
a sentence on a keyboard) or feet (e.g., kicking based information, as well as using it in new
a penalty kick in soccer) contexts. The second category is perceptual speed
ability. This category includes abilities associated
An important assumption of this view of human
with a person's facility for solving problems of in-
possess these motor
abilities is that all individuals
creasing complexity, and with the person's speed at
abilities. Another is that because it is possible to
processing information he or she must use to solve
measure these motor abilities, it is also possible to
problems. Tests of such tasks as finding the Xs in
determine a quantified measure of the level of each
an array of letters and transcribing symbols on a list
ability in a person. People differ in the amount of
assess these abilities. Finally, psychomotor ability
each ability they possess. Their motor abilities in-
(i.e., motor ability) is the third category. Abilities in
dicate limits that influence a person's potential for
this category, which is the focus of our discussion,
achievement in motor skill performance.
are related to speed and accuracy of movements
that place little or no cognitive demand on the per-
Relating Motor Abilities to Motor son. To fully understand individual differences, we
Skill Performance must see performance of all types of skills in terms
An approach presented by Ackerman (1988) helps of these three foundational categories of abilities.

us see where motor abilities fit into the broader However, for the purposes of the present discus-
issue of motor skill performance. He described sion, we will limit our attention to motor abilities.
46 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR SKILLS AND ABILITIES

Tennis serve

Ball Forward Ball Follow

Grip Stance Backswing
toss swing contact through

Abilities
Multilimb coordination
Control precision
Speed of arm movement
Rate control
Aiming
Static strength
Etc.

FIGURE 3.1 A task analysis for the tennis serve indicating the component parts of the serve and some examples of perceptual
motor abilities underlying performance of the serve.

Figure 3. 1 illustrates the view that motor abilities trol precision, speed of arm movement, rate control,
are underlying, foundational components of motor aiming, and static strength. You undoubtedly could
skill performance. This figure shows how we can an- add others. However, these few examples should
alyze complex motor skills by a process known as serve to illustrate the foundational role perceptual
task analysis in order to identify the abilities that un- motor and physical proficiency abilities play in the
derlie any motor skill. For example, to serve a tennis performance of motor skills.
ball successfully, a player must perform certain com-
ponents of that skill properly. Figure 3.1 identifies
these components, which are the first level of analy- SUMMARY
sis of the tennis serve, in the middle tier of the dia-

gram. Identification of these components helps us The term ability refers to a general trait or ca-
identify more readily the underlying motor abilities pacity of the individual that is related to the per-
that are involved in the successful performance of formance of a variety of skills or tasks. A variety
this task The bottom tier of the diagram presents of motor abilities underlie the performance of a
these abilities. Based on Fleishman's lists, they in- motor skill; people have different amounts, or
clude such abilities as multilimb coordination, con- quantities, of these abilities.
CHAPTER 3 MOTOR ABILITIES 47

Researchers have debated for many years how Franchignoni, F., Tesio, L., Martino, M. T., Ricupero, C. (1998).
Reliability of four simple, quantitative tests of balance and
the various motor abilities relate to one another.
mobility in healthy elderly females. Aging — Clinical and Ex-
The two hypotheses proposed to describe this re-
perimental Research, 10, 26-31.
lationship are the general motor ability hypothe- Proctor, R. W., & Dutta, A. (1995). Skill acquisition and human
sis, which states that the abilities are highly performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Read ch. 10: Indi-

related, and the specificity hypothesis, which ar- vidual Differences]

Robertson, S. D., Zelaznik, H. N., Lantero, D. A., Gadacz,
gues that the abilities are relatively independent
K. E., Spencer, R. M., Doffin, J. G., & Schneidt, T. (1999).
of one another. Research evidence has consis- among tapping and draw-
Correlations for timing consistency
tently supported the specificity hypothesis. ing tasks: Evidence against a single timing process for motor
control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Per-
There has been some debate among those who ception and Performance, 25, 1316-1330.
hold the specificity hypothesis concerning the Stelmach, G. E., & Nahom, A. (1992). Cognitive-motor abili-
generality of certain specific motor abilities, ties of the elderly driver. Human Factors, 34, 53-65.

such as balance and timing. Research evidence Tseng, M. H., & Cermak, S. A. (1993). The influence of eco-
nomic factors and perceptual-motor abilities on handwriting
has consistently shown that balance consists of
performance. American Journal of Occupational Therapy,
static and dynamic balance as two relatively in-
919-926.
47,
dependent motor abilities, and that several rela-

tively independent variations of each exist.

Timing ability, which refers to both the precise STUDY QUESTIONS
external and internal timing involved in per-
forming motor skills, appears to be specific to How do people who study individual differ-
1. (a)
the requirements of the task being performed.
ences define the term abilities? (b) Distinguish
An important approach to the identification of the meaning of abilities from the term skill.

motor abilities was Fleishman's taxonomy of What the difference between the general
2. (a) is
perceptual and physical proficiency abilities.
motor ability hypothesis and the specificity of
The abilities identified in this taxonomy, along
motor abilities hypothesis? (b) Give an exam-
with others not included, play a foundational
ple of research evidence indicating which of
role in the performance of motor skills. Because
these hypotheses is more valid.
it is possible to measure these abilities, we can
assess a person's level of each ability. Research 3. How is balance an example of a motor ability
evidence shows that people differ in their that includes at least two types of relatively in-

amounts of each ability. These levels indicate dependent variations?

limits that influence a person's potential for
4. How can a specificity view of motor abilities
achievement in specific motor skills.
explain how a person can be very successful at
performing a lot of different motor skills?

RELATED READINGS 5. (a) Name and describe five perceptual motor

abilities identified by Fleishman, (b) What
Ackerman, P. L., & Cianciolo, A. T. (1999). Psychomotor abili- other motor abilities can you identify?
ties via touch-panel testing: Measurement innovations, con-
struct, and criterion validity. Human Performance, 12,
6. Describe how motor abilities relate to motor
231-273. skill performance.
 UNIT

Introduction to
Motor Control

Chapter 4
Motor Control Theories

Chapter 5
Performance Characteristics of Complex Skills

Chapter 6
Proprioception and Vision

Chapter 7
Action Preparation
 Chapter

Motor Control Theories

Concept: Theories about how we control coordinated movement differ

in terms of the roles of central and environmental features of a control system

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Discuss the relevance of motor control theory for the practitioner

• Define the term coordination as it relates to the performance of motor skills

• Describe the degrees offreedom problem as it relates to the study of human motor control
• Compare and contrast an open-loop control system and a closed-loop control system

• Describe a primary difference between a motor program-based theory of motor control and
a dynamic pattern theory of motor control

• Define a generalized motor program and describe an invariant feature and a parameter pro-
posed to characterize this program

• Define the following terms associated with a dynamic pattern theory of motor control: order
and control parameters, self-organization, coordinative structures, and perception-action
coupling

• Discuss how a motor program-based theory and a dynamic pattern theory each explain the
basis for the relative-time characteristics of human walking and running

Application are reaching to pickup a pencil, playing the guitar,

and typing on a keyboard. For still other skills,
To successfully perform the wide variety of motor where only one arm and hand are involved, we
skills we use in everyday life, we must coordinate must coordinate only a few muscles and joints. We
various muscles and joints to function together. do this when we manipulate a computer joystick or
These muscle and joint combinations differ for a car's gearshift.
many skills. Some skills, such as hitting a serve in Motor performance has other important
skill
tennis or getting out of a chair and into a wheel- general characteristics in addition to body and limb
chair, require us to coordinate muscles and joints coordination. For example, we perform some skills
of the trunk and limbs. Other skills involve coordi- with relatively slow movements; think of how we
nation of the arms, hands, and fingers; examples position a bow before releasing an arrow, or pick

50
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 51

up a cup to take a drink from it. Other skills, such

as throwing a ball or jumping from a bench to the
floor, require fast, ballistic movements. Some
motor skills, such as writing a numeral or button-
ing a shirt, have few component parts; other skills,

such as performing a dance routine or playing the

piano, are very complex.
Also, we can produce remarkably accurate and
consistent movement patterns from one perfor-
mance attempt to another. We are capable of per-
forming well-learned skills with a remarkable
degree of success in a variety of situations, even
though we have never before been in similar situa-

tions. For example, a skilled tennis player will have

to use a forehand stroke in many different situa-
tions in matches. The many different characteris-
tics in any situation, such as the ball's flight pattern,

speed, spin, bounce, and location on the court, as

well as the opponent's position, the wind and sun
conditions, and so on, provide little chance that any
two situations can be exactly alike. Yet a skilled
player can hit the ball successfully.

Discussion

Before we discuss some theories of how the ner-

vous system controls coordinated movement, we
Walking down a crowded flight of stairs is a good example of
will consider the importance of having an under-
an action that requires a person to adapt his or her pattern of
standing of the basic components of motor control
head, body, and limb movements to the characteristics of the
theory. Then, we will clarify a few terms, to pro- stairs and the other people on the stairs.

vide a foundation for understanding those theories.

of the relevance of theory to professional practice.

In this section, we will discuss what a theory is and
the relevance of motor control theory for teachers,
THEORY AND PROFESSIONAL
coaches, and therapists.
PRACTICE
Students who are preparing for professions in What Is a Theory?
which their primary responsibilities involve motor Ifwe base our understanding of the term theory- on
often question the need to study
skill instruction how it is commonly used in everyday language, we
motor control theory. This type of questioning come away with the view that a theory has little rel-
often comes from those who believe their prepara- evance to reality. But this view is short-sighted and
tion needs to involve only "practical" information misleading. In science, a theory helps us under-
that will help them carry out their day-to-day re- standphenomena and explains the reasons why
sponsibilities in the workplace. Unfortunately, this these phenomena exist or behave as they do.
view is often the result of a lack of understanding Stephen Hawking (1996), the world-renowned
52 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

theoretical physicist at Cambridge University in that we can confidently predict will facilitate this
England, states that a good theory should satisfy adaptation capability. Consider a different exam-
"two requirements. It must accurately describe a ple. Suppose you need to help a person reacquire
large class of observations and it must make
. . . the capability to walk.Knowledge about the motor
definite predictions about the results of future control mechanisms that underlie human locomo-
observations" (p. 15). In Hawking's domain of tion and the environmental variables that affect it
physics, theories are developed to help us under- will allow you to develop more appropriate assess-

stand various aspects of the physical universe in ment and intervention strategies, because they will
which we live. They do this by providing us with be based on variables that influence locomotion.
explanations of observable physical events, such as
identifying the variables that make a rolling ball
eventually stop rolling. By identifying these vari-
MOTOR CONTROL THEORY
ables, we can then predict how far a ball will roll In the earlier section titled "What is a theory?" you
given specific characteristics of these variables. read that a good theory should describe and pro-
In the behavioral sciences, which include the vide explanations for a large class of observable
study of human motor learning and control, theo- what should a
events. In light of this requirement,
ries focus on explaining human behavior. When the good theory of motor control describe and explain?
human behavior of interest is the performance and Researchers generally acknowledge that it should
learning of motor skills, we look to theories to pro- describe and explain how the nervous system pro-
vide us with explanations about why people per- duces coordinated movement such that we are able
form skills as they do, which means identifying the to successfully perform a variety of motor skills in

variables that account for the performance charac- a variety of environmental contexts. In many re-
teristics we observe. For example, we know from spects, the attempt to understand how we produce
our observations of people performing skills that a coordinated movement is similar to wanting to
person can perform the same skill in a variety of know how a watch, which also involves the precise
different situations. A skilled basketball player can coordination of many components, keeps time.
shoot a one-hand jump shot from a variety of loca- The following two essential is-
sections discuss
tions on the floor and in a variety of game-related sues important to a theory of motor control: the
situations. A good theory of motor control will ex- meaning of the term coordination as it applies to
plain why this capability is possible. motor skill performance, and the "degrees of free-
dom problem." Although researchers have pro-
The Relevance of Motor Control Theory posed additional issues that a theory of motor
for the Practitioner control should address, 1
these two will provide a
A benefit of a basic understanding of motor control sufficient foundation on which to base your intro-
theory is that it provides the practitioner with a duction to the two prominent motor control theo-
base of support on which he or she can develop ries discussed in this chapter.
effective skill instruction and practice environ- It is important to note that the theories described
ments. Figure 4.1 illustrates the connection be- here address motor control from a predominantly
tween theory and practice by indicating some of behavioral level of analysis. This means that they
the many applications that will be enhanced when focus on explaining observed behavior without at-
a practitioner has knowledge about the variables tempting to specify neural-level features of the con-
that influence motor skill performance. To use the
example given at the end of the preceding section,
'For broader and more in-depth discussions of issues that are
ifwe know why people can adapt to a variety of sit-
relevant for a theory of motor control, see books devoted to
uations when they perform a motor skill, we can motor control issues, e.g., Kelso (1995), Rosenbaum (1991),
use this knowledge to develop practice conditions and Rothwell (1995).
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 53

Predict effectiveness of Develop systematic

intervention strategies approach to help person
increase skill performance
capabilities

Develop intervention Create new

strategies to help overcome intervention
performance problems strategies

Identify Evaluate effectiveness of

performance intervention strategies
problems

Enables practitioner

Motor skill performance

constraints, limits, potential, deficits, etc.

Understand
and
explain

Theory of motor control

FIGURE 4.1 Motor control theory provides a foundation on which practitioners can base many tasks and responsibilities.

trol process (for an example of a neural model of plished. It is this organizational feature that is at
motor control, see Bullock & Grossberg, 1991 ). An the heart of the definition of the term coordination.
important goal of behaviorally based motor control For the purposes of this textbook, we will use a de-
theories is to propose laws and principles that gov- finition based on one provided by Turvey (1990):
ern coordinated human motor behavior. A neural- coordination is the patterning of head, body, and
would be expected to describe neural
level theory limb movements relative to the patterning of envi-
mechanisms or neural mechanism interactions that ronmental objects and events.
explain how the nervous system is involved in these
behavioral principles (e.g., see Willingham, 1998).

Coordination coordination the patterning of body and limb

The performance of a motor skill involves a per- motions relative to the patterning of environmental
son's organization of the activation of muscles in objects and events.
such a way that the goal of an action can be accom-
54 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

180

n Prepractice
Postpractice

160 200 240

Extension Hip Flexion

FIGURE 4.2 Angle-angle diagram from an experiment by Anderson

and Sidaway showing coordination changes resulting from practice for
the hip and knee relationship while performing a soccer kick. [Reprinted

with permission from Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 65, pp. 93-99,

Copyright © 1994 American Association for Health, Physical Education. Recreation,

and Dance. 1900 Association Drive, Reston. VA 20191]

This definition contains two parts. Each is im- consider motor skill coordination in relation to the
portant to consider further. First, note that the defin- context in which the skill is performed. The char-
ition specifies that coordination involves patterns of acteristics of the environmental context constrain
head, body, and/or limb movements. Although a the head, body, and limbs to act in certain ways so
common use of the term coordination relates it to a that the goal of the action can be achieved.
characteristic of skilled performance, it should not For example, to walk along a pathway, people
be limited to this use. When used in reference to a must adapt their head, body, and limb movement
movement pattern associated with the performance patterns to the characteristics of the pathway. If, for
of a skill, coordination refers to the organizational example, a person is walking on a sidewalk and en-
characteristics of the head, body, and limb move- counters a tree branch lying across it, he or she
ments involved in the performance, regardless of the must use a new pattern of movement in order to
skill level when
of the performer. This means that step over the branch. The characteristics of the tree
we consider the assessment of movement character- branch will dictate the characteristics of the move-
istics of the performance of a skill, it is necessary to ment pattern. If it is small, the person may need to
consider coordination as referring to the relation- take only a large step, whereas if it is a large
ship among the head, body, and/or limbs at a spe- branch, he or she may have to climb over it.

cific point in time during the skill performance.

A common way to portray movement patterns The Degrees of Freedom Problem
is to represent graphically the relationship between Because coordination involves head, body, and
the displacement patterns of limbs as they move limb movement patterns, an important question in
while performing the skill. An example of this type the study of motor control is this: How does the
of representation can be seen in figure 4.2, where nervous system control the many muscles and
the coordination of the knee-hip joint angles dur- joints involved in producing a given pattern? To an-
ing a soccer kick is shown. swer this question, we must consider an important
The second part of the definition states that the problem that was first posed by Nicolai Bernstein,
pattern of head, limb, and body motion is relative a noted Russian physiologist whose work, pro-
to the pattern of environmental objects and events. duced from the 1930s become
to the 1950s, did not
This is important because it establishes the need to known to the Western world until 1967. His work
CHAPTER 4 • MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 55

A CLOSER LOOK
Looking at the Degrees of Freedom Problem at the Level of Muscles and Joints

We know that there are 792 muscles in the human joints like the elbow, there would be one hundred me-
body that can act to make the one hundred joints be- chanical degrees of freedom to be controlled at the
have in different ways. And each joint has mechani- joint level. But if two specific characteristics, such as

cal characteristics that define its degrees of freedom position and velocity, needed to be defined for these
for movement. On the basis of these features. Turvey joints to carry out a specific act. the degrees of free-
( 1990) put the coordination control problem into per- dom would increase to two hundred.
spective this way. If all the joints were only hinge

continues to influence research and theory related of freedom control problem similar to that involv-
to motor control. Bernstein proposed that to per- ing the helicopter.The determination of the ac-
form a well-coordinated movement, the nervous tual number of degrees of freedom that must be
system had to solve what he termed the "degrees controlled in coordinated human movement de-
of freedom problem." pends on which level of control we are consider-
The degrees of freedom of any system reflect ing. At a very basic level, we might consider
the number of independent elements or compo- motor units as the elements that must be con-
nents of the system. The degrees of freedom prob- trolled. At another level, we could consider mus-

lem arises when complex system needs to be

a cles as the element of interest. Regardless of the
organized to produce a specific result. The control control level considered, it becomes evident that
problem is as follows: How can an effective yet ef- for any motor skill, the control problem involved
ficient control system be designed so that a com- in enabling a person to perform that skill is an
plex system, having many degrees of freedom, is enormous one. However, as you will see in chap-
constrained to act in a particular way? ter 11, when a person practices a skill and pro-
Consider the following example of the degrees gresses from being a beginner to being a skilled
of freedom control problem in a mechanical sys- performer, the motor control system solves the
tem. A helicopter is designed so that it can fly up or degrees of freedom problem in ways that are evi-
down, to the left or the right, forward or backward, dent from the changes we can observe in specific

and so on, and at a variety of speeds. The helicopter coordination characteristics.

designer must enable the pilot to control many dif-
ferent features so that the helicopter can do all these
things. And the designer must help the pilot do so
as simply as possible. If the pilot had to control one
switch or lever for each component needed to make degrees of freedom the number of independent
the helicopter fly a certain way, the pilot's job elements or components in a control system and the
would be overwhelming. Therefore, the designer number of ways each component can act.

reduces the complexity of the task by providing

degrees of freedom problem a control problem
control sticks and pedals that the pilot can control
that occurs in the designing of a complex system
simultaneously with his or her hands and feet. Each that must produce a specific result; the design prob-
stick or pedal controls several functions at once. lem involves determining how to constrain the
When the nervous system must control the system's many degrees of freedom so that it can
human body so that it performs a complex motor produce the specific result.

skill, such as hitting a baseball, it faces a degrees

56 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Bernstein's Demonstration of the Degrees of Freedom Problem

Nicolai Bernstein's classic book The Co-ordination held in the subject's left and right hands. Instruct the

and Regulation of Movement (published in English in subject ... to stand before a vertical board on which

1967) was a compilation of several of his publica- a large circle, square or other simple figure has been

tions. In the chapter titled "Some emergent problems drawn, and to try, manipulating the ski-stick only by

in the regulation of motor acts" (originally published pulling on the rubber tubing, to follow the contours

in Russian in 1957), Bernstein discussed the degrees of the figure with the point of the ski-stick. The

of freedom problem that the motor control system stick here represents one segment of an extremity

must overcome in order to produce well-coordinated with two degrees of freedom; the tubing is analo-

movement. In this discussion (pp. 1 26f ), he provided gous to two antagonistic muscles introducing a

the following example to demonstrate the problem further two degrees of freedom into the system. This

(which he said was "very useful for demonstrations experiment . . . makes clear to all who attempt it just

in auditoriums"). how difficult and complicated it is to control sys-

tems which require the co-ordination of four de-

Fasten the handle end of a ski-stick in front of the grees of freedom, even when under the control of a

buckle of a subject's belt. Attach a weight of 1-2 kg human being in full possession of his full comple-
to the far end and on the right and left sides of the ment of receptors, but without motor practice with

wheel [at the end of the stick] attach a length of the task, who has been dealing with his bone-muscle

rubber tubing long enough to allow the ends to be motor apparatus from the first weeks of his life.

OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP Both control systems also contain movement in-
CONTROL SYSTEMS come from the control center and go
structions that
to the effectors.
Most theories of motor control incorporate two
two systems, called
basic systems of control. These
open-loop and closed-loop control systems, are Differences between the Systems
based on mechanical engineering models of con- These systems differ in two ways. First, a closed-
trol. Rather than provide exact descriptions of the loop control system involves feedback, whereas an
control processes in complex human movement, open-loop system does not. In human movement,
these two models are basic descriptions of differ- the feedback is afferent information sent by the var-
ent ways the central and peripheral nervous sys- ious sensory receptors to the control center. The
tems and control action. These models
initiate purpose of this feedback is to update the control
serve as useful guides that illustrate some of the center about the correctness of the movement while
basic components involved in that process. it is in progress.
Figure 4.3 presents diagrams illustrating simple In terms of the involvement of feedback in
open-loop and closed-loop control systems. These human movement control, figure 4.3 is somewhat
are the typical diagrams you would see in any gen- misleading. The diagram indicates that the "effec-
eral presentation of these types of control systems. tors" that enable the head, body, to move and limbs
Notice that each of these systems has a control cen- complex
are the only source of feedback. But in
ter. The control center is sometimes referred to as human movement, feedback can come also from
an executive. An important part of its role is to gen- several other sources, such as visual and auditory
erate and issue movement instructions to the effec- receptors.
tors, which, in the human, are the muscles and The second important difference between open-
joints involved in producing the desired movement. and closed-loop control systems relates to the
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 57

Open-loop
control system

Movement instructions

Movement
effectors

Closed-loop
control system

Movement instructions

Movement Movement
control effectors
center

Feedback
FIGURE 4.3 Diagrams illustrating the open-loop and closed-loop control systems
for movement control.

movement instructions issued by the control center. TWO THEORIES OF MOTOR

In the open-loop system, because feedback is not CONTROL
used in the control of the ongoing movement, the
We can classify theories of how the nervous sys-
instructions contain all the information necessary
tem controls coordinated movement in terms
for the effectors to carry out the planned movement.
of the relative importance given to movement
Although feedback is produced and available, it is

not used to control the ongoing movement. This

may be so because feedback is not needed, or be-
cause there is not enough time to use feedback to open-loop control system a control system in
which all the information needed to initiate and
effectively control the movement after it is initiated.
carry out an action as planned is contained in the
In the closed-loop system, the movement instruc-
initial instructions to the effectors.
tions are quite different. First, the control center is-

sues an initial instruction to the effectors that is closed-loop control system a system of control
movement. The actual
sufficient only to initiate the in which during the course of an action, feedback is

execution and completion of the movement depend compared against a standard or reference to enable

on feedback information that reaches the control an action to be carried out as planned.

center. The feedback provides information about

feedback information from the sensory system
the status of the movement, which serves to enable that indicates the status of a movement to the central
the control center to do one of several things: allow nervous system; in a closed-loop control system,
the movement to continue as initially instructed, feedback is used to make corrections to an ongoing
provide additional instructions to continue the movement.
movement in progress, or correct a movement error.
58 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Mechanical and Human Motor Skill Examples of Open-Loop
and Closed-Loop Control Systems

Open-Loop Control Closed-Loop Control

Mechanical Example Mechanical Example
• Videocassette recorder. It can operate as an open- • Thermostat in a house. It controls the air-
loop control system by being programmed to tape conditioning and heating systems in a house. The
television programs on specified dates and at spec- desired room temperature is set on the thermostat.
ified times. The VCR will turn on and off at the This setting becomes a reference against which
specified times. (Note that it will turn off at the actual room temperatures are compared. The room
specified time even if the program being taped temperature serves as the feedback to the thermo-
continues past that time.) stat to indicate when to turn the air-conditioning or

heating system on or off.

Human Motor Skill Example
• Throwing a dart at a dartboard. When the per- Human Motor Skill Example
son initiates the throw, the arm movement and dart • Driving a car. When a person drives a car on a street

release occur as specified by movement instruc- or highway, he or she must keep the car within a
tions developed before the initiation of the arm specified lane. To do this the driver uses visual and
movement. proprioceptive feedback to control the steering
wheel to make the needed adjustments to keep the
car from going outside the lane boundaries.

instructions specified by central components of the He proposed that a serious problem with previous
control system and by the environment. Theories views was that they limited the motor program to
that give prominence to instructions specified by specific movements or sequences of movements.
the central nervous system in the control process To overcome this limitation, Schmidt hypothe-
have in common some form of memory represen- sized the generalized motor program as a mech-
tation, such as a motor program, that provides the anism that could account for the adaptive and
basis for organizing, initiating, and carrying out flexible qualities of human coordinated-movement
intended actions. In contrast, other theories give behavior.
more influence to movement instructions specified
by the environment and to the dynamic interaction Schmidt's generalized motor program. Schmidt
of this information with the body, limbs, and ner- proposed that a generalized motor program con-
vous system. trols a class of actions, rather than a specific move-

ment or sequence. He defined a class of actions as

Motor Program-Based Theory a set of different actions having a common but
At the heart of central control-oriented theories is unique set of features. For Schmidt, these features,
the motor program, a memory-based construct which he called invariant features, are the "signa-
that controls coordinated movement. Various theo- ture" of a generalized motor program, and form the
retical viewpoints attribute different degrees of basis of what is stored in memory. These move-
control to the motor program. Undoubtedly, the ment-related features remain consistent from one
view that best characterizes present-day thinking performance of an action to another. In order for a
about the motor program comes from the work of person to produce a specific action to meet the de-
Richard Schmidt (1988; Schmidt Lee, 1999). & mands of a performance situation, the person must
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 59

A CLOSER LOOK
The Evolution of the Motor Program Concept

• Early Greek philosophers such as Plato talked Franklin Henry (Henry & Rogers, 1960) gave the
about a persons creation of an "image" of an act motor program concept a needed conceptual and
preceding the action itself. empirical boost. He hypothesized that the "neural
• William James ( 1 890) alluded to Plato when he pattern for a specific and well-coordinated motor
stated that to perform an action, a person must first act is controlled by a stored program that is used to
form a clear "image" of that action. direct the neuromotor details of its performance"
• Karl Lashley ( 1 9 7) 1 is regarded as the first person (p. 449). Henry's concept of the motor program
to use the actual term motor program. He initially was computer program. He proposed
also that of a
viewed motor programs as "intention[s] to act," thatwhen initiated, the program controls the
but later described them as "generalized schemata exact movement details, with essentially no
of action which determine the sequence of specific modifications possible during the execution of
acts" (Lashley, 1951, p. 122). He proposed that the movement.
these schemata were organized to provide central Stephen Keele (1968) offered a view similar to

control of movement patterns. Henry's by defining the motor program as "a set
• Sir Frederick Bartlett (1932) implied that a motor of muscle commands that are structured before a

program exists when he used the term schema to movement sequence begins, and that allow ... the
describe internal representations and organizations entire sequence to be carried out uninfluenced by
of movements. peripheral feedback" (p. 387).
• Miller, Gahtnter, and Pribram (1960) proposed the Richard Schmidt (1975) proposed that the motor
notion of a "Plan," which was "essentially the program is not specific muscle commands, but is

same as a program for a computer" (p. 16), and an abstract memory-based representation of a class
was responsible for controlling the sequence of of actions, with each class defined by invariant
events of an action. features.

retrieve the appropriate program from memory and

then add movement-specific parameters. These
motor program a memory representation that
stores information needed to perform an action.
are movement-related features of the performances
of an action that can be varied from one perfor- generalized motor program the general memory
mance to another. representation of a class of actions that share com-
Rather than use a computer analogy, Schmidt mon invariant characteristics; it provides the basis

proposed a phonograph record analogy to describe for controlling a specific action within the class of
actions.
the characteristics of the generalized motor pro-
gram. The invariant features of a record specify the invariant features a unique set of characteristics
rhythm and the dynamics (force) of the music. The that defines a generalized motor program and does
parameters include the adjustable speed and vol- not vary from one performance of the action to an-
ume controls. Even if a record is played faster than other.

normal or louder than normal, the rhythmic and dy-

parameters features of the generalized motor
namic structure of the music remains intact.
program that can be varied from one performance
of a skill to another: the features of a skill that must
Invariant features and parameters. Although be added to the invariant features of a generalized
many possible characteristics could be invariant motor program before a person can perform a skill

features of the generalized motor program, three to meet the specific demands of a situation.
are most commonly proposed. These include the
60 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

a. Normal speed (10 sec)

30% 20% 40% 10%

b. Faster (5 sec

30% 20% 40% 10%

c. Slower (15 sec)

30% 20% 40% 10%

Time scale (sec)

1 2 10 11 12 13 14 15
I I l_ I I

FIGURE 4.4 An illustration of invariant relative time for a hypothetical four-component motor skill when it is performed normally
at a 10-sec duration (a), speeded up to a 5-sec duration (b). and slowed down to a 15-sec duration (c).

relative time (which is analagous to rhythm) of the takes up 30 percent of the total performance time;
components of the skill; the relative force used in component 2, 20 percent; component 3, 40 percent;
performing the and the order, or sequence, of
skill; and component 4, 10 percent. If the performance
the components. The term relative in relative time of this skill under typical conditions has an overall
and relative force indicates that what is invariant duration of 10 sec [represented in part (a) of the
are the percentages, or proportions, of overall force figure], then regardless of how much you speed up
and timing of the components of a skill. or slow down this overall duration, the actual
Figure 4.4 presents an illustration of how to in- amount of time characteristic of each component
terpret the concept of invariant relative time. Sup- changes proportionately. In figure 4.4, parts (b) and
pose you move your arm as quickly as possible to (c) represent this proportional component change
hit four switches in sequence. Now, suppose that for speeding up the skill [part (b)] and slowing it

components of this task yield the follow-

the four down [part (c)]. Thus, if you typically perform this
ing movement time proportions: component 1 skill in 10 sec, then the amount of time you spend
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 61

A CLOSER LOOK
Defining the Motor Program: A Memory Representation
versus a Plan of Action Prepared Just Prior to Moving

A problem that has arisen over the years has led to characteristics of a movement or action are stored in
difficulties in understanding what the motor program memory as a part of the motor program. We use the
is and how it functions. This problem is that the term term this way in the present chapter.

motor program has been used to describe different The other use of the term motor program refers to

functional constructs. In some discussions, the motor what is constructed or prepared just prior to move-
program refers to the memory representation of a ment initiation, but following an intention to act. This
movement or action. The generalized motor program use of the term, sometimes referred to as motor pro-
construct in Schmidt's schema theory is a good ex- gramming, is the focus of chapter 7, although we do
ample. The theoretical arguments about the memory- make some reference to this preparation aspect of
representation type of motor program focus on which motor program-based control in the present chapter.

performing each component is 3, 2, 4, and 1 sec re- The second example concerns muscles as para-
spectively. If you performed the skill twice as fast, meters. Research evidence shows that whether you
in 5 sec, then each component would change sign your name with a pen held in your preferred
proportionately to be 1.5, 1, 2, and 0.5 sec re- hand, in the opposite hand, between your toes, or
spectively. If you slowed down your overall per- with your teeth, the two signatures have distinct
formance time to 15 sec, then each component invariant spatial as well as relative time and force
would change to 4.5, 3, 6, and .5 sec respectively.
1 features (see Wright, 1990 for an excellent review
Although motor program theory proposes that the of this research). These results suggest that you
invariant features of a generalized motor program can change the muscles involved in writing your
are rather fixed from one performance of a skill to signature without altering the invariant features rep-
another, it also holds that there are other features, resented in the generalized motor program. Interest-
called parameters, that can be varied. Examples in- ingly, Rijntjes et al. (1999) provided neurological
clude the overall force, the overall duration, and the evidence for muscles as a movement parameter re-

muscles that must be used to perform the skill. lated to the signing of one's name by comparing
Skilled performers can easily change these from one brain regions activated by people signing their name
performance situation to another, readily adapting with the finger of the preferred hand and with the big
them to the specific requirements of each situation. toe. Additional evidence and examples of muscles as
The following two examples illustrate the rela- parameters will be discussed in chapter 12, when we
tionship between invariant features and parameters. consider the topic of bilateral transfer.
One relates to figure 4.4, which, as just discussed,
portrayed relative time as an invariant feature. This Schmidt's schema theory. A formalized theory of

figure also illustrates the parameter of overall du- how the generalized motor program operates
ration. The normal, faster, and slower speeds in the to control coordinated movement is Schmidt's
figure show that a person can change the overall
amount of time taken to move without altering the
relative time structure of the components of the relative time the proportion of the total amount
movement. This type of situation occurs, for exam- of time required by each of the various components
ple, when a person walks faster or slower than his of a skill during the performance of that skill.

or her typical speed.

62 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

schema theory (Schmidt, 1975, 1988). A schema open-loop control process. However, once the ac-
is a rule or set of rules that serves to provide the tion is initiated, feedback can influence its course
basis for a decision. It is developed by abstracting if there is sufficient time to process the feedback
important pieces of information from related expe- and alter the action.

riences and combining them into a type of rule. For

example, your concept of dog is the result of see- Testing the invariant relative-time feature. Re-
ing many different types of dogs and developing a searchers have attempted to provide empirical
set of rules that will allow you to identify correctly support for motor program-based control by inves-
as a "dog" an animal you have never seen before. tigating Schmidt's claim that a generalized motor
Schmidt used the schema concept to describe program controls a class of actions defined by spe-
two control components involved in the learning cific invariant features. Of the proposed invariant
and control of skills. Both are characterized as features, relative time has generated the most re-

based on abstract rules. The first is the generalized search interest. Support for the invariance of this
motor program, which, as just described, is the feature has come from many experiments investi-
control mechanism responsible for controlling the gating several different skills, such as typing, gait,

general characteristics of classes of actions, such handwriting, prehension, and sequences of key
as throwing, kicking, walking, and running. The presses, among others. (For reviews of this evi-
second component is the motor response schema, dence, see Heuer, 1991; Schmidt, 1985, 1988.)
which is responsible for providing the specific Researchers typically have investigated relative
rules governing an action in a given situation. Thus, time invariance by observing changes in relative
the motor response schema provides parameters to time across a range of values of an associated para-
the generalized motor program. meter, such as overall duration or speed. The most
The schema theory provides an explanation for commonly cited research example in this regard is

how well a person can adapt to new situations or a study by Shapiro, Zernicke, Gregor, and Diestel
environmental contexts. People can successfully (1981 ) in which people walked and ran at different

perform a skill requiringmovements that have not speeds on a treadmill. The researchers were inter-
been made in that same way before. For example, ested in the percentages of the total step-cycle time
when you walk crowded mall or return a tennis
in a (i.e., relative time) that would characterize the four
serve, characteristics of the situation change in components, or phases, of the step cycle at each
ways that you have not previously experienced. It treadmill speed (i.e., the overall duration parame-
is possible to perform the skill successfully in these ter). Their hypothesis was that if relative time is in-

situations because the person can use the rules from variant for the generalized motor program involved
the motor response schema to generate appropriate in controlling walking and/or running gait patterns,
parameter characteristics; the person adds these to then the percentages for a specific gait component
the generalized motor program to perform the skill. should remain constant across the different speeds.
Schmidt's schema theory claims to solve the de- The results were consistent with the hypothesis
grees offreedom problem in movement coordina- of relative time invariance (see figure 4.5). As gait
tion through an executive control operation that sped up or slowed down (at least up to 6 km/hr and
organizes motor programs and schemas. An impor- beyond 8 km/hr), the percentage of time accounted
tant emphasis in this approach is the abstract, or for by each step-cycle component remained essen-
general, nature of what is stored in the control cen- tially the same for different speeds. The differences
ter. The generalized motor program and recall between the relative time characteristics of walk-
schema work together to provide the specific ing and running are especially notable in the pie
movement characteristics needed to initiate an ac- charts in the (b) section of figure 4.5. The pie charts
tion in a given situation. The action initiation is an show the relative time percentages for the average
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 63

a. 60 FIGURE 4.5 Results of

the experiment by Shapiro
et al. (a) The relative time

percentage of total step-cycle

50 time for each of" the four step-

cycle phases (Phillipson step
cycle) at different speeds
of walking and running.
o, 40 F = Flexion phase (from toe-
3
>. off to beginning of knee ex-
u
Q. tension); E. = Extension
a
phase l (from beginning of
5 30
knee extension to heelstrike):
o
c E-, = Extension phase 2 (from
i maximum knee-
u heelstrike to

angle flexion); E 3 = Exten-

Q- 20
sion phase 3 (from maximum
knee-angle flexion to toeoff).
[From Shapiro, D. C. et al. ( 1981).

10 Evidence for generalized motor

programs using gait pattern analy-

sis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 13,

Walking Running-
33-47. Copyright© 1981 Heldref
Publication, Inc. Washington, DC.
4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 Reprinted by permission.]

Speed of locomotion (km/hr)

Walking Running (b) The average (of the four

speeds) relative time percent-
ages of total step-cycle time
for each of the four step-
cycle phases for walking and
running.

of the walking speeds and the running speeds for Dynamic Pattern Theory
each of the four step-cycle phases. Because the rel- In sharp contrast to the motor program-based
ative time percentages differedbetween walking theory of motor control is an approach commonly
and running, the authors concluded that different
motor programs control walking and running gaits.
Within each gait pattern, the overall duration (i.e.,
schema a rule or set of rules that serves to provide
speed) parameter could be increased or slowed the basis for a decision; in Schmidt's schema theory, an
down while the relative timing among the compo- abstract representation of rules governing movement.
nents of the step cycle was maintained.
64 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

a.

Time
Abduction ,i:i:m:i:i:i:m:i:m:reci:i:i:i:trrri[[ii n 1 1 n
ffl M i ii i lM
i

f Adduction
(Out-of-phase) (In-phase)

Position of right index finger

Position of left index finger

Point estimate if relative phase

In-phase (360°)

Out-of-phase (180°)

0°

FIGURE 4.6 (a) shows the hand and finger placement for performing the finger movement
task used in the experiments by Kelso, (b) and (c) show fingertip movement position as a func-
tion of time, during which movement frequency increased, (b) shows fingertip positions for
both index fingers as they moved from being out of phase to in-phase. (c) shows the relation-
ship of the left index finger's peak extension to the right finger's peak extension as a different
way to portray the phase transition shown in (b). [Reprinted from Kelso J.A.S., & Schoner, G.
(1988). Self-organization of coordinati ve movement patterns. Human Movement Science. 7. 27-46, with
kind permission of Elsevier Science-NL, Sara Burgerharstraal 25, 1055 KV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.]

referred to as dynamic pattern theory (and some- biological or physical system. As a complex sys-
times referred to as dynamical systems theory, co- tem, human motor control is seen from the per-
ordination dynamics theory, ecological theory, spective of nonlinear dynamics; this means that
and action theory.) The basis for this theoretical behavioral changes over time do not follow a con-
viewpoint is a multidisciplinary perspective in- tinuous, linear progression, but make sudden
volving physics, biology, chemistry, and mathe- abrupt changes. For example, in the physical
matics. Proponents of this theory see human world, when the temperature of water is increased
movement control as a complex system that gradually, there is a specific temperature (100° C)
behaves in ways similar to those of any complex at which the water boils, its behavior abruptly
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 65

changes. This type of change represents a non- movements occurred. Thus, a linear increase in
linear behavior. movement speed led to a nonlinear change in the
Those who study dynamic pattern theory are fundamental pattern of movement.
particularly interested in how a system changes When viewed from the perspective of coordina-
over time from one stable state to another because tion patterns, these experiments established that
of the influence of a particular variable. In addi- distinct coordination patterns can spontaneously
tion, they are interested in identifying physical and develop as a function of a change in a specific vari-

mathematical laws that govern such behavior. able. In the case of the finger movement task used
Although this approach has been used to model in the Kelso experiments, the out-of-phase and in-

many complex systems in the physical world (see phase finger movement relationships are stable co-
Gleick, 1987). only since the 1980s has it captured ordination patterns. The importance of these
the attention of scientists interested in understand- experiments is that they provided an initial step in

ing and explaining human movement control. the investigation of coordination changes that can
occur without resorting to a mechanism such as a
Nonlinear changes in movement behavior. A motor program to account for the change.
series of experiments by Kelso and his colleagues Another example of spontaneous coordination
established for movement scientists that the sys- change that results from the systematic increase or
tematic change in the level of a variable can cause decrease of a variable is the change from walking
a nonlinear behavioral change in human coordi- to running coordination patterns that occur at spe-

nated movement (e.g., Kelso, 1984; Kelso & cific speeds. The experiment by Shapiro et al.

Scholz, 1985). The top panel in figure 4.6 illus- (1981), which was discussed in this chapter, was an
trates the type of task used in these experiments. early demonstration of this spontaneous gait pattern
Participants began moving their right and left index change. Since that experiment, the walk-to-run and,
fingers at a specified rate of speed so that they were conversely, the run-to-walk gait changes that occur
out of phase (sometimes referred to as antiphase).
This means that the muscle groups controlling the
'Although the transition in the experiment described in figure
right and left fingers were operating simultane-
4.6 shows a mixture of in-phase and out-of-phase movements,
ously but in opposite ways: when the right finger
not all transitions between two stable coordination states are mix-
was flexed, the left finger was extended. Quantita- tures of the two states. Transitions can take various forms (for
tively, the fingers were 180° out of phase with each detailed information about transition forms, see Kelso, 1995).

other throughout the movement cycle. The partici-

pants systematically increased the speed of their
finger movements by keeping their finger speed
dynamic pattern theory an approach to describ-
metronome controlled by
consistent with that of a
ing and explaining the control of coordinated move-
the experimenters. The result was that at a critical
ment that emphasizes the role of information in the
speed the finger movements spontaneously shifted environment and the dynamic properties of the body
to an in-phase coordination state, where both were and limbs; it is also known as the dynamic systems
flexed or extended at the same time (i.e., or 360° theory.
in phase with each other).
nonlinear behavior a behavior that changes in
The shift to the in-phase coordination state oc-
abrupt, nonlinear ways in response to systematic
curred during the transition between the stable out-
linear increases in the value of a specific variable
of-phase and in-phase states. As you can see in
(e.g., the change from smooth to turbulent water
figure 4.6, the transition was a mixture of both out- flow in a tube at a specific increase in water velocity;
of-phase and in-phase finger movements. 1
But at the change from a walking to a running gait at a spe-
slower speeds, only out-of-phase movements oc- cific increase in gait velocity).
curred, whereas at faster speeds, only in-phase
66 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Two Views about the Source of Relative Time Invariance

Relative time invariance is a common component of both the generalized motor program and dynamic pattern
views of motor control. However, one of the important differences between these views is the source of the
invariance.

• The generalized motor program view emphasizes ance. Although different with respect to some spe-
that relative time, as an invariant feature of the cific characteristics, temporal pattern is an analo-
generalized motor program, is included in the gous concept to relative time invariance. More
movement commands sent to the musculature. important, the invariance seen in relative time for
Because of this, the resulting action is obliged to many actions is the result of the person interacting
perform according to this time constraint. Relative with characteristics of the task and/or environ-
time invariance across variations of a parameter is ment, or the mechanical dynamics involved in the

an indicator of a class of movements that are con- body and limb movements. Relative time invari-

trolled by the same generalized motor program. ance across variations of a control parameter is an
• The dynamic pattern view prefers to use the term indicator of coordination pattern stability.
"temporal pattern" rather than relative time invari-

as a function of speed have been demonstrated nu- continued until finger speed reached a point at
merous times, and have become the basis for an in- which a new stable state spontaneously occurred.
creasing amount of research (e.g., Diedrich & The stable behavioral steady states of systems
Warren, 1995, 1998; Wagenaar & van Emmerik, are known as attractors (or attractor states). In
1994). terms of human coordinated movement, attractors
are preferred behavioral states, such as the in-
Stability and Attractors phase and out-of-phase states for rhythmic finger
At the heart of the dynamic pattern view is the con- movements described in the Kelso experiment.
cept of stability. In dynamic terms, stability refers Attractors represent stable regions of operation
to the behavioral steady state of a system. It is around which behavior typically occurs when
important to note that this use of this term is differ- a system is allowed to operate in its preferred
ent from the concept of invariance. As used here, manner.
stability incorporates the notion of variability by For example, when people locomote at a speed
noting that when a system is slightly perturbed, it of 3 mi/hr (i.e., 4.8 km/hr), the arms and legs are
will return spontaneously to a stable state. "attracted to" a coordination relationship that pro-
By observing characteristics of a stable state, duces a walking gait. This gait pattern represents
scientists can gain understanding of the variables the preferred behavioral state for engaging in a lo-
that influence a system to behave as it does. For ex- comotion action. But when people locomote at a
ample, in the reciprocal rhythmic finger move- speed of 10 mi/hr (-16 km/hr), the walking gait is
ments in the Kelso experiment just described, the not the preferred locomotion state. At this speed,
researchers observed behavioral stability when the most people run, which, as you saw in figure 4.5,
fingers were in out-of-phase and in-phase relation- involves a coordination pattern that is different
ships with each other. These two stable states indi- from a walking gait pattern.
cate two coordinated movement patterns. Between Finally, attractor states are not only stable states
these states, as finger speed increased, a phase characterized by minimal behavioral variability,
transition occurred during which instability char- but also optimally energy-efficient states. This
acterized the behavioral patterns. The instability means that when a person is moving at a preferred
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 67

rate or using a preferred coordination pattern, that gers are at the same abduction position. The oppo-
person uses less energy than he or she would if site holds for the out-of-phase pattern. At any
moving at a nonpreferred rate. point, the one finger is abducting the same amount
as the other is adducting, which means the two fin-
Order and Control Parameters gers have a relative phase of 1 Another way to
80°.

Proponents of the dynamic pattern view place a pri- consider this relationship is from the perspective of
ority on developing formal nonlinear equations of the amount of simultaneous adduction and/or ab-
motion that specify the stability and loss of stabil- duction movement. When moving in-phase with
ity of performance in addition to changes that each other, both fingers abduct or adduct the same
result from learning and development. To develop amount at the same time; when moving out of
these equations, scientists must identify the vari- phase with each other, both fingers move the same
ables responsible for and associated with coordina- amount simultaneously, but one is adducting while
tion. Primary among these variables are order the other is abducting.
parameters (sometimes the term collective vari- The control parameter represents the variable
ables is used). These are functionally specific and that when increased or decreased will influence the

abstract variables that define the overall behavior stability and character of the order parameter. For
of a system. The order parameters enable a coordi- example, in the Kelso experiment, movement fre-

nated pattern of movement that can be reproduced quency (i.e., speed) was the control parameter. As
and distinguished from other patterns.
Because order parameters define a movement
pattern,it is essential to identify specific types. The
stability a behavioral steady state of a system that
most prominent of the order parameters identified represents a preferred behavioral state and incor-
by researchers is relative phase for rhythmic move- porates the notion of invariance by noting that a sta-
ments. Relative phase refers to a quantified value ble system will spontaneously return to a stable state

that represents the movement relationship between after it is slightly perturbed.

two movement segments. For example, the bottom

attractors the stable behavioral steady states of
panel (c) of figure 4.6 illustrates that for the rhyth-
systems. In terms of human coordinated movement,
mic finger movement task in the Kelso (1984) attractors characterize preferred behavioral states,
experiment, the relative phase for the in-phase such as the in-phase and out-of-phase states for
movement relationship was 360° (which is the rhythmic bimanual finger movements.
same as 0°); the relative phase for the out-of-phase
order parameters functionally specific variables
movement relationship was 180°. These two rela-
that define the overall behavior of a system; they
tive phases were determined by establishing that
enable a coordinated pattern of movement to be
the maximum adduction of a finger had a phase
reproduced and distinguished from other patterns
value of 360° (i.e., 0°), and the maximum abduc- (e.g., relative phase); known also as collective
tion had a phase value of 180°. On the basis of a variables.
common starting point, the relative phase was then
calculated as the difference between the phase val-
control parameters coordinated movement con-
trol variables (e.g., tempo, or speed, and force) that
ues of the two fingers at any point during the move-
freely change according to the characteristics of an
ment. For the in-phase movement, both fingers had
action situation. According to the dynamic pattern
a common starting point of maximum adduction
view of motor control when a control parameter is
(i.e., 360°). The fingers then moved together to a systematically varied (e.g., speed is increased from
maximum abduction position (180°), and then re- slow to fast), an order parameter may remain stable
turned to the initial maximum adduction position. or change its stable state characteristic at a certain
At any time during the fingers' movement, they had level of change of the control parameter.
a relative phase of 360°, indicating that both fin-
68 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

the movement frequency was systematically self-organization exist within the physical world
increased by the metronome, the phase relation- that illustrate applications of this concept to the
ship between the two fingers underwent distinct human movement domain. For example, there is no
changes. You can see in figure 4.6 in both panels hurricane program in the universe, but hurricanes
(b) and (c) that the in-phase relationship was main- commonly occur. However, they occur only when
tained through several frequencies, but then began certain wind and water temperature conditions
to destabilize as frequency continued to increase. exist. When these variables achieve certain charac-
Notice in the figure that neither an in-phase nor an teristics, a hurricane will self-organize in an identi-
out-of-phase relationship was detectable during a fiable pattern that distinguishes it from a tropical
period of increasing frequencies, which is known depression, or any other weather system.
as a phase transition. However, as the frequency When applied to human movement coordina-
continued to increase, there was a critical fre- tion, the concept of self-organization means that
quency at which the new out-of-phase relationship when certain conditions characterize a situation, a
emerged and became stable. From an experimental specific pattern of limb movement emerges. Thus,
point of view, the control parameter is important to rather than being specified by a motor program, the
identify because it becomes the variable to manip- coordinated pattern of movement self-organizes
ulate in order to assess the stability of the order pa- within the framework of the characteristics of en-
rameter, which in turn provides the basis for vironmental conditions and limb dynamics. For ex-
determining attractor states for patterns of limb ample, in the bimanual finger-movement task
movement. performed in the Kelso experiments, the in-phase
From an applied perspective, the control para- coordination pattern self-organized as a function of
meter can be the basis for assessing the stability of the movement speed (i.e., the control parameter).
a coordination pattern, and may provide insights This same type of self-organization is seen for the
into a person's coordination characteristics that walk-to-run, or run-to-walk, gait transitions that
might not otherwise be observed. This application occur as gait speed increases or decreases.
can be especially useful in rehabilitation settings.

For example, van Emmerik and Wagenaar (1996) Coordinative Structures

demonstrated that Parkinson's disease patients had Another important aspect of the dynamic pattern
more difficulty than healthy age-matched control view relates to the unit of behavior that is con-
participants in adapting a specific coordination pat- trolled. Proponents of the view assert that skilled
tern while walking to gradually increasing speeds action results when a person's nervous system con-
(i.e., the control parameter) on a treadmill. In this strains functionally specific synergies of muscles
study, the relative phase (i.e., the order parameter) and joints to act cooperatively, so that the person
of interest was based on the relationship between can carry out an action according to the dictates of
the arm and swings while walking. The
leg re- the situation. An individual may develop these
searchers concluded from their results that the as- functional synergies, called coordinative struc-
sessment of the stability of the phase relationship tures, through practice or experience, or they may
for the arm and leg swings at various walking exist naturally.
speeds provides a sensitive technique to diagnose An example of a coordinative structure is the
and detect early stages of Parkinson's disease. muscles and joints (the degrees of freedom to be
controlled) involved in the action of reaching and
Self-organization. An important element of the grasping an object. The individual groups of mus-
dynamic pattern perspective is the concept of self- clesand joints that must act together to enable a
organization. This means that when certain condi- person to successfully reach and grasp an object
tions characterize a situation, a specific stable are "converted" through practice into a task-
pattern of behavior emerges. Many examples of specific ensemble. The action occurs when a per-
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 69

son has the intention to reach and grasp a cup and action and achieve a successful serve. Similarly, if

the environmental conditions specify that this ac- a person is jogging on a sidewalk and must step
tion should occur. Then, in accordance with the over a curb, the jogger can quickly and easily ad-
characteristics of the limb and of the environmen- just movement characteristics of his or her gait pat-
tal constraints, the coordinative structure self-orga- tern to avoid tripping while maintaining the
nizes to carry out the action. jogging coordination pattern.
Coordinative structures can be intrinsic or de-
veloped through practice. Intrinsic coordinative Perception and action coupling. Proponents of the
structures are involved in actions such as walking, dynamic pattern view emphasize the interaction of
running, and bimanual coordination. When we per- the performer and the physical environment in
form these actions, the muscles and joints of the which the skill is performed. From a motor control
limbs involved have a natural tendency to demon- perspective, this interaction involves perception
strate interlimb coordination patterns that have and movement variables that must be taken into ac-
characterized our performance of them since early count in any attempt to explain the mechanisms in-

in life. For example, when performing a skill in- volved in the control of open motor skills, which,
volving bimanual coordination, which requires the as discussed in chapter 1, involve a person or ob-
simultaneous use of both arms and hands, both in- ject in motion. The dynamic pattern theory pro-
fants (e.g.. Corbetta & Thelen, 1996) and adults poses that this interaction, which is referred to as
(e.g., Kelso, Southard, & Goodman, 1979) typi- perception-action coupling, is an essential ele-
cally demonstrate a similar natural tendency to ment in accounting for skillful performance of
move the arms and hands in synchrony, i.e., simul- open skills. The perception part of the interaction
taneously both spatially and temporally. This detects and uses critical invariant information in
means that when people first learn to perform a ten- the environment (e.g., the amount of time until the

nis serve, which requires each arm to simultane- object contacts the person, or vice versa); the ac-
ously move in different ways, their initial tendency tion part involves the setting and regulating of
is to move their arms in the same way at the same movement control features that enable the person
time. In contrast, coordinative structures developed
through practice become new combinations of
muscles and joints that act together to produce a co- self-organization the emergence of a specific
ordination pattern that will allow the achievement stable pattern of behavior due to certain conditions
of an action goal. The tennis serve just described is characterizing a situation rather than to a specific
a good example of the development of a new coor- control mechanism organizing the behavior; e.g.. in

dinative structure as a result of extensive practice. the physical world hurricanes self-organize when
For the learning of certain skills, the intrinsic certain wind and water temperature conditions exist.

coordinative structures can lead to initial perfor- coordinative structures functionally specific
mance difficulties, as in the case of learning a ten- collectives of muscles and joints that are constrained
nis serve. However, after overcoming these initial by the nervous system to act cooperatively to pro-
difficulties, the person's performance of the skill duce an action.
will benefit from the newly developed coordinative
perception-action coupling the interaction be-
structure, because it will allow him or her to
tween perceptual and movement variables that re-
achieve an action goal even though some slight per-
sults in specific movement dynamics of an action in
turbation occurs during the action. For example, if
accordance with specific characteristics of the per-
a tennis player is serving, and during the serve a ceptual variable (e.g., the specific kinematic charac-
gust of wind makes from its in-
the ball deviate teristics of a reach-and-grasp action associated with
tended path, the player can quickly and easily ad- specific object characteristics).

just the movements involved in his or her serving

70 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Evidence for Relative Time in Brain Activity and Coordinated Movement

In an excellent discussion comparing and contrasting to a signal that specified movement speed, which was
the motor programming and dynamic pattern views systematically increased (see figure 4.6).
of motor control, Kelso (1997) addressed various is-
• At low speeds, relative time remained stable (i.e.,
sues related to relative time, which is a key variable
invariant) across a range of speeds for both in- and
common to both views. One of the issues that motor
out-of-phase coordination patterns.
control researchers have struggled with over the years
• Spontaneous transitions from out-of-phase to in-
is determining the relationship between brain activity
phase coordination patterns occurred (i.e., a new
and observable performance characteristics associ-
coordination pattern self-organized) at a critical
ated with movement. A possible breakthrough in this
movement speed.
struggle appears possible through the use of func-
tional brain imaging technology, which enables re- The results indicated that for relative time, the brain

searchers to observe brain activity while a person produced essentially the same pattern of activity as
engages in performing a motor skill. was observed at the movement level during the per-

Below are two key findings from research by formance of a motor skill. Kelso stated that an impor-
Kelso and his colleagues in which they used this tech- tant implication of these results for the motor control
nology to investigate the issue of relative time. In theory controversy is dynamic pattern view
that the

these experiments, participants performed bimanual predicts these results, whereas the motor program-
coordination skills to produce either in-phase or out- ming view does not.

of-phase (antiphase) movement coordination patterns

to achieve the action goal (e.g., kinematic and ki- obstacles in a person's pathway, stairs, and door
netic components of movements). 2 openings specify size-related information that a
An example of a perceptual variable involved in person perceives in terms of an invariant relation-
this type of coupling process is known by the ship between an object's size and her or his own
Greek letter tau (x), which is related to the time-to- leg length (in the case of obstacles and stairs) or
contact between an object and a person's eye. (We body size (in the case of door openings). Thus the
will discuss tau further in chapters 5 and 6.) Re- person will step or climb over the obstacle on the
searchers have demonstrated that tau guides ac- basis of this perceived relationship, choose one of
tions such as steering a car, catching a ball, hitting various stair-climbing options, and walk through a
a ball,jumping from a platform, and performing doorway sideways or face-forward depending on
the long jump. As a person gains experience, the this perceived relationship between the environ-
perceptual variable couples with the dynamics of mental feature and his or her own body size-related
movement so that a distinct coordination pattern feature.
can be reproduced as needed.
Some additional examples of perception-action
coupling include the coordination pattern people
THE PRESENT STATE OF THE
use to get on or over an obstacle, climb stairs, and
CONTROL THEORY ISSUE
go through a doorway. Researchers have found that The motor program-based theory and the dynamic
pattern theory are the predominant behavioral the-

-
For .ni excellent discussion of perception-action coupling and ories currently addressing how the nervous system
its application to sport skill performance, see Buekers. Mon- produces coordinated movement. Debate and re-
tagnc. & Laurent, 1999 search continue as scientists attempt to answer this
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 71

A CLOSER LOOK
Walk-to-Run Gait Changes: Interpretations According to Motor Program Theory
and Dynamic Pattern Theory

People spontaneously change from a walk to a run gait pattern at a certain speed of locomotion. Although indi-
viduals vary in terms of the actual speed at which this change occurs, the shift appears to be common to all peo-
ple. The motor program and dynamic pattern theories differ in their explanations of why this coordination
change occurs.

Motor Program Theory The relative time struc- speeds, the walking pattern undergoes some change
ture of a coordination pattern distinguishes one as a running coordination pattern self-organizes

generalized motor program from another. Because and eventually becomes the stable attractor state

walking and running gaits are characterized by for gait at a certain speed.

different relative time structures, they are

Interpreting the Shapiro et al. (1981) Experiment
controlled by different generalized motor
Results (Figure 4.5)
programs. The walk-to-run gait pattern change
occurs at a certain speed because the person Motor program theory. Gait is controlled by one gen-
chooses to change from the program that controls eralized motor program when walking gait is ob-
walking to the program that controls running. served (3-6 km/hr) and by a different generalized
Dynamic Pattern Theory Interlimb and body motor program when the running gait is observed
coordination patterns self-organize as a function of (8-12 km/hr).
specific control parameter values and environmen-
tal conditions. For walking and running gait pat- Dynamic pattern theory. The walking and running
terns, speed is a critical control parameter. The gaits represent two attractor states that remain stable

walk-to-run gait transition involves a competition within the speed ranges of 3-6 km/hr and 10-12
between two attractors. At slow speeds, the pri- km/hr. But for gait speeds of 7-9 km/hr, the order
mary attractor state is a walking coordination pat- parameter becomes unstable during a transition pe-
tern. But as walking speed increases, there is a riod in which a new gait pattern (running) self-orga-

certain range of speeds at which this attractor state nizes and becomes stable for a certain range of
loses stability, which means that for this range of speeds.

important theory question. A benefit of the debate theories, which would lead to the development of a
between proponents of these theories is that criti- hybrid theory that incorporates the strengths of each
cal issues have become clarified and future direc- theory (e.g., see Abernethy & Sparrow, 1992; Wal-
tions more evident. We now
know, for example, ter, 1998). Some research evidence that suggests
that a theory of control cannot focus exclusively on the potential for some compromise was reported by
the movement information that is specified by the Amazeen (2002). In a series of experiments, she
central nervous system. Theorists also must take demonstrated that the application of specific as-
task and environmental characteristics into ac- pects of a dynamic pattern theory to the general-
count. As Newell (1986) rightly stated, the optimal ized motor program theory could account for
pattern of coordination is determined by the inter- performance characteristics associated with the ac-
action among constraints specified by the person, quisition of rhythmic bimanual coordination skills
the environment, and the task. that the generalized motor program theory alone
Opinions vary in terms of the resolution of the could not. However, she left open the possibility

motor control theory debate. For example, some re- that her results could be interpreted as support for
searchers foresee a compromise between the two only the dynamic pattern theory.
72 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Implications of the Dynamic Pattern View for Physical Rehabilitation

In 1996, the journal Human Movement Science published a special issue in which the articles addressed the rel-

evance of the dynamic pattern view of motor control to the field of physical rehabilitation. In the concluding ar-
ticle, van Wieringen highlighted the key implications from the articles. The following summarizes some of
those implications.

Movement problems observed in children with assess coordination problems for a child with cere-
movement disorders may be related to perceptual bral palsy who locomotes using a "bunny-hop" or
difficulties. Because of perception-action coupling, hopping pattern.)

deficiencies in detecting visual information can Coordination patterns observed in people with
limit movement capabilities. movement disorders may be optimal because of
Therapy treatments for movement problems the constraints imposed on the motor control sys-
should engage patients in the performance of ac- tem by the pathological condition. For example,
tions that are as realistic as possible. Because the typical gait pattern of a person with spastic
many actions occur as a function of environmental cerebral palsy may be the result of weak muscles
context characteristics that afford (i.e., allow) such that do not allow a "normal" gait pattern, which
actions, realistic task environments facilitate the would suggest that the observed cocontraction
improvement of movement capabilities. o\' muscles involved in the gait pattern is due to
Practitioners should assess movement problems a compensation for the weak muscles rather than
and capabilities for functional tasks across a range to the disease itself. In this case, rehabilitation

of personal, environmental, or task characteristics should be directed toward muscle strengthening

that may, at a critical value, elicit change in a per- rather than decreasing the level of the muscle
son's movement form. (See Scholz, 1990, for a cocontraction.
detailed discussion about using this approach to

Others argue that a hybrid theory is unlikely. For this point in time, that predominance has yet to be
example, Abernethy and Sparrow (1992) specu- established.
lated that a compromise theory would not emerge
because the two theories represent two vastly
different approaches to explaining the control of
SUMMARY
coordinated movement. They reasoned that be-
cause of this difference, the history of science
Motor control theory, like any theory, provides
would predict that one will eventually become the
predominant theory. Kelso (1997) expressed a sim-
an explanation for why observable phenomena
or behavior exist or behave as they do. It also
ilar view, but was more specific in his projections.
provides the practitioner with a base of support
He argued that because many aspects of the motor
on which to develop effective motor skill in-
program view can be subsumed within the dynamic
struction and practice environments.
pattern theory, especially those related to invariant
features and control parameters, and because the The term coordination refers to the patterning
dynamic pattern theory can explain and predict of head, body, and/or limb movements in rela-
more of the behavioral features of coordinated tion to the patterning of environmental objects
movement, the dynamic pattern theory will eventu- and events. When the term coordination is used
ally become the predominant theory. However, at in reference to the movement patterns associ-
CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CONTROL THEORIES 73

ated with the performance of a skill, it refers to • Motor program-based theories include a mem-
the relationship among head, body, and/or limbs ory-based construct known as the motor pro-
at a specific point in time during the skill gram that serves as the basis for controlling
performance. coordinated movement. 'Schmidt's schema the-
ory is the most popular representative of this
• For a person to learn to produce a well- type of theory. It proposes that a generalized
coordinated movement that achieves an in-
motor program serves as the central mechanism
tended action goal, the motor control system
for the control of motor skill performance. The
must solve the degrees of freedom problem, generalized motor program is an abstract repre-
which concerns constraining the many degrees sentation of a class of movements that is stored
of freedom that characterize the muscles, joints,
in memory and when an action involv-
retrieved
etc. A theory of motor control should provide an
ing that class of movements is to be performed.
explanation of how the motor control system
Stored in the generalized motor program are in-
solves this problem.
variant features of the movement class, such as
• Theories of motor control typically incorporate
the order of movement events and the relative
time and relative force of the movement compo-
features of open-loop and closed-loop control
systems. Both involve a control center, move-
nents. When a specific action is to be performed,

ment instructions, and effectors. The closed-

specific parameter values must be added to the
generalized motor program; these include the
loop system also includes feedback as part of
overall duration and overall force of the move-
the system. In an open-loop system, the control
center sends the effectors all the movement in-
ment as well as the muscles that will be used.
structions they need to perform a skill from be- • The dynamic pattern theory takes issue with the
ginning to end. In contrast, the control center in importance motor program theories give to
a closed-loop system sends movement instruc- memory-based representations for the control
tions to the effectors that enable them to initiate skills. The dynamic pattern theory pro -
of motor
the performance of a skill; feedback from the po ses that factors such as environmental invari-
effectors and other sources provides the control ants and limb dynamics can account for much
center with the information needed to give the of_the control ascribed to the motor prograrn .

effectors the instructions to continue and end the The theory views coordinated movement as fol-
movement. lowing rules associated with nonlinear d ynam -
ics. The theory incorporates dynamic features
• Motor control theories can be distinguished in
such as attractor states, which are preferred, sta-
terms of the relative importance given to the
ble patterns that define specific coordination
movement instructions specified by central
patterns; order parameters, such as relative
components of the control system or by the en-
phase, that functionally define attractor states;
vironment. Theories that give prominence to in-
and control parameters, such as speed or fre-
structions from the control center have in
quency, that influence the stability and instabil-
common some form of stored memory represen-
ity of attractor states. Coordinated movement
tation, such as a motor program, that provides
self-organizes as coordi native structures accord-
the movement instructions to the effectors.
ing to the characteristics of the interactions
In contrast, theories that give prominence to
among the person, the environment, and the
movement instructions specified by the environ-
skill to be performed.
ment emphasize the dynamic interaction of this
information with the body, limbs, and nervous • At present, there are strong proponents of both
system. the motor program and the dynamic pattern
74 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

theories of motor control. Opinions vary in STUDY QUESTIONS

terms of how the current theory debate will be
resolved. 1. Define the term coordination and describe how
a limb movement displacement graph can por-
tray a coordinated movement pattern.
RELATED READINGS
2. What is the degrees of freedom problem as it

relates to the study of human motor control?

Barton. S. (1994). Chaos, self-organization, and psychology.
American Psychologist, 49, 5-14.
3. Describe the similarities and the differences be-
Bongaardt. R., & Meijer, O. G. (2000). Bernstein's theory of
tween a closed-loop control system and an
movement behavior: Historical development and contempo-
rary relevance. Journal of Motor Behavior, 32, 57-71.
open-loop control system. For each system, de-
Clark, J. E. (1995). On becoming skillful: Patterns and con- scribe a motor skill that could be characterized
straints. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66, as having that type of control system.
173-183.
Feigenberg, I. M.. & Meijer, O. G. (1999). The active search for 4. Define a generalized motor program and de-
information: From reflexes to the model of the future (1966). scribe two invariant features and two parame-
Motor Control, 3, 225-236.
ters proposed to characterize this program.
Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. (1999). Modular features of motor control
and learning. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 9, 713-717. 5. Describe an example of nonlinear changes in
Swinnen. S. (1994). Motor control. Encyclopedia of human be- human coordinated movement.
havior. (Vol. 3, 229-243). New York: Academic Press.
Wallace, S. A. (1996). Dynamic pattern perspective of rhythmic 6. Define and give an example of the following
movement: An introduction. In H. N. Zelaznik (Ed.), Ad-
key terms used in the dynamic pattern theory
vances in motor learning and control pp. 155-194). Cham- (

of motor control: (a) stability; (b) attractors;

paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Worringham, C J.. Smiley-Owen. A. L.. & Cross. C L. (1997). (c) order parameters; (d) control parameters;
Neural basis of motor learning in humans. In H. N. Zelaznik (e) coordinative structures; (f ) self-organization.
(Ed.). Advances in motor learning and control (pp. 67-86).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 7. Discuss how relative-time characteristics of
Zanone, P. G., & Kelso. J. A. S. (1991). Relative timing from human walking and running gaits are explained
the perspective of dynamic pattern theory: Stability and in- by (a) motor program-based theory and (b) dy-
stability. In J. Fagard & P. Wolff (Eds.), The development of
namic pattern theory.
timing control and temporal organization in coordinated ac-
tion (pp. 69-92). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
 Chapter

Performance Characteristics
of Complex Skills

Concept: Specific characteristics of the performance

of various motor skills provide the basis for much of our
understanding of the processes involved in motor control

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Describe Fitts' law and explain how it relates to the speed-accuracy trade-off phenomenon
• Define the term prehension, describe a prehension example, and discuss, from a motor con-
trol perspective, the relationship among the components of a prehension action

• Describe how handwriting provides a good example of the concept of motor equivalence

• Describe the difference between symmetric and asymmetric bimanual coordination, and dis-
cuss why asymmetric bimanual coordination is more difficult to maintain than symmetric

• Describe the rhythmic relationships associated with walking and running gait patterns, the
role of maintaining head stability during locomotion, and the characteristics associated with
gait transitions that occur at certain speeds of locomotion

Application and then develop an appropriate intervention strat-

egy to help the person perform this type of skill?
Appropriate instruction and practice intervention An important part of the answer to these questions
procedures are important to develop to help people comes from research concerned with the motor
acquire or rehabilitate skills effectively and effi- control involved in prehension. Or, suppose a be-
ciently. As you saw in chapter 4, a basic under- ginning student in a tennis class is having problems
standing of motor control theory and the processes learning to serve because he or she cannot coordi-
involved in motor control form important parts of a nate the ball toss and racquet movement that must
foundation on which to base the development of simultaneously occur to perform a successful
these procedures. Consider the following two ex- serve. Motor control researchers have identified
amples. If a person were having difficulty reach- some distinct characteristics of bimanual coordina-
ing, grasping, and drinking from a cup, how would tion that provide teachers and coaches some insight
the therapist determine the reason for this problem into how to overcome the tennis serve problem.

75
76 mhhe.com/maoill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

Discussion dicts the movement time for a situation requiring

both speed and accuracy in which a person must
The motor control theories discussed in chapter 4 move to a target as quickly and accurately as pos-
were derived from researchers' observations of sible. The variables that predict the performance
people performing a variety of everyday and sport outcome are the distance to move and the Target
skills in many different situations. These observa-
size. According to Fitts' law. if we know the spatial
tions have established that each type of skill in-
dimensions of these two variables, we can predict
volves distinct performance characteristics that are
the movement time required to hit the target. In
essential to consider in a theory of motor control,
mathematical terms, Fitts' law describes this rela-
and to provide guidance for practitioners as they tionship as
help people learn or rehabilitate skills. In the fol-

lowing sections, we will consider some of the more MT = a + b log 2 (2D/W)

prominent types of motor skills researchers have
where
investigated with these goals in mind.
MT is movement time
a and b are constants

SPEED-ACCURACY SKILLS D is the distance moved

W is the target width, or size
Many motor skills require a person to perform with
both speed and accuracy. For example, kicking a That is, movement time will be equal to the log 2

penalty kick in soccer, pitching a fastball for a of two times the distance to move divided by the

strike in baseball and softball, playing a song on a width of the target. As the target size becomes
piano at a fast tempo, and speed typing all require smaller or as the distance becomes longer, the

fast and accurate movement to achieve successful movement speed will decrease in order to allow for

performance. When both speed and accuracy are an accurate movement. In other words, there is a

essential to the performance of a motor skill, we speed-accuracy trade-off.

commonly observe phenomenon known as the

a Fitts indicated that because of the lawful rela-

speed-accuracy trade-off. This means that when tionship between target size and movement dis-

the person emphasizes speed, accuracy is reduced. tance, the equation \og 7 (2D/W) provides an index

And conversely, when he or she emphasizes accu- of difficulty (ID) for speed-accuracy The skills.

racy, speed is reduced. For example, to accurately index specifies that the higher the ID is, the more
thread a needle with sewing thread, you will thread difficult the task will be. This is because more dif-

ficult tasks will require more movement time.

a needle with a large eye more quickly than one
with a small eye. Also, you will typically type a Figure 5.1a shows several examples of recipro-
sentence more slowly if you try not to make any er- cal tapping task would character-
dimensions that

rors than you aren't concerned with the number

if ize different IDs. Figure 5.1b shows approximate
of errors you make. movement times for tasks with these, and other,
IDs to illustrate the relationship between task diffi-
Fitts' Laws culty (ID) and movement speed when people are
The speed-accuracy trade-off is such a common instructed to move accurately, i.e., hit the target.
characteristic in motor skill performance that a Fitts based his original calculation on a recipro-
mathematical law describes it. Fitts' law, based on cal tapping task in which participants made repeti-
the work of Paul Fitts (1954), become one of
has tive back-and-forth movements as fast as possible
the most significant "laws" associated with human between two targets for a specified period of time.
performance. In science, a law refers to a situation For this task, they were told to place an emphasis on
in which a result, or outcome, can be predicted accuracy. Since Fitts' initial work, other researchers
when certain variables are involved. Fitts' law pre- have found that the lawful speed-accuracy relation-
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 77

ship generalizes to a wide range of motor skill per-

LAB LINKS
formance situations. For example, research evi-
dence shows that when people perform manual Lab 5a in the Online Learning Center Lab Man-
aiming tasks, such as moving pegs from one loca- ual for chapter 5 provides an opportunity for you
tion to insert them into a hole, throwing darts at a
to perform reciprocal tapping tasks with charac-

reaching or grasping containers of different

teristics that will allow you to experience how
target,
Fitts' law describes the speed-accuracy trade-off.
sizes, and moving a cursor on a screen to a target,
their actions demonstrate movement time charac-
teristics predicted by Fitts' law.
If we apply Fitts' law to the sport skills de- the object manipulation component to the other
scribed earlier in this section, the implications of two components that prehension must be consid-
this law for instruction and practice become more ered an action that is different from the action of
evident. For example, suppose a soccer player is reaching and pointing to an object.
asked to practice scoring a goal on a penalty kick
by kicking the ball so that it travels as fast as possi- The Relationship of Prehension Components
ble to each of three different-sized areas in the From a motor control perspective, prehension in-

goal. Fitts' law predicts that the highest speed will volves the arm transporting the hand to an object as
occur for the ball kicked to the largest area. Con- the hand forms the grip characteristics that are
versely, the slowest speed will characterize the ball needed to grasp the object. A motor control question
kicked to the smallest area. Later in this book (Unit of interest here concerns the relationship between
VI), we will discuss the practice conditions that the transport and grasp components. Although
will help a person achieve both speed and accuracy initial attempts to answer this question proposed
in these types of situations. that these components were relatively independent

PREHENSION
Prehension is the general term used to describe ac- speed-accuracy trade-off a characteristic of
motor skill performance in which the speed at which
tions involving the reaching for and grasping of
a skill is performed is influenced by movement accu-
objects. Research evidence has shown that at the
racy demands; the trade-off is that increasing speed
movement level, prehension consists of three dis-
yields decreasing accuracy, and vice versa.
tinct components: transport, grasp, and object ma-

nipulation. The object manipulation component Fitts' law a human performance law specifying the
refers to the functional goal for the prehension ac- movement time for an aiming action when the dis-
tion. In other words, an important part of under- tance to move and the target size are known; it is quan-
tified as MT = a + b log (2 D/W), where a and b are
standing the control of prehension relates to what 2
constants and W = target width, and D = distance
the person intends to do with the object after grasp-
from the starting point to the target.
ing it. The importance of this component is that it

influences the kinematic and kinetic characteristics index of difficulty (ID) according to Fitts' law, a

of the transport and grasp components. For exam- quantitative measure of the difficulty of performing
ple, if a person intends to pick up a cup to drink a skill involving both speed and accuracy require-

from it, the transport and grasp characteristics will ments; it is calculated as the log 2 (2 D/W), where
differ from those associated with the person pick- W = target width, and D = distance from the starting
point to the target.
ing up the cup and moving it to a different location
on a table (see Newell & Cesari, 1999, for a dis- prehension the action of reaching for and grasping
cussion of the motor control implications of this an object that may be stationary or moving.
issue). In fact, it is because of the relationship of
78 mhhe.com/macill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

FIGURE 5.1 a. Same ID for different distances and target widths:

(a). Examples of indexes
ID = 3 Distance = 4 cm; target width 1 cm
of difficulty (ID) for
reciprocal tapping
tasks with different
target size and /or dis-

tance characteristics.
Task difficulty is in- Distance = 8 cm; target width = 2 cm
dexed according to the

ID such that the higher

the ID is. the more diffi-

cult is the task. The ID

is calculated according
to the Fitts" law equa-
tion: ID = log 2 (2 •

Distance/ Width)
Different ID for same distance:
[Note that W is mea-
sured from the near ID = 1 Distance = 2 cm; target width = 2 cm
edge of each target.]

ID = 2 Distance = 2 cm; target width = 1 cm

(b). Approximate move- b. 350 ,-

ment times (in msec)

for each tap of recipro- 300
cal tapping tasks of five
o 250
different indexes of

difficulty.
200 -

150 -

100

50

2 3

Index of difficulty

(e.g., Jeannerod, 1981, 1984), more recent evidence are not two separate movement components, but
has established that these two components interact function in an interdependent manner.
synergistically (i.e., cooperatively) according to task The most compelling evidence demonstrating
demands. This means that the reach and the grasp this relationship has come from movement analy-
CHAPTER 5 • PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 79

A CLOSER LOOK
The Controversy Related to Explaining Fitts' Law
Although researchers consistently provide evidence that demonstrates the wide range of skill performance situa-

tions to which Fitts' law applies, they have not agreed on a motor control explanation for the speed-accuracy
trade-off. Below is a sampling of some of the prominent hypotheses that continue to have proponents. It is impor-
tant to understand that these hypotheses relate to explanations for the speed-accuracy trade-off associated with
rapid manual-aiming tasks, which were the types of tasks involved in the initial demonstration of the trade-off.

• Intermittent feedback hypothesis. Crossman and a specific amount of time. The result is that the

Goodeve (1983) proposed that open-loop control arm is forcefully driven toward the target and
is involved in the initiation of a rapid manual aim- achieves accuracy based on the specified amount
ing task. But as the arm moves toward the target, of force and time. Because amounts of force and
the person intermittently uses feedback to generate time relate to movement variability, increases in
submovements, which are small corrections in the movement velocity result in more variable move-
trajectory, until the target is contacted. Movement ment. To correct an inaccurate outcome, the person
time (MT) increases for longer distances or nar- would need to slow arm speed on the next attempt.
rower targets because the number of corrections Multiple submovements hypothesis. Meyer and
increases. For a reciprocal aiming task, some of colleagues (1988, 1990) adopted elements of both
the MT increase occurs because the person spends the intermittent-feedback and impulse-timing hy-
more time in contact with each target to evaluate potheses. They proposed that before initiating
visual feedback and plan the movement to the next movement, the person programs an initial impulse,
target. which is then executed. If the movement is accu-
• Impulse-timing hypothesis. Schmidt and rate, nothing further is required. But if feedback
colleagues (1979) proposed that many speed- during the movement indicates that the movement
accuracy tasks involve movements that are too fast will be inaccurate, the person prepares and exe-
to allow for the use of visual feedback to make cutes submovements that adjust the initial velocity.

corrections during the movement. In these situa- This process continues until the person produces
tions, they hypothesize that a person programs an accurate movement. The number of submove-
commands in advance of movement initiation. ments made relates to movement time and the tar-
These commands are forwarded to the muscles as get distance and width (see also Yao & Fischman,
"impulses," which are the forces produced during 1999).

ses of the fingers and thumb as the hand moves and unexpectedly moved during the transport phase
toward the object. For example, Jakobson and (e.g., Gentilucci, Chieffi, Scarpa, & Castiello, 1992),
Goodale (1991) showed that the object's size and and when an obstacle needs to be avoided to get
distance from the hand influenced the timing of the to the object (e.g., Saling, Alberts, Stelmach, &
distance between the fingers and thumb reaching its Bloedel, 1998). These kinematic changes have led
maximum during the reach, as well as the velocity to the conclusion that there is a strong coupling be-
profile of the transport component. Interestingly, tween the reach and grasp components of a prehen-
they, along with others (e.g., Chieffi & Gentilucci, sion action. Thus, prehension serves as an additional
1993), found that regardless of object size and dis- example to those described in chapter 4 of how mus-
tance, hand closure occurred at approximately two- cles and joints involved in a complex action operate
thirds of the total movement time involved in the as a coordinative structure to enable people to
action. In addition, research evidence has shown that achieve an action goal in a variety of situations.
the kinematics of both the transport and grasp com- It is also important to note that the person's in-
ponents are modified when the object is suddenly tended manipulation of the object and the visual
80 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
The Use of Functional Objects Enhances Prehension Performance
in Rehabilitation Settings

An experiment related to the rehabilitation of reach- ping a mushroom, which the participants could see.
ing performance for cerebrovascular accident (CVA) The "impoverished" task involved chopping, but
patients demonstrates the benefit of the use of func- there was nothing in the chopper, and the chopper it-
tional objects during therapy. Wu. Trombly. Lin, and self was covered so that its shape and content could

Tickle-Degnen (1998) engaged fourteen men and not be seen. All participants performed ten trials of
women CVA patients in the performance of two types each task. Analysis of the hand movements indicated
of tasks, which required them to reach a distance of that the enriched task resulted in patients reaching for
20 cm to a food chopper and then grasp and push the chopper faster, more directly, and more smoothly
down its handle. The "enriched" task involved chop- than they did for the impoverished task.

The same object manipulation goal for a prehension action can be achieved with different grasp characteristics.

information the person obtains about the distance characteristics that the transport and grasp compo-
to the object, its size, shape, weight, etc., preset the nents will need to reach and grasp the object. How-
motor control system to initiate the reach and grasp ever, as the arm moves toward the object, visual
movements. This presetting involves specifying feedback influences needed modifications to these
"ballpark" estimates of the spatial and temporal component specifications (if there is sufficient
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 81

A CLOSER LOOK
Initial Difficulties in Controlling an Upper Extremity Prosthesis for Prehension

An experiment by Wallace et al. (1999) involved people without an amputation wearing simulated upper
extremity artificial limbs as a way to gain insight into the motor control difficulties associated with initial

attempts to use these devices to perform a prehension action. Because the simulators were mechanically similar
to the actual prostheses worn by amputees, and the participants were required to perform a novel task, the

researchers reasoned that the results would provide a reasonable estimate of initial performance by amputees.

The simulators included a figure-8 harness, cable, Performance trials consisted of 10 trials for each of
and split-hook prehensor (identical to a regular pros- the following: the participant's own right limb, the

thesis). They were designed to mimic a prosthesis for participant's own left limb, the right prosthetic limb,
a person with an amputation. and the left prosthetic limb.

The prehension action involved reaching forward Results showed that performance with the prosthetic
290 mm, removing a vertically oriented dowel limb took approximately three times longer than
(150 mm long, 25 mm in diameter, 155 gm in with the person's own limb. And although there were
weight) from a hole, and then putting it into a no movement time differences between the right and
hole 88 mm from the start position as quickly as pos- left prosthetic limbs, the participants reported more
sible. The holes were 38 mm deep and 30 mm difficulty controlling the right-limb device (possibly

in diameter. because it is controlled by the contralateral shoulder

of their nondominant limb).

time). In addition, the grasp itself may undergo fur- increase in movement time associated with the
ther modifications, especially to size and force, smaller objects is due to the person reducing the
after contact with the object and as the intended speed of the limb as it approaches the object. This
manipulation is carried out. means that when a person reaches for a cup that has
a small handle, not only will the transport and
Prehension and Fitts' Law grasp kinematics differ from reaching for a cup
One final point that is important to note with re- with no handle, but the movement time will also be
gard to the motor control aspects of prehension is slower, because of the increased accuracy demands
that it demonstrates speed-accuracy trade-off char- of grasping the small handle.
acteristics. In fact, researchers have established that
Fitts' law consistently applies to prehension for Implications for Practice
both laboratory tasks and activities of daily living. From an applied perspective, the motor control re-
For example, in an experiment by Bootsma, Marte- search evidence about prehension has important
niuk, MacKenzie, and Zaal (1994), movement dis- implications for the development of practice condi-
tance and object width influenced movement time tions to help people improve their prehension capa-
during prehension in accordance with the predic- Because of the cooperative relationship
bilities.

tions of Fitts' law. In addition, these object charac- between the reach, grasp, and object manipulation
teristics influenced the movement kinematics of the components, it is essential that prehension practice
action. The relevance of the kinematic evidence is or therapy strategies involve functional activities
that it provides a way to explain why movement (e.g., Wu, Trombly, Lin, & Tickle-Degnen, 1998).
time increases as object width decreases. The kine- In addition, because movement characteristics of
matics showed that as objects decrease in size, the reach and grasp components interact in various
amount of time involved in the deceleration phase ways according to object characteristics, it is im-
of the movement increases, suggesting that the portant that practice involve reaching, grasping,
82 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Prehension Situations Illustrate Motor Control Adaptability

An experiment by Steenbergen. Marteniuk, and ample, during the transport phase, hand velocity was
Kalbfleisch (1995) provides a good illustration of distinctly faster and peak velocity was earlier when
how adaptable the motor control system is. We see the cup was empty. The grasp aperture time also var-
this adaptability alter movements of a
when people ied according to the cup characteristic. Maximum
specific action toaccommodate characteristics of the grasp aperture occurred earlier in the transport phase
task situation. The authors asked the participants to for the full cup, a situation demanding more move-
reach and grasp with the right or left hand a Styro- ment precision. In terms of coordination of the joints

foam cup that was either full or empty. Participants involved in the action, participants froze the degrees
had to grasp the cup, located 30 cm in front of them, of freedom of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints
then place it on a round target 20 cm to the right or during the prehension movements for both full and
left. Movement analyses of the hand transport and empty cups. However, when the cup was full, partici-

grasp phases revealed interesting differences at the pants increased stabilization during the movement by
movement level depending on which hand a person making a trunk postural adjustment that moved the
used and whether the cup was full or empty. For ex- shoulder forward.

and manipulating a variety of object characteristics The notable outcome is that there is a great degree
and manipulation goals. Finally, because of the in- of similarity in characteristics such as letter forms,
terdependent relationship of the components of pre- writing slant, relative force for stroke production,
hension, it would not be beneficial to separate the and relative timing between strokes. People have
reach, grasp, and object manipulation goal so that a little trouble varying characteristics such as move-
person could practice each component separately. ment time and writing size, among others.
The complexity of handwriting control makes it
difficult to develop a simple control model describ-
HANDWRITING
ing the components of this process. A person can
Investigation of the control mechanisms responsi- write his or her signature or a familiar phrase with
ble for handwriting is a prominenttheme in the the preferred hand, with the nonpreferred hand,
study of motor control. Researchers generally with a foot, or by holding a pen in the mouth. This
agree that different control mechanisms are in- suggests that at least the spatial features of writing
volved in controlling what people write (letters, are represented in the memory system in an ab-
words, numbers, and how they write it (the
etc.) stract form. Also, this motor equivalence capability
writing strokes producing the letters, words, etc., suggests the involvement of coordinative structures
on the writing surface). in handwriting control.
When we consider the act of handwriting from Another interesting feature of the act of hand-
an anatomical perspective, we see that there is a writing is that several control processes occur at the
great deal of individual variation in terms of limb same To write a sentence, a person must use
time.
segment involvement. But when researchers obtain lexical, semantic, and motor control processes.
handwriting samples from one person, they offer Writing requires the person to retrieve words from
strong evidence for what Bernstein (1967) referred memory. These words must have meanings that fit
to as motor equivalence. That is, a person can what the writer intends to convey. The written sen-
adapt to the specific demands of the writing con- tence requires specific grammatical construction.
text and adjust size, force, direction, and even mus- The words require a certain spelling, which involves
cle involvement to accommodate those demands. the person's movement of the limb to produce spe-
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 83

A CLOSER LOOK
A Handwriting Demonstration of Motor Equivalence

Write Your Signature Compare the Spatial Characteristics

of the Four Handwriting Samples
1. with a pen in your preferred hand.
2. with a pen in \our nonpreferred hand. 1. Describe the similarities you see.
3. with a pen held in your mouth by your teeth. 2. Describe the differences you see.
4. with your preferred hand on the chalkboard.

Undoubtedly, specific elements of your signature remained constant regardless of which muscle groups were in-

volved in the writing action. Your ability to engage various muscle groups to write your signature demonstrates
how the act of handwriting illustrates the concept of motor equivalence.

cific letters that are of an appropriate size and shape Bimanual Coordination Preferences
for what he or she is writing on. Further, the indi- An important characteristic of the performance of
vidual must hold the writing instrument with an ap- skills that require either symmetric or asymmetric
propriate amount of force to allow these letters to bimanual coordination two limbs prefer
is that the
be formed. The capability of human beings to carry to do the same thing same time. This prefer-
at the

out these various cognitive and motor elements in ence helps the performance of symmetric biman-
relatively short amounts of time demonstrates both ual skills, but can lead to problems for asymmetric
the complexity and the elegance of the control skills. For example, why is it difficult to rub your
processes underlying the act of handwriting. stomach with one hand while same time tap-
at the

ping the top of your head with the other hand? The
reason is that your two arms want to simultane-
BIMANUAL COORDINATION SKILLS
ously do one of the actions, but not both.
In addition to unimanual coordination skills, peo- The earliest research to demonstrate the motor
ple perform many motor skills that require the si- control system's preference to coordinate the two
multaneous performance of the two arms, i.e.. arms to move together involved the simultaneous
bimanual coordination. Sometimes the two limbs performance of discrete movements. In what is
do essentially the same thing (symmetric bimanual now seen as a classic series of experiments, Kelso,
coordination): this occurs when someone rows a Southard, and Goodman (1979) had people per-
boat or when a person in a wheelchair rolls the form rapid aiming movements to targets that had
wheels of the chair in order to go straight forward the same or different Fitts' index of difficulty (ID)
or backward. But more interesting from a motor values (see figure 5.2). Results showed a temporal
control perspective are asymmetric bimanual coor-
dination situations in which each limb must do
something different. For example, a guitar player motor equivalence the capability of the motor
holds strings with one hand to determine chords, control system to enable a person to achieve an ac-

while plucking or striking strings with the other tion goal in a variety of situations and conditions
writing your signature with either hand).
hand to produce sound. A skilled drummer can pro- (e.g..

duce one rhythm with one hand while producing bimanual coordination a motor skill that requires
another with the other hand. The serve in tennis re- the simultaneous use of the two arms; the skill may
quires the player to toss the ball into the air with require the two arms to move with the same or dif-

one arm while moving the racquet with a very dif- ferent spatial and/or temporal characteristics.

ferent movement pattern w ith the other.

84 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II - INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

basis for the coordination of the two arms as they LAB LINKS
moved with similar movement times not only to
targets with the same ID values, but also to targets Lab 5b in the Online Learning Center Lab Man-

that had different ID values (note that the move-

ual for chapter 5 provides an opportunity for you
to perform symmetric and asymmetric bimanual
ment times are not identical, but similar). In addi-
coordination tasks that will allow you to experi-
tion the results of this experiment demonstrated
ence the intrinsic coordination characteristic of
that the bimanual movements to targets with dif-
symmetric bimanual coordination even though the
ferent ID values did not adhere to Fitts* law. The achievement of the action goal of the skill requires
apparent strength of the preference for the two asymmetric bimanual coordination.
arms to temporally move together overcame the
influence of the speed-accuracy trade-off charac-
teristic for the same movement when it was per- with practice, a person can learn to uncouple
formed by only one arm. (sometimes referred to as "dissociate") the two
In the Kelso et al. bimanual coordination situa- limbs and simultaneously move his or her arms
tion, the more difficult task influenced the perfor- asymmetrically. But, we do not yet understand the
mance of the arm doing the less difficult task. That control mechanisms involved in this dissociation
is, the arm that was required to move a shorter dis- process. Some researchers report evidence thai pro-
tance (i.e., had the less difficult task) slowed down prioceptive feedback is important in this process
in comparison to when it moved same distance
the (e.g., Vershueren et al., 1999a), while others pro-
alone. Similar results have been shown when task pose that visual feedback is the basis for perform-
complexity differences characterized the bimanual ing the complex asymmetric bimanual coordination
coordination task. For example, the task used in an task (e.g., Mechsner, Kerzel, Knoblich, & Prinz,
experiment by Swinnen, Schmidt, Nicholson, and 2001). We will look at these two sources of feed-
Shapiro (1990) required participants to rapidly back in chapter 6.

move their arms in different spatial-temporal In terms ofmotor control theory perspectives on
patterns. The task involved moving one arm in a learning to uncouple the limbs, researchers have
simple one-direction arm-flexion movement while proposed distinctive views. Those who support the
at the same time moving the other in a two-part motor program theory argue for generalized motor
flexion and extension movement. Both arms were program involvement, but there is disagreement
to complete their movements in a movement time about whether two new generalized motor pro-
of 800 ms. At the beginning of practice, partici- grams develop so that each arm becomes controlled
pants generally produced with each arm the similar by a separate program, or one generalized motor
movement patterns, which typically resembled the program develops in which each arm can perform
more complex two-part movement required by somewhat independently. From a dynamic pattern
one arm. theory perspective, the control issue is rather
straightforward. The initial tendency for the arms
Motor Control of Bimanual Coordination to be spatially and temporally coupled represents
Researchers are not certain how the motor control an attractor state in which a specific relative phase
system is involved in the control of bimanual coor- relationship is the order parameter. But, with prac-
dination. At present, we know that there is a cou- tice, the stable relationship becomes unstable as the
pling of the arms, which forms a natural coordinative new relationship becomes more stable and a new
structure that prefers to operate in spatial-temporal attractor state emerges.
symmetry. And an in-phase relationship between
the arms (i.e., both arms flexing and extending at Implications for Practice
the same time) appears to be the predominant sym- Teachers, coaches, and therapists who are aware of
metrical relationship. In addition, we know that bimanual coordination tendencies will recognize
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 85

Left hand Right hand

Movement
condition
Home Home
MT (msec) keys Targets keys MT (msec)

218

221

140

140

FIGURE 5.2 Movement time scores for one- and two-hand movements to targets of different distances and sizes reported in
Kelso. Southard, and Goodman's second experiment. [Source: Kelso, J. A., Southard, D. L., & Goodman, D. (1979). On the coordination of

two-handed movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 5, 229-238. Copyright © 1979 the American
Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.]

the need to give special attention to people who are practitioners can use to facilitate the learning of
learning skills that require the arms to perform dif- asymmetric bimanual coordination skills in Units
ferent spatial-temporalmovement patterns. The re- V and VI.
quired unlinking of bimanual movements can be a
difficult process for people. But, as both experience
GAIT
and research evidence (e.g., Lee, Swinnen, & Ver-
schueren, 1995; Swinnen et al., 1990; Walter & There is little argument that at the nervous system
Swinnen, 1994) tell us, people can achieve success level, central pattern generators in the spinal cord
in performing these types of skills when they re- are involved in the control ofhuman gait. These
ceive appropriate instruction, feedback, and prac- mechanisms provide the basis for stereotypic loco-
tice. We will consider some of the strategies motive patterns. We can trace evidence for this
86 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Applying the Dynamic Pattern View of Gait Control to Physical Therapy Interventions

We can see the involvement in locomotor control of Wagenaar and Beek (1992) showed an example
dynamic interactions between the person and the en- of the effectiveness of this procedure. They used
vironment in the effectiveness of a therapy strategy a metronome to present rhythms to hemiplegic pa-
that helps reestablish normal rhythmic gait. Based on tients. When the authors systematically increased the
the dynamic pattern control perspective, Wagenaar rhythmic beat from 60 to 96 steps a minute, these
and van Emmerik (1994) recommended that thera- improved the phase relationships of their
patients
pists use various methods to help patients attain spon- arms and legs; this in turn positively influenced
taneous production of the appropriate rhythmic trunk rotation.
structures for specific gait patterns by systematically
altering gait speeds.

spinal level of control to the work of the British characteristic is so common for walking and run-
Nobel laureate Charles Sherrington and his col- ning gaits that mathematical models have been de-
leagues at the end of the nineteenth and beginning veloped to describe their structures. Those who
of the twentieth centuries (e.g., Sherrington, 1906). have developed these models view the leg move-
Using a procedure known as decerebration, ments in walking and running gaits as operating
which involves severing the spinal cord from the similar to a pendulum (see Wagenaar & van Em-
brain, Sherrington observed that decerebrated cats merik, 1994, and Donker et al., 2001, for discus-
performed locomotor rhythmic muscular activity sions about these models).
similar to that performed by intact animals. Later, The rhythmic structure of gait patterns is not
Brown (1911) went a step further by additionally limited to leg movements. For example, when a
severing a cat's sensory pathways to the spinal person walks, distinct rhythmic relationships exist
cord; still, the cat showed rhythmic leg contrac- between the movement of the arms and that of the
tions appropriate for walking. More recent research legs, and the specific character of this relationship

(e.g., Grillner, 1981, 1985) has confirmed and ex- relates to walking speed. Craik, Herman, and Fin-
tended these earlier observations (see Field-Fote, ley (1976) first demonstrated this relationship by
2000, for an excellent overview of the spinal cord's providing evidence that there are two arm-leg coor-
role in the control of locomotion). dination patterns for walking: a 2:1 ratio (i.e., two

arm swings to each leg stride) for very slow walk-

The Rhythmic Structure of Locomotion ing, and a 1 1 ratio for walking at speeds greater
:

To understand how humans control the wide range than 0.75 m/s (1.7 mi/hr, or 2.72 km/hr). Van Em-
of gait they are capable of, we must consider merik and Wagenaar ( 1 996) reported that additional
higher-level nervous system involvement, along research has established that the transition from the
with musculoskeletal dynamics and environmental 2: 1 to the 1:1 arm-leg relationship occurs within the
interactions. The rhythmic structure of locomotor walking speed range of 0.2 to 1.2 m/s (0.5 to 2.7
actions is an important characteristic that will serve mi/hr, or 0.3 to 4.32 km/hr). In addition to the arm-
to illustrate the roles of these various factors. leg relationship, the pelvis and thorax also demon-
In the discussion in chapter4 of the study by strate a rhythmic relationship during walking. At
Shapiro et al. (1981), you saw that on the basis of lower speeds, they move in phase with each other,
an analysis of the four components of the Phillip- but out of phase at higher walking speeds.
son step cycle, walking and running each have a What is the practical benefit of knowing about
distinct rhythmic structure. In fact, this rhythmic these various coordination characteristics of gait
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 87

A CLOSER LOOK
Avoiding Obstacles While Walking or Running

Research by James Cutting and his colleagues at Cornell University (e.g., Cutting, 1986; Vishton & Cutting,
1995) has shown that if a person is walking or running and wishes to maintain footspeed while avoiding an ob-
stacle, three time periods are critical:

The Time Needed to Implication for Clinical Rehabilitation and Sport

Because of the importance of early visual recognition
1. recognize that an object needs to be avoided;
of an object to be avoided, it is important to train peo-
2. adjust the footfall; ple to actively visually search the environment in

3. turn the foot to avoid the obstacle. which they locomote. To avoid collision, a person
must recognize objects sufficiently early to allow ap-
Of these three periods, the first is the most critical and propriate movement adjustments. Therefore, the ther-
takes up about 75 percent of the distance covered apist or coach who focuses training on only the
while the subject is approaching an object. movement-adjustment aspect of this task ignores the
most critical component of object recognition.

patterns'? Van Emmerik and Wagenaar (1996) pre- environment and maintain postural stability so that

sented an excellent argument, along with research we don't fall, it becomes evident that head stability

evidence, to support their view that knowing about is important to maintain during locomotion. In ad-
these characteristics and using them as assessment dition, maintaining a stable head position during
techniques allow us to identify coordination prob- locomotion optimizes the use of vision in actions
lems in the trunk and extremities, especially for in which vision of an object while running is es-
people with Parkinson's disease. For example, sential for achieving the action goal. For example,
when walking at preferred speeds, Parkinson's pa- a baseball or tennis player must visually track the
tients show pelvis and thorax phase relationships flight of the ball while running in order to catch or
that are exactly opposite those described in the pre- hit it. Finally, it is interesting in light of the impor-
vious paragraph for healthy people. tance of head stability during locomotion that re-
searchers have found that children with cerebral
Head Stability and Locomotion palsy and adults with neurological impairment
When a person engages in locomotor activity, a commonly adopt what could be considered "abnor-
goal of the motor control system is to maintain mal" postural and gait characteristics as strategies
head stability. Researchers have demonstrated that to enable them to maintain head stability while
head stability, as measured by the vertical orienta- walking (e.g., Holt, Jeng, Ratcliffe, & Hamill,
tion and minimal horizontal motion, is maintained 1995; Holt, Ratcliffe, & Jeng, 1999).
during locomotor actions such as walking, walking
in place, running in place, and hopping (for brief Gait Transitions
reviews of this research literature, see Cromwell, Another important gait characteristic, which was
Newton, & Carlton, 2001, and Holt, Ratcliffe, & briefly described in chapter 4, is the spontaneous
Jeng. 1999). Why is head stability so important to change from a walking to a running gait (and vice
maintain during these types of actions? The answer versa) at certain speeds. Although these sponta-
relates to the role the head plays in these activities. neous gait transitions are common to all people, the
When we consider that the head contains the com- speed at which transition occurs varies between in-

plex of sensory and motor nervous system compo- dividuals. Some people continue to walk at higher
nents essential for us to navigate through an speeds than others, whereas some people continue
88 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

to run at lower speeds than others. In addition, the accurate as possible, people move at a slower
walk-to-run transition typically occurs at higher rate of speed than when accuracy is not impor-
speeds than the run-to-walk transition. The issue of tant. Fitts' law provides a mathematical basis
interest to researchers who study human locomo- for predicting this trade-off on the basis of
tion is why this transition occurs. There is general the task's movement distance and target size
agreement that the reason is not due to physical characteristics.

limitations. As a result, researchers have developed

Performance of preh ension ski lls, which involve
and tested several hypotheses. The most prevalent
the reaching for and grasping of objects, demon-
of these has been that the transition occurs to mini-
strates the synergistic coupli ng of movement
mize metabolic energy consumption (i.e., V0 2 ).
components that a llow a person to achieve an
Although researchers have provided evidence that
action goal in a variety of situations The trans- .

supports this hypothesis, others have reported re-

port and grasp components function interdepen-
sults that fail to support it (see Hreljac, 1993). At
dent^ by adjusting certain movement kinematics
present, no single cause for gait transitions has
to adapt to specific characteristics of the object
been determined. Interestingly, Turvey et al. ( 1999),
to be grasped and the manipulation goal of the
after reporting results that did not support their hy-
prehensive action. Different from manual aim-
pothesis based on the role of kinetic energy, ex-
ing, pointing,and reaching, prehension move-
pressed doubts that a single cause can be identified
ment kinematics vary during both the transport
because of the nature of complex biological sys-
and the grasp phases as a function of what the
tems. Kao (2001) found evidence that supported
performer intends to do with the object after it
their conclusion by demonstrating that multiple
is grasped.
factors that may be specific to individuals underlie
gait transitions. However, until further research is Handwriting demonstrates an important motor
carried out. the identification of the reason(s) why control characteristic known as motor equiva-
people spontaneously change gaits at certain speeds lence, which means that a person can achiev e
remains a puzzle for researchers to solve. thes ame action goal in a variety of situation s
Finally, it is important to note that vision pro- that require movement adaptations dictated by
vides an additional component of gait control, as the environmental context or by task character-
you will see in chapter 6. Vision provides informa- istics such as size, force, direction, and muscles
tion that directs a person's walking speed, body involved. The movement adaptations result in
alignment, and navigation through the environment. remarkable similarities in handwriting charac-
teristics such as letter forms and the relative time
relationship between strokes, among others.

SUMMARY Bi manual coordination skills require the simul-

taneo us per formance of the tw o_arrns. Some
Much of our understanding of the control processes
tasks require symmetric bimanual coordination
underlying the performance of motor skills comes
(i.e., both arms perform in the same way at the
from research evidence that has identified specific
same time); others require asymmetric biman-
performance characteristics associated with a vari-
ual coordination (i.e., each arm performs differ-
ety of types of skills. This discussion highlighted
ently). An important motor control characteristic
several of these characteristics.
of these skills is the natural, or intrinsic, spatial
• Speed-accuracy skills, which require a person and temporal coupling of the arms, which
to produce movement that is both fast and accu- means that we have a preference to move the
rate, typically demonstrate a speed-accuracy arms symmejricaHy. Personal experience and
trade-off. That is, if the movement must be as research evidence shows that people can learn
CHAPTER 5 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPLEX SKILLS 89

to uncouple the arms to perform asymmetric bi- human brain reveals motor equivalence. Nature, 392,
814-818.
manual coordination skills. At the present time,
Li, L. (2000). Stability landscapes of walking and running near
researchers have not determined the specific
gait transition speed. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 16,
motor control mechanism that underlies the 428-435.
control of arms in this uncoupled, asymmetric Semjen, A., Summers, J. J, & Cattaert, D. (1995). Hand coordi-

state. nation in bimanual circle drawing. Journal of Experimental

Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21,
The performance of locomotion actions, such as 1139-1157.
walking and running, is characterized by the
r hythmic relationships that exist between step-
cycle component s, arm and leg movements, and STUDY QUESTIONS
the movement of the pelvis and thorax. Also, the
maintenance of head stability is an important 1. How is Fitts' law related to the speed-accuracy
characteristic associated with locomotor activi- trade-off phenomenon observed in many motor
ties. And a locomotion characteristic that has yet skills?
to be explained in terms of why it occurs is that
2. (a) Describe a prehension situation, (b) Indi-
spontaneous gait transitions (from walking to
cate the components of this situation, (c) De-
running, and running to walking) occur at cer-
scribe the movement characteristics involved
tain gait speeds.
in each component, and how they might change
in different prehension situations.

RELATED READINGS 3. Discuss how the skill of handwriting can pro-

vide a good example of the meaning of the term
Bennett. K. M. B., Adler, C. H., Stelmach, G. E., & Castiello, U. motor equivalence.
(1993). A kinematic study of the reach to grasp movement in

a subject with hemi-Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologic*, 4. Discuss why the performance of a skill requir-
57,709-716. ing asymmetric bimanual coordination is diffi-
Bonnard. M.. & Pailhous, J. (1993). Intentionality in human gait
cult when it is first attempted.
control: Modifying the frequency-to-amplitude relationship.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and 5. (a) What are two examples of the rhythmic
Performance, 19, 429-443.
structures involved in walking and running?
Cutting, J. E., Vishton, P. M.. & Braren, P. (1995). How to avoid
(b) Describe how gait lends itself to the use of
collisions with stationary and with moving objects. Psycho-
logical Review, 102, 627-651.
an identified order parameter and control para-
Elliott. D. E., Helsen, W. F., & Chua, R. (2001). A century later: meter to be the basis for assessment of coordi-
WoodwortrTs (1899) two-component model of goal-directed nation problems.
aiming. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 342-357.
Holt. K. G. (1996). "Constraint" versus "choice" in preferred 6. Discuss why it is important to maintain head
movement patterns. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, stability during locomotion.
76-77.
Kelso, J. A. S., Fuchs, A., Lancaster, R., Holroyd, T, Cheyne, D.,

& Weinberg, H. (1998). Dynamic cortical activity in the

 Chapter

Proprioception and Vision

Concept: Proprioception and vision are

important components of motor control

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Describe several methods used to investigate the role of proprioception in the control of
movement
• Describe several movement characteristics for which proprioception plays an important
motor control role

• Discuss the role vision plays in the motor control aiming movements

• Discuss how vision is involved in the motor control of prehension

• Discuss how vision is involved in the motor control of handwriting

• Discuss how vision is involved in the motor control of locomotion for several types of
action goal

• Discuss how vision is involved in the motor control of catching a moving object

• Discuss how vision is involved in the motor control of striking a moving object

Application like drinking from a glass. You accomplish other

everyday skills, such as putting your door key into
When you reach for a glass of water to drink from the keyhole, maneuvering around people as you
it, both the proprioceptive and the visual sensory walk in a hallway,and driving your car with ease,
systems come into play as you carry out the action. because of the information that proprioception and
Vision helps you locate the glass and grasp it with vision provide your motor control system. Simi-
your hand and fingers. Proprioception helps you larly, sport activities also require and benefit from
lift the glass, move it toward your mouth, and not the roles played by the proprioceptive and visual
have the glass slip out of your hand. Without the sensory systems. For example, to catch a ball, you
sensory information provided by these two key must see where the ball is, time its arrival to your
sensory systems, you would have considerably hand, position your hand in space, and then close
more difficulty carrying out relatively simple tasks your fingers around the ball when it is in your hand.

90

_4
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 91

Discussion Investigating the Role of Proprioception

Proprioception is an important source of feedback.
A key feature of any theory of motor control is the
When action is under closed-loop control, proprio-
role played by sensory information in controlling
ceptive information allows us to make movement
action. Sensory receptors located in various parts
corrections as we move. When an action is under
of the human body provide this information. Two open-loop control, as in a rapid, ballistic move-
of the most important types of sensory information
ment, proprioceptive feedback is we
available, but
sources influencing the control of coordinated
cannot make movement corrections as we move
movement are proprioception and vision.
because of time limitations.
Researchers have used several techniques to in-

vestigate the role of proprioception in the control

PROPRIOCEPTION of movement. We will consider four techniques in
AND MOTOR CONTROL this discussion. Three of the techniques involve
Proprioception refers to our sensation and percep-
the observation of movement after deafferenta-

tion of limb, trunk, and head position and move- tion insome way. This means that the propriocep-
tive afferent pathways to the central nervous
ment. 1
Although it is often overlooked as one
of our basic senses, propriocept ion is sens ory system are not available. The fourth involves the
observation of movement while a tendon of a mus-
informati on transmitted to the cen tr al ne rvous
system about such movement charac t eristics as^ cle involved in the control of a movement is vi-

di rection, location in space, velocity, and muscle

brated, which distorts the proprioceptive feedback

acti vation. In closed-loop models of movement that is normally received from the muscle and ten-

control, proprioceptive feedback plays a significant

don proprioceptors.
role, whereas open-loop models, central com-
in

mands movement without involving pro-

control
Surgical Deafferentation

prioceptive feedback. Questions about whether we

One method used to investigate the role of proprio-

can control movements without proprioceptive movement involves the ob-

ception in the control of

feedback, and what role proprioceptive feedback servation of movement of animals or humans

plays in the control of coordinated movement, have following surgical deafferentation, which means

intrigued movement scientists for many years (see

that the afferent neural pathways associated with
Willingham, 1998, pp. 574f for a brief historical the movements of interest have been surgically sev-
review). ered or removed. Several studies have been reported

Researchers have taken a variety of experimen- in which a surgical deafferentation procedure was
tal approaches to determine the role of propriocep-
tion in controlling coordinated action. We discuss
proprioception the perception of limb, body, and
a few of these next to introduce you to the current
head movement characteristics; afferent neural path-
thinking about this issue.
ways send to the central nervous system propriocep-
tive information about characteristics such as limb
movement direction, location in space, and velocity.
'Kinesthesis is a term that is related to the term proprioception.
There has been considerable debate about the distinction be- deafferentation a procedure that researchers use
tween them. Sometimes they are used to refer to specific types to make proprioceptive feedback unavailable
of sensory information; in other cases they are used synony- (through surgically severing or removing afferent
mously. For the purposes of this book, the term proprioception neural pathways involved in the movement); it also
is used to refer to sensory information about body and limb po- can result from injury or surgery to afferent neural
sition and movement that is transmitted to the CNS from the pathways involved in proprioception
proprioceptors.
92 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Proprioceptors

The sensory receptors responsible for detecting body and limb position and movements, called proprioceptors,
are located in the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints. In general, they function to provide the central ner-
vous system (CNS) with information about body and limb position and changes in position. The various types
of proprioceptors provide information concerning specific characteristics of body and limb position and move-
ment. The following is a brief description of the proprioceptors and their function.

Muscle spindles. Located in all skeletal muscles, of skeletal muscle (work in synergy with muscle
lying in parallel with extrafusal muscle fibers and spindles); also involved in detecting spatial

attached directly to the muscle sheath; consist of position.

two types of sensory neurons: groups la (annu- Joint receptors. Located in joint capsules and
lospiral endings) and II (flower-spray endings). ligaments of all synovial joints; consist of four
Function to detect change in muscle fiber length, types of sensory neuron endings: Golgi-type end-
limb movement velocity and acceleration, and ings (in ligaments), spray-type endings (in joint
limb spatial position. capsule), Pacinian corpuscle (near ligament attach-
Golgi tendon organs (GTO). Located at the ments), and free nerve endings. Function to help
junction of tendon and skeletal muscle; consist detect joint spatial position, joint velocity, and
of lb sensory neuron fibers (approximately one joint direction; rather than provide information
GTO for every ten muscle fibers). Function to de- about the full range of joint position, they appear
tect force through the tendon due to lengthening to act to detect the limits of a flexion or extension.

used with monkeys. Two sets of classic research when required, the monkeys were surgically deaf-
studies in which this method of investigation was ferented so that no proprioceptive feedback infor-
used will serve as examples of how researchers have mation from the pointing arm was available during
used this technique to study proprioception. the movement. When the monkeys were again di-
Taub and Berman (1963, 1968) observed mon- rected to point at each light as it came on, they were

keys before and after surgical deafferentation as able to position their limbs accurately in the deaf-
they performed well-developed motor skills, such ferented state. In fact, they could make accurate
as climbing, reaching,and grasping. Taub and pointing movements from starting positions that
Berman consistently found that the deafferented were different from the starting positions used dur-
monkeys were still capable of performing the ing training.
skills, although the degree of precision was notably Surgically deafferenting human subjects for ex-
less than it had been. perimental purposes is not possible, for obvious
Taub and Berman looked at skills that were well reasons. However, some people are surgically deaf-
developed. What would happen if experimenters ferented because of certain trauma- or disease-
used the same surgical deafferentation procedure related problems. For example, rheumatoid arthri-
with newly learned skills? Bizzi and his colleagues tis patients who have had finger joint replacement
at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (e.g., surgery have no joint receptors available. A good
Bizzi & Polit, 1979; Polit & Bizzi, 1978) took this example of using this approach to the study of pro-
approach in several experiments. They trained prioception is an experiment done many years ago
monkeys to point an arm at one of a series of lights by Kelso, Holt, and Flatt (1980). Patients who had
when it came on. The monkeys could see the lights, had their metacarpophalangeal joints removed and
but not their arms making the pointing movement. replaced with flexible silicone rubber implants per-
After they learned to point accurately to each light formed finger-positioning movements. On each
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 93

J
With vision

I Without vision

Structured Unstructured Structured Unstructured

environment environment environment environment

Normals Deafferented

FIGURE 6.1 Results of the experiment by Blouin et al. showing the amount of error during the repro-
duction of an arm position for normal and deafferented subjects with vision of the environment available
(structured) or not available (unstructured), and vision of the moving arm available or not. [Source: Data
from Blouin, J., et al. (1993). Reference systems for coding spatial information in normal subjects and a deafferented

patient. Experimental Brain Research, 93, 324-331, Springer- Verlag, New York, NY]

trial, participants moved their fingers to a criterion (1993). They compared a sensory polyneuropathy
finger position or a criterion distance, returned their patient with normal participants on a pointing task
fingers to a new starting point, and then attempted involving an arm moving a pointer. On some trials,

to reproduce the criterion position or distance. Re- participants could see the apparatus environment,
sults indicated that the patients had little difficulty whereas on other trials, they performed without
in accurately reproducing the criterion finger posi- this visual information available. Results, shown in
tion from a starting point that was different from figure 6.1, were that with vision, the patient per-
the original starting point. However, they did have formed as accurately as the normal participants.
problems reproducing the movement distance from However, without vision of either the environment
these new starting points. or the arm while moving, the deafferented patient
consistently undershot the target. Thus, without vi-
Deafferentation Due to sual feedback, the deafferented patient was not able
Sensory Polyneuropathy to reproduce movement accurately to a specific lo-

The observation of movement characteristics of cation in space.

people who have a sensory polyneuropathy involv-
ing a limb provides a non-surgical technique for in- Temporary Deafferentation
vestigating deafferented humans. For these people, The third proprioceptive feedback removal tech-
the large myelinated fibers of the limb are lost, nique, which is used with humans, is known as the
leading to a loss of all sensory information except nerve block technique. To investigate an arm move-
pain and temperature. The efferent motor pathways ment, the researcher places a blood pressure cuff
are typically intact. A good example of this re- just above the participant's elbow and then inflates
search strategy is an experiment by Blouin et al. until the person no longer can feel anything with
94 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

the fingers. In a phenomenon similar to what you climbing, grasping, and reaching than they had
experience when your arm is "asleep," the ischemic been before deafferentation. In fact, they had diffi-

condition keeps afferent pathways from function- culty grasping food with their hands in this condi-
ing. However, the efferent pathways remain unaf- tion. In the Bizzi experiments, the researchers
fected. In several studies (e.g., Kelso & Holt, 1980; noted that when the animal's posture was altered,
Laszlo, 1966, 1967), people could perform finger pointing accuracy diminished in the deafferen-
and arm spatial positioning in the absence of affer- ted condition. And in the Kelso, Holt, and Flatt
ent sensory information from the muscles and experiment, the human participants maintained
joints of the fingers, hand, and forearm. only positioning accuracy following joint capsule
replacement; distance movements were severely
Tendon Vibration Technique disrupted.
A procedure in which movement is observed while It is important to point out that movement accu-
proprioceptive feedback is distorted rather than re- racy effects have also been demonstrated when re-
moved involves the high-speed vibration of a ten- searchers block or distort a person's vision while
don connected to a muscle that is an agonist in the performing a movement. Although this is an indi-
movement of interest. This vibration distorts mus- rect method for investigating the role of proprio-
cle spindle firing patterns, which leads to a distor- ception (vision is the only sensory system that
tion of proprioceptive feedback. Examples of the participants cannot use; all other sensory sources
use of this technique can be found in several exper- of information remain available), the movement ac-
iments reported by Verschueren. For example, one curacy results of experiments that have used this
experiment (Verschueren, Swinnen, Cordo, & technique correspond with those described earlier
Dounskaia, 1999a) applied vibration to the tendons that directly blocked or distorted proprioception.
of the biceps and/or anterior deltoids of the pre- For example, Robertson and Elliot (1996) showed
ferred arm of blindfolded participants as they si- that distorting the vision of skilled gymnasts in-
multaneously drew circles with each arm. The creased the number of steps they used to walk as
results (see figure 6.2) showed that the vibration fast as possible along a balance beam and increased
influenced the spatial characteristics of the circles their movement form errors. When their vision was
drawn by the vibrated arm, but not for the nonvi- completely blocked, only their movement form
brated, nonpreferred arm. In addition, the vibration errors increased.When Danion, Boyadijan, and
of the preferred arm influenced the relative phase Marin (2000) blocked the vision of skilled gym-
relationship between the two arms during the cir- nasts, they veered from a straight line as they
cle drawing. walked. And Glover and Dixon (2001) showed that
the lack of vision of an object while reaching for it,

The Role of Proprioceptive Feedback even though participants had seen it before initiat-

Research evidence shows that people can carry out ing their movement, resulted in their limb trajec-
certain limb movements in the absence of proprio- tory being less accurate during the initial portion
ceptive feedback. However, there appear to be sev- of its flight.

eral distinct limitations to this capability. Because The influence of proprioception on movement
of these limitations, it is possible to identify the accuracy appears to be due to the specific kinematic
various roles of proprioceptive feedback in the con- and kinetic feedback provided by the propriocep-
trol of human movement. We will consider three tors to the central nervous system (CNS). Feedback
that are especially notable. about limb displacement provides the basis for spa-
First, proprioception influences movement ac- tial position corrections, which enable the limb to
curacy. Several results from the experiments just achieve spatial accuracy by a continuous updating
discussed support this conclusion. In the Taub and of limb position to the CNS, which in turn can send
Berman studies, the monkeys were clumsier while movement commands that will modify the position
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 95

Nonpreferred arm Preferred arm

No tendon vibration

-15 -
-10 -
-5 -

5 -

10 -

15 -
1 i

10 -10

Tendon vibration: biceps and anterior deltoid

FIGURE 6.2 Results from the experiment by Verschueren et al. showing the effects of vibrating the
tendons attached to the biceps and anterior deltoid of the preferred arm during bimanual circle drawing
with no vision of the arms. The top row shows one participant's drawings during one trial when no tendon
vibration was applied. The bottom row shows the drawings by the same participant during one trial with
tendon vibration. [Adapted from Figure 1A-D, p. 185, of Verschueren. Swinnen, Cordo. & Dounskaia (1999). Experi-
mental Brain Research, 127. 1 82-1 92. Copyright © 1999 Springer- Verlag, New York. NY]

accordingly, provided that the movement occurs Second, proprioceptive feedback influences the
for a sufficient amount of time movement
to allow timing of the onset of motor commands. An experi-
corrections to occur. In addition, proprioceptors ment by Bard et al. ( 1 992) provides a good example
provide feedback about limb velocity and force, of evidence for this role. They compared movements
which influence movement distance accuracy. of normal participants with a patient deaffer-
96 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

ented due to a sensory polyneuropathy. The partici- feedback for the spatial and temporal coupling be-
pants were asked to simultaneously extend an index tween the arms when we perform bimanual coordi-
finger and raise the heel of the ipsilateral foot. nation tasks. And in another study by this same
When they performed this task in reaction to an researcher and colleagues (Verschueren et al.

auditory signal, both the normal and the deafferented 1999b), they demonstrated that proprioception in-
participants performed similarly by initiating the fin- fluences the coupling between two limb segments
ger extension first. We would expect this if a com- of the same limb, such as the upper arm and fore-
mon central command were sent to each effector. arm. Also, Jackson et al. (2000), in a study that in-
Because of the difference in distance of efferent volved a woman whose leftarm was temporarily
neural pathways to the finger and heel, finger move- deafferented because of a stroke, showed that she
ment would occur first. Conversely, when asked to had limb-coupling problems during the perfor-
do the task at their own pace, the normal participants mance of a task involving prehension.
raised the heel first; this suggests that they based The third coordination characteristic influenced
timing of the finger movement onset on propriocep- by proprioceptive feedback is the adapting to move-
tive feedback about heel movement. In contrast, the ment situations that require the use of non-
deafferented patients performed as they had in the preferred coordination patterns. Bonnard and Pail-
reactive situation, indicating that they used a central hous (1999) demonstrated this effect when they
command rather than proprioceptive movements asked an adult patient who was deafferented, due to
feedback as the basis for the timing of the onset of sensory neuropathy 15 years earlier, to repetitively

the heel and finger movements. move a lever back and forth to maintain rhythmical
Finally, proprioception plays an important role movements for 100 sec. When the patient could
in various aspects of the coordination of body and choose the movement amplitude (i.e., distance) to
limb segments. Three coordination characteristics maintain with the rhythm specified by a metronome
influenced by proprioceptive feedback will serve (i.e., frequency), she maintained consistent move-
to demonstrate this role. ment amplitude and frequency (see figure 6.3), even
First, postural control requires proprioceptive when she could not see the results of her move-
feedback. Although a considerable amount of re- ments. But when asked to perform at the same fre-
search evidence shows that postural control is a quency, but with the movement amplitude 95
function of many interacting variables, such as vi- percent larger (the experimenter-constrained condi-
sion, the musculoskeletal system, activity of the tion), she maintained the frequency but not the am-
cerebellum and basal ganglia, cognitive processes, plitude, which drifted over time toward her
the tactile sensory system, and proprioception, preferred amplitude. In contrast, when non-deaffer-
problems with any of these will lead to postural ented adults performed the same task, they main-
dysfunction. Jeka and colleagues have demon- tained the frequency and amplitude for both
strated (e.g., Jeka, Ribiero, Oie, & Lackner, 1998) the preferred and the experimenter-constrained
the importance of proprioception in postural con- conditions.
trol by showing that proprioception, together
with tactile information, functions to provide es-
sential information to the CNS to enable a person
VISION AND MOTOR CONTROL
to control upright stance posture in body sway There are two components of visual function. Each
situations. component receives information in a different seg-
The second coordination characteristic involves ment of the field of vision, which is said to extend
the spatial-temporal coupling between limbs and to 200 degrees horizontally and 160 degrees verti-
limb .segments. Results of the experiment by cally. One component is central vision, sometimes
Verschueren et al. (1999a), which we considered referred to as foveal vision. Central vision detects
earlier, show the importance of proprioceptive information only in small areas, having a range of
CHAPTER 6 • PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 97

^ o
• *- f-^4~H4
•S -15 -

-45

4 6 8 10 4 6 8 10 12
Blocks of 10 sec Blocks of 10 sec

FIGURE 6.3 Results of the experiment by Bonnard and Pailhous showing the percentage of deviation from the initial amplitude
for repetitive rhythmical arm movements for the preferred (open circles) and constrained (filled circles) initial movements, which the
deafferented patient (graph A) and a normal control subject (graph B) attempted to maintain without seeing the results of their move-
ments. Note that for the constrained but not for the preferred rhythm, the amplitude of the deafferented patient's movements began to
deviate farther from the goal amplitude as the amount of time increased within a trial. [Source: Figure 2, panels c and d, p. 57 in Bonnard, 1

M.. & Pailhous. J. ( 1 999). Contribution of proprioceptive feedback to preferred versus constrained space-time behavior in rhythmical movements.

Experimental Brain Research. 128, 568-572.]

about 2 to 5 degrees. The detection of information ments that were in keeping with trying to maintain
in the visual field outside these limits occurs by their standing balance when the walls and floor
means of peripheral vision. were moving. But because the floor did not move,
their proprioceptors were not signaling that their
Vision Predominates bodies were losing stability. Only their visual sys-
Our Sensory-Perceptual Systems tems detected any loss of balance.
Of all our sensory systems, we tend to use and The moving room experiment demonstrates the
trust vision the most. For example, when you first special priority we assign to vision in our daily ac-
learned to type or play the piano, you undoubt- tivities. In that experiment, when the propriocep-
edly you could not see your fingers hit
felt that if tors and vision provided conflicting information
each key, you could not perform accurately. Be- to the central nervous system, people gave atten-
ginning dancers and stroke patients learning to tion to vision while ignoring the proprioceptors.
walk have a similar problem. They often act as if The result was that they initiated unnecessary pos-
they cannot perform the activity if they cannot tural adjustments.

watch their feet. In the sections that follow, we will look at sev-
These anecdotal experiences illustrate our ten- eral types of motor skills to see the role that
dency to give vision a predominant role when we vision plays when people perform them. Some of
perform motor skills. Empirical research evidence these skills were included in chapter 5, where
also supports this phenomenon. The best example we considered performance characteristics that
is a classic experiment by Lee and Aronson how the motor control
provided insight into sys-
(1974) that is often referred to as the "moving tem operates to enable performance. Although vi-
room" experiment. Participants stood in a room sion was described as being involved in the
inwhich the walls could move up or down, as well control of these skills, the specific roles played by
as forward or backward. However, the floor was vision were not discussed. It will be helpful to
stationary and did not move. The researchers ob- make the connection between the discussion of
served the participants' postural responses to the these skills in the following sections with what
movement of the walls. When the walls moved, you learned from chapter 5 about the control of
children and adults made posture correction adjust- these skills.
98 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

VISION AND MANUAL AIMING The Coordination of Vision and Hand

Movement in Manual Aiming
A manual aiming task requires a person to move
When a person makes an aiming movement with a
one or both arms over a prescribed distance to a
hand, how do the eyes and hand work together to
target. In real-world settings, this action is required
carry out this action? Researchers have addressed
when a person puts a key in a keyhole, places a pen
this question by using eye movement tracking
in a penholder, typeson a keyboard, or plays the
equipment and 2-D or 3-D motion analysis equip-
piano. Laboratory approximations of this type of
ment to analyze a person's eye and hand move-
action typically involve a person's holding a stylus
ments when he or she performs a manual aiming
on a starting point and then moving it to hit a tar-
task. For eye movement analysis, the characteristic
get as accurately as possible. In some experiments
of interest is the point of gaze, which is the specific
the participants must hit the target while moving as
location in the environment on which central (i.e.,
quickly as possible, whereas in others they must
move at specific speeds. foveal) vision is moment.
fixated at any particular
To assess the coordination of vision and hand
movement, researchers calculate the relationship
Vision's Role Depends on the Phases
between the timing and/or location of the termina-
of the Aiming Movement
tion of the point of gaze with the timing and/or lo-
Vision is involved in different ways at different
cation of the handmovement. If the point of gaze
times during an aiming movement. Research evi-
and hand movement are temporally or spatially
dence has shown that there are three distinct phases
coupled during an aiming movement, the point of
of performing a manual aiming movement (see fig-
gaze should be at a specific location at a consistent
ure 6.4). The role vision plays in the control of the
movement is different in each phase. proportion of the total movement time and/or dis-
tance of the hand movement.
The first phase is the movement preparation
phase, which begins as soon as a person has made A good example of research evidence that

the decision to perform a manual aiming action.

demonstrates the coupling between vision and
Here, the person uses vision to determine the spe- hand movement is an experiment by Helsen, El-
cific movement characteristics required by the situ-
liott, Starkes, and Ricker (1998). Participants were
ation, such as the direction and distance the limb seated at a table and were asked to move their index

must travel and the target spatial orientation and fingers 40 cm from a starting location
to the right

size. These characteristics are the regulatory char- in front of them to a -cm by 2-cm target as fast as
1

acteristics we discussed in chapter The next two 1 .

possible. Both point of gaze and hand movements
phases involve the actual movement of the limb. tended to undershoot the target and then made one
The second phase, the initial flight phase, includes or more corrections to hit the target. The analysis
the beginning of the limb movement in the general of eye and finger movements showed that the par-
direction of the target. This phase is typically bal- ticipants typically initiated eye movements approx-

listic (which means it occurs very rapidly) and imately 70 ms before they began to move their
open-loop, i.e., without the influence of feedback. hands from the start location. The initial eye move-
Vision plays a minor role in this phase, although it ment moved the point of gaze very close to the tar-
acquires early limb displacement and velocity in- get after which they made a second eye movement
formation that is used later for error correction pur- to correct the undershooting of the first. The initial
poses. The third phase is the termination phase, hand movement traveled about 95 percent of the
which begins just before and ends when the target total distance, after which one or two additional ac-
is hit. If the individual has sufficient time to use vi- celerations were made to home in on the target. The
sual feedback and make movement modifications, point of gaze typically arrived at the target 450
vision plays a critical role in providing the infor- msec before the finger, which would allow for in-
mation he or she needs to make these alterations so flight hand movement corrections based on visual
that thelimb will hit the target. feedback. The researchers found evidence for tem-

_
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 99

Initial flight phase

Movements: Ballistic initial limb

movement to get key close to
keyhole [-95% of movement time]

Vision involvement: Monitor limb

displacement and velocity; point of
gaze shifts to keyhole at -50%
time to contact keyhole, (coincides,
i.e., coupled, with peak acceleration
of limb movement.)

Preparation phase Termination phase

Movements: Grasp key in hand Movements: Temporal and spatial

in orientation similar to keyhole corrections to insert key in keyhole;
insert key
Vision involvement: Assess
movement specifications Vision involvement: Focus on
required to perform action [i.e., key and keyhole; provide temporal
keyhole size, location, spatial and spatial information needed for
orientation, distance] movement corrections to insert key
in keyhole

FIGURE 6.4 The three phases of manual aiming task in which vision plays an important role can be illustrated by the task of
putting a key into a keyhole in a lock on a door.

poral coupling between the eye movements and moved first, followed by the shoulder, then the
hand movements because the completion of the ini- elbow, and finally the finger. The initial eye move-
tial eye movement coincided with the timing of the ment traveled approximately 90 percent of the dis-
peak acceleration and velocity of the hand move- tance to the target, before moving to the target. On
ment. Evidence for spatial coupling was shown by every trial for every participant, the point of gaze
the point of gaze consistently terminating on the was on the target long before the hand arrived at
target when the hand movement was at 50 percent the target. The results of these experiments, and
of the total movement distance. others like it (e.g., Helsen, Starkes, & Buekers,
More recently, the same researchers (Helsen, El- 1997), support the importance of vision in the three
liott, Starkes, & Ricker, 2000) showed that the ini- phases of performing an aiming task described ear-
tiation of elbow and shoulder movements is also lier. It is important to note that the actual limb
coupled in movement ini-
time with eye and finger movement part of the aiming task involves only the
tiation. The sequence of events was that the eyes second and third of these phases, which has led
100 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
The Eye and Hand Movements of Artists Painting and Drawing

An excellent website (http://www.physiol.ox.ac.uk/ description, with pictures, of eye-movement tracking

~rcm/pem/) presents an exhibit titled, "The Painter's equipment and how it is used with hand-movement
Eye Movements," which is a nine-page exhibition of equipment to provide information about eye and hand
the eye and hand movements of skilled artists as they movements.
paint and draw from models. The site includes a brief

some researchers to refer to a two-phase model of research). Part of the problem is that different ex-
limb control for visually directed movements. As perimental procedures have resulted in a variety of
the Helsen et al. experiments have nicely demon- time estimates for the processing of visual feedback.
strated, the initial flight phase is a ballistic move- The most common experimental procedure has
ment prepared from visually detected information been to have people perform manual aiming move-
before the initiation of movement. This phase con- ments with different goal movement times. On
tinues for as much as 90 percent of the distance to some trials, the lights would go out just as the per-
the target. Then, the termination phase begins in son began to move, whereas on other trials the lights

which visual feedback is used to correct the trajec- remained on. The logic was that if
to this procedure
tory and speed of the arm movement so that the tar- visual feedback were necessary, aiming accuracy
get will be hit. would decrease with the lights out because the per-
son could not see the target and therefore would not
The Amount of Time Needed to Make be able to use visual feedback. When participants
Vision-Based Movement Corrections did not know when would be on or off, the
the lights
An important factor that influences the role of vi- amount of time to process visual feedback was esti-
sion in an aiming movement is the amount of time mated to be between 190 and 260 ms. However,
available to use visual feedback to make movement later experiments used the same lights-on-or-off
corrections while the movement is in progress. technique, but participants knew when they would
Corrections can occur only when the person has perform under each condition (e.g., Zelaznik,
sufficient time to detect and modify the movement. Hawkins, & Kisselburgh, 1983; Elliott & Allard,
This means there is a minimum total movement 1985). This advance knowledge indicated that vi-
time requirement in order for the performer to be sual feedback could be used in less than 100 ms.
able to use visual feedback to correct movement Other experimental procedures have led re-
errors prior to the completion of the movement. searchers to conclude that visual feedback can be
The important question here is, what is the mini- processed in amounts of time that are faster or
mum amount of time required for movement correc- slower than those estimated by the lights-on-or-off
tions to be carried out on the basis of visual procedure. These have included such procedures as
feedback? Researchers have been attempting to an- distorting the visual information by having people
swer this question since the end of the nineteenth wear prism glasses (e.g., Smith & Bowen, 1980,
century (e.g., Woodworth, 1899). The most vigor- estimated the time to be about 150 msec); moving
ous effort to investigate this question occurred in the the target location after the person initiated a move-
latter part of the twentieth century, beginning with ment to a target (e.g., Brenner & Smeets, 1997,
an influential experiment by Keele and Posner in estimated the time to be about 1 10 msec); and pre-
1968. Unfortunately, all this research effort has not venting visual feedback for portions of the distance
provided us with a precise answer to the question to the target (e.g., Spijkers & Lochner, 1994, esti-
(see Carlton, 1992, for an excellent review of this mated the time to be about 1 35 msec).
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 101

Although it is not possible to establish an exact too fast to allow foot-position adjustments while
minimum amount of time required to use visual the foot is in flight, the risk of falling increases.
feedback to enable movement corrections, it ap-
pears that an estimate of 100 to 160 msec is reason-
VISION AND PREHENSION
able for simple manual aiming tasks. How well this
generalizes to other skills is not known at this time, In chapter 5, we considered evidence showing that
although several researchers have investigated this prehension and manual aiming are different ac-
question using tasks that require people to inter- tions. An important difference between them is the
cept a moving object, such as ball catching or object manipulation goal of the prehension action.
hitting (e.g., Bootsma & van Wieringen, 1990). Al- Although target characteristics influence the con-
though the time estimates are again related to the trol of both manual aiming and prehension, contact
procedures used in the experiments, the 100 to 160 with the target does not terminate a prehension ac-
msec estimate would capture the time estimates re- tion. What the person does with the object after it

ported in these experiments. is contacted is an essential component of prehen-

In terms of the three-phase model of a manual sion. But because of the similarities between the
aiming movement described earlier, the mini- two actions, vision is involved in the control of pre-
mum amount of time required to make visual hension in some ways that are similar to its role in
feedback-based corrections establishes a time limit the control of manual aiming.
for situations to which this model can apply. If the As in manual aiming, vision provides informa-
limb movement is faster than the minimum amount tion prior to the initiation of movement, such as the
of time, only the first two phases of the model de- distance to the object and important regulatory
scribe the movement. In this situation the "initial characteristics of the object, such as its shape, tex-
flight phase" becomes the only flight phase; the ture, and the environmental context which the
in

movement must terminate at the end of this phase object is located. The motor control system uses
without the possibility of modifying movement er- this information to initiate the transport phase of
rors. Thus, the entire movement would be under prehension, during which the hand and fingers
open-loop control, which means that the accuracy begin to form the grasp characteristics required
of the movement would depend on the quality of when the object is contacted and manipulated.

the preparation before the initiation of movement. Then, like manual aiming, vision provides infor-
Is this issue about the minimum time required mation to the CNS while the limb is in flight so that
to use visual feedback of any consequence to the the hand can make needed movement modifica-
performance of skills other than the manual aiming tions asit approaches and grasps the object. As was

tasks performed in laboratories? If we generalize the case for manual aiming, a person can make
the notion of manual aiming to skills involving the these in-flight arm and hand movement modifica-
"aiming" of the arm to catch a ball, or to hit a ball, tions only if there is sufficient time to do so.
or the "aiming" of the foot to step on a stair step,
then the minimum time issue becomes relevant to Monocular versus Binocular Vision
sports skills and activities of daily living. For ex- One of the questions researchers have investigated
ample, whether or not a person will have time to concerning vision and prehension relates to the use
adjust his or her initial hand movement to catch a of monocular (i.e., one eye) compared to binocular
ball will depend on the amount of time available to (i.e., two eyes) vision to reach and grasp an object.

catch the ball. If the ball speed is too fast or the dis- Research evidence (e.g., Goodale & Servos, 1996;
tance the ball travels is too short to allow any Coull et al., 2000; Servos, 2000) has shown that the
movement modification, success at catching the motor control system operates more effectively and
ball will depend on the initial hand position. Simi- efficiently when it receives visual information from
larly, if a person is stair climbing at a pace that is both eyes. Although people can reach and pick up
102 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Time to Contact: The Optical Variable Tau

In situations in which a person moves toward an ob- from the person,

ject size, the distance of the object
ject to make contact with it, or the object moves to- and the angle subtended at the person by the object
ward the person, such as when a person is catching or size and distance. In mathematical terms, tau is the
hitting a thrown ball, vision plays an important role inverse of the relative rate of change of the visual
in specifying when to initiate the action and make angle subtended by the moving object, given the
contact with the object. The important visual infor- speed of approach of the object is constant.
mation in these situations is the time to contact, The motor control benefit of the tau variable is its

which is the amount of time remaining until the ob- predictive function, which allows action initiation
ject contacts the person (or vice versa) from a spe- and object contact to occur "automatically" at a spe-

cific distance (see Bootsma & Peper. 1992). Time to cific time to contact regardless of the speed of the ob-
contact is specified according to the relative rate of ject or person. When
driving a car. for example, the
change of the image of the object on the
size of the driver's initiationand amount of braking action to
retina of the eye. As the person approaches the ob- avoid collision with another car is not dependent on
ject, or vice versa, the object produces an increas- the driver's cognitive knowledge of the distance to
ingly larger retinal image. When this image attains a and velocity of the other car. Rather, by specifying
certain critical size, it triggers the action required by the time to contact at any distance and velocity, the
the situation. rate of change of the size of the retinal image of the
In the early 1970s. David Lee ( 1974) provided ev- other car provides the information needed by the dri-
idence that time to contact is specified by an optical ver to determine the type of braking, or deceleration,
variable, which he termed tau (r). He also showed that required by the situation
tan can be quantified mathematically by relating ob-

objects when the use of only one eye is available, Central and Peripheral Vision
the accuracy and efficiency of the movement de- Another question of interest concerning the motor
crease as the distance to the object increases. Ex- control of prehension relates to the roles of central
periments (e.g., Coull et al., 2000) that have shown and peripheral vision. The current understanding
this influence of distance provide support for the of these roles is that each makes specific contribu-
view of the importance of binocular vision for tions to the prehension action. For example, re-
depth perception. search by Sivak and MacKenzie (1990) showed
The monocular vision problem appears to be due that peripheral vision provides the CNS with infor-
to a preparation-phase problem that results from an mation about the environmental context and the
underestimation of the distance to objects and their moving limb. When they blocked the participants'
movement. Movement
size prior to the initiation of use of peripheral vision, which meant they could
kinematic evidence for this problem is the lower use only central vision for reaching and grasping
peak velocities and smaller grip apertures (i.e., the an object, the organization and control of the trans-
distance between thumb and fingers in the grasp po- port phase was affected, but not the grasp phase.
sition) during the transport phase. Interestingly, Central vision provides information specific to the
when people are not permitted to use binocular vi- object itself, such as the size and shape of the ob-
sion,and must reach for and grasp an object using ject. When the researchers blocked the partici-
monocular vision, they will move their heads in a pants' use of central vision, which meant they
manner that enables them to obtain more accurate could use only peripheral vision for reaching and
information about the size of an object and the dis- grasping an object, problems occurred with both
tance to it (see Marotta, Kruyer, & Goodale, 1998). the transport and grasp phases.
CHAPTER 6 • PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 103

A CLOSER LOOK
Visual Cues Can Aid Walking for People with Parkinson's Disease

One of the primary movement disorders common to Then, the researchers provided visual cues to the

people who have Parkinson's disease is slowness of Parkinson's patients by placing 50-cm by 5-cm lami-
gait (i.e., gait hypokinesia). Two questions have nated strips of cardboard on the walkway at intervals

interested researchers and physical therapists con- matching the mean stride lengths of the control par-

cerning this gait problem. One, what movement char- ticipants for each speed. The patients were instructed
acteristic accounts for the slowness? Two possibilities to walk over each floor marker as they walked along
are cadence, which would mean that the difficulty re- the walkway. The results showed this:

lates to the rhythm, or beat, of the walking pace, and

• The patients velocity and
' stride lengths were
stride length, which would mean that the slowness is
similar to the controls for both speeds.
due to strides that are shorter than normal. The an-
swer to this question is important for the second ques- The researchers concluded from their results that the
tion: Is there a rehabilitation strategy that would help regulation of stride length was the "key deficit" in
patients improve their control of walking gait speed? gait slowness for patients with Parkinson's disease.
To address these questions, Morris, Iansek, Maty as, And visual cues can be an effective rehabilitation
and Summers (1994) compared walking gaits of strategy for helping these patients regulate gait speed.
Parkinson's patients with age-matchei controls In light of these results, it is interesting to note that
(60-85 years old) for instructions to w; Ik along a several researchers (e.g., Mcintosh, Brown, Rice, &
12-m walkway at "a comfortable pace" and at a "fast Thaut, 1997) have provided evidence to show the ef-
speed." The results showed this: fectiveness of rhythmic auditory stimulation, which
involves embedding a tone at specific intervals in
• The Parkinson 's patients walked more slowly
music to provide a stepping pace for Parkinson's pa-
than the control participants at both speeds,
tients. Walking speeds can be varied by using music
and had shorter stride lengths, but similar
of different tempos
cadences.

The results of the Sivak and MacKenzie experi- searchers to propose that the visual system is actu-
ment match those reported in other research by allytwo anatomical systems that operate in parallel
showing the distinct roles played by central and pe- (see Bridgeman, 1996, for a more detailed discus-
ripheral vision in the control of aiming and prehen- sion of the two vision systems). Paillard (1980), for
sion movements (see Jeannerod & Marteniuk, example, proposed that a kinetic visual channel was
1992. for a review of this research). Consider, for responsible for processing visual information in
example, that when a person sits at a table with the peripheral vision. This channel would process
intent to reach up and pick up a cup, central vision high-speed movement information and control
fixates on the cup during this prehension prepara- limb movement direction. To process visual infor-
tion phase to obtain information on size, shape, etc. mation in central vision and for slow-speed move-
Then, in the transport phase, as the person's hand ments, Paillard proposed a static visual channel. 2
begins to move toward
the cup, the moving hand Other researchers have proposed similar two-
will be seen by peripheral vision. As the grasp channel visual systems but have given them dif-

phase begins, when the hand nears the cup, central ferent names. Some examples include the per-
vision again is used to provide the information ception system, which would be responsible for
needed to accurately grasp the cup.
These distinctive behavioral roles for central 2
For a review of research that has tested Paillard's two visual
and peripheral vision, along with supporting systems model, and two experiments that support and extend
neurophysiological evidence, have led some re- this model, see Proteau, Bolvin, Linossier, and Abahnini (2000)
 ^

104 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II - INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

^ ->*-*" ******

C. UlWfc^ ItejL ^eiX

sUouU
OUx<^oJs.

d. wtUL -> ^tiU. e.

fl*
"* ^
"psiOoU. — po^bU.

FIGURE 6.5 Handwriting examples from the experiment by Smyth and Silvers showing errors related to writing

without vision available (bottom line in (a); right side of arrows in others) as compared to writing with vision avail-

able, (a) shows errors as deviating from the horizontal; (b) shows errors as adding and deleting strokes; (c) shows
adding and deleting of letters; (d) shows adding or deleting of repetitions of double letters; (e) shows reversing of
letters. [Reprinted from Smyth, MM. & Silvers. G. ( 1987). Functions of vision in the control of handwriting. Acta Phychotogica,

65, 47-64. With kind permission of Elsevier Science-NL, Sara Burgerhartstraal 25. 1055 KV Amsterdam. The Netherlands. |

recognizing and describing what a person is see- role was provided by Smyth and Silvers (1987),
ing, and the perception-action system which would who presented evidence showing that a person who
be responsible for perceptually guided movements is asked to write with his or her eyes closed adds
(Goodale & Milner, 1992); another is the focal vi- extra strokes to some letters, omits strokes from
sion system, which is responsible for the detection some letters, and duplicates some letters. And if vi-

of static objects by central vision, and the ambient sual feedback is delayed while a person is writing,
vision system, which detects objects and move- that person makes many errors, including repeat-
ment around us, involving peripheral vision (Tre- ing and adding letters.
varthen, 1968). One important characteristic of the On the basis of their own research and that of
two systems relates to our conscious awareness of others,Smyth and Silvers proposed that vision per-
the information detected by each system. We are forms two distinct functions in the control of hand-
generally consciously aware of information de- writing. One function is to help the writer control
tected by the visual system related to central vision, the overall spatialarrangement of words on a hor-
but not of that detected by the system related to pe- izontal line. We see an example of this function in
ripheral vision. figure 6.5, where handwriting samples taken from
people writing without vision available show dis-
tinct deviations from a horizontal line. The second
VISION AND HANDWRITING
function for vision is to help the writer produce ac-
A substantial amount of research evidence indi- curate handwriting patterns, such as the appropri-
cates that vision plays an important role in the con- ate strokes and letters required for the written
trol of handwriting actions. A good example of this material. Again, evidence of this is seen in figure
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 105

A CLOSER LOOK
Gymnasts' Use of Vision on the Balance Beam

Shannon Robertson and her colleagues (e.g., Robertson, Collins, Elliott, & Starkes, 1994; Robertson & Elliott,
1996) have shown that skilled gymnasts use visual information as they perform their routines on a balance
beam. In several studies, they involved gymnasts walking as fast as possible across a standard balance beam
(5 m long x 10.5 cm wide). In the Robertson and Elliott (1996) experiment, nine female college varsity gym-
nasts performed the task with full vision, no vision, or distorted vision (goggles with a prism oriented vision to

the left or right). Results for each condition were as follows:

Amount of time Number of times Number of steps Number of

to cross the beam beam
stepped off to cross beam form errors

Full Vision 3.0 sec. 0.2 10

No Vision 4.0 sec. 2.5 30
Distorted Vision 7.5 sec. 8.4 42

The increase in form errors when the gymnasts had no vision or distorted vision was due primarily to deviations
from an upright posture. These deviations resulted from the gymnasts' postural adjustments to maintain their
balance as they walked. When these results are considered in terms of our discussion of the role of vision in
human motor control, they are consistent with experiments involving locomotor daily living activities by demon-
strating the significant role vision plays in helping us maintain dynamic posture.

6.5.People who wrote without vision available for example, situations such as walking in an empty
added or omitted strokes, added extra letters, hallway on your way to class, or performing a
deleted letters, and reversed letters. balance-beam routine as a gymnast. In each of these
situations, the people involved would find it difficult

to achieve the primary action goals of the activity

VISION AND LOCOMOTION without maintaining dynamic postural balance.
Although scientists in a variety of fields have stud- How does vision enable people to maintain their
ied locomotion, the study of the role of vision in balance in locomotion situations like these? For lo-

the control of locomotion does not have a long his- comotion in general, research evidence indicates
tory. However, we have learned from this research that peripheral vision plays a key role (e.g., Assa-
that vision plays important roles in the motor con- iante & Amblard, 1992). More specifically, periph-

trol of locomotion. To introduce you to these roles, environment

eral vision detects visual cues in the
we will consider the following three types of loco- by assessing optical flow patterns. Optical flow
motion situations, each of which is defined by the refers to the pattern of rays of light that strike the
locomotion action goal. retina of the eye from all parts of the environment.
The word "flow" is significant because it indicates

Maintaining Dynamic Postural Balance

In both daily activities and sports, we engage in loco-

motor activities in which an essential goal is to main- optical flow The patterns of rays of light that
tain postural balance. Although the situations may strike the retina of the eye that emanate from and are
involve other action goals, the maintenance of pos- specific to objects and features in the environment.
tural balance is critical to achieve them. Consider,
106 mhhe.com/ma2ill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

the dynamic nature of this visually detected infor- control system uses this time-to-contact informa-
mation. As we move in an environment, or when tion, which is specified by the visual variable tau
something in our environment moves, our visual (t), to make stride-length adjustments during the
system detects and interprets invariant patterns of last few steps to correct for the distance error that
light rays that are specific to and emanate from ob- has accumulated during the run-up. Without these
jects and features in that environment. As a result, adjustments, the athlete would either be short or
vision's use of optical flow allows us to locomote long of the take-off board.
through an environment and helps us to achieve ac- In what has become a classic experiment dem-
tion goals. (For an excellent review of research onstrating this time-to-contact influence for a loco-
concerning optical flow and locomotion, and an motor skill requiring object contact, Lee, Lishman,
experiment involving the use of optical flow and and Thomson (1982) filmed three highly skilled fe-

locomotion, and an experiment involving the use male long jumpers during their approaches to the
of optical flow, see Konczak, 1994.) take-off board. By analyzing stride-length changes
as each athlete approached and contacted the take-
Contacting Objects off board for a series of six long jumps, the re-
When an athlete performs a long jump, the athlete searchers observed several important gait pattern
needs to make contact with the take-off board at characteristics. We will examine these using the re-
maximum running speed. This run-up portion of sults from one of these athletes (an Olympic-level
the long jump can be thought of as similar to an performer), presented in figure 6.6.
aiming task: it requires the athlete to move a cer-
tain distance and then hit a target. The target is the
take-off board, which is about 20 cm long (from
front to back) and 1.2 m wide (from side to side).
If any part of the athlete's foot extends beyond the
back edge of the board (i.e., the edge nearer the
landing pit), a foul is called and the jump does not
count. On the other hand, if the tip of the foot
strikes short of the board, the jump is that amount
shorter because the jump distance is measured
from the back edge of the board.
The motor control question related to the run-
up is this: What does the athlete do during the run-

up to hit the take-off board as accurately as

possible? One possibility is that the athlete per-
forms the same programmed step pattern during
each run-up on each jump. This would mean that
any error in hitting the take-off board would be due
to an error programmed step pattern. How-
in the

ever, research evidence has shown that this is not

what the athlete does. Although each long jumper
takes a number of steps during each run-up that is

specific to him or her, the step lengths of the last

few steps vary across run-ups. Most scholars now
agree that the reason for this is that the athletes use
visual information that specifies the amount of time
it will take to contact the take-off board. The motor Vision is used in various ways when we walk on a din road.
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 107

FIGURE 6.6 Redrawn from results

220
of the experiment by Lee, Lishman,
and Thomson showing the stride-
^ ?oo length characteristics (top) and the
b
u standard errors for 6 long jumps by
.c an Olympic-class female long jumper.
180 [From Lee, D.N.. Lishman, J.R., & Thom-
c
0)
son, J. A. (1 982). Regulation of gait in long
0)
|U jumping. Journal of Experimental Psychol-
160
ogy: Human Perception and Performance, 8,
if)
448-459. Copyright © 1982 The American
140 - Psychological Association. Adapted with

permission.]

-18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4

Stride number before take-off

-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6

Stride number before take-off

Initially, the athlete's stride length increased at These stride-length characteristics led the au-
a relatively constant rate for the first five to six thors to describe the long jump run-up as consisting
strides; it then began to become similar for the next of two phases: an initial accelerative phase, where
six strides. These strides were relatively consistent an athlete produces stereotypic stride patterns, fol-
across the six jumps. Then, on the final six strides, lowed by a zeroing-in phase, where the athlete mod-
something different occurred. The athlete made ifies stride patterns to eliminate accumulated error.

stride-length adjustments so that she could hit the They concluded that a long jumper bases the cor-
board accurately. In fact, she made almost 50 per- rection process during the second phase on visual
cent of these adjustments on the last stride. The information obtained in advance of these strides.
lower half of the figure shows why she had to make This means that the visual system picks up time-to-
these adjustments. As the athlete ran down the contact information from the board and directs the
track, small inconsistencies in each stride had a cu- locomotor control system to make appropriate
mulative effect, so that when she was five strides stride-length modifications for the strides remain-
from the board the error had risen to 37 cm. If she ing until contact with the take-off board.
had not adjusted her stride lengths on the remain- It is worth noting that the use of visual time-to-
ing strides, she would have missed hitting the take- contact information to regulate gait does not de-
off board by a long distance. pend on the expertise of the person. Although the
108 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

participants in the Lee and authors long jump study Researchers have found that other types of gait
were highly skilled, novice long jumpers also have also involve adjustments during locomotion on the
demonstrated similar stride-length adjustments basis of visual time-to-contact information. Some
consistent with the influence of tau (Berg, Wade, examples are walking a given distance and stepping
& Greer, 1994). on the target with a specified foot (Laurent &
In the second phase of the run-up, the percent- Thomson, 1988); running and stepping on targets,
age of the total stride-length corrections made on as people do when crossing a creek on rocks (War-
each stride can be used as a way to demonstrate the ren, Young, & Lee, 1986); doing run-ups to the
perception-action coupling involved in the long springboard and horse while performing the vault
jump run-up. If tau is the visual variable that influ- in women's gymnastics (Meeuwsen & Magill,
ences the long jumper's performance during this 1987). In all of these activities, the persons adjust
phase of the run-up, we would expect to see evi- stride length on the basis of time-to-contact infor-
dence of a coupling between the visually detected mation as they near the targets.

time-to-contact and movement corrections. This

coupling would be best demonstrated by a linear Avoiding Contact with Objects
relationship between the percentage of the total ad- When you walk through a doorway, you want to
justment and the number of strides remaining to hit avoid contact with the sides of the doorway. How
the take-off board. Montagne et al. (2000) pre- do you successfully achieve the action goal of this
sented evidence of this relationship in a study in- locomotor activity? Research evidence indicates
volving long jumpers of various levels of expertise. that vision provides the motor system with body-
As you can see in figure 6.7, the percentage of the scaled information about the size of a specific body
total amount of adjustment increased linearly for part in relation to the size of the doorway. A person
the final five strides from the take-off board. And, decides how to orient his or her body to walk
similar to what Lee
(1982) found for elite
et al. through an open doorway on the basis of visually
jumpers, approximately 40 percent of the total perceived information related to the proportion of
amount of adjustment occurred on the stride before his or her shoulder width to the width of the door
the take-off board. opening. More specifically, Warren and Whang
(1987) reported that a doorway needs to be 1.3
times wider than the person's shoulder width
40 r- for the person to determine that he or she can
walk through it without having to turn his or her
35
0) shoulders.
E 30
in
3
A different type of object avoidance situation
T3
TO
2S occurs when we need to go safely over an obstacle
CO
*-* ?o in our pathway. People can employ a variety of
o
•—•
avoidance strategies while walking or running to
o 15
c accomplish this goal. Patla and his colleagues have
Q)
O 10
i- reported several studies in which they investigated
a>
a. F,
the role vision plays in the strategy people select

u -4 -3
to go over an obstacle (e.g., Patla, Rietdyk, Martin,
-5 -2 -1
Stride number before take-off
& Prentice, 1996). Here again, vision provides pre-
dictive information that specifies to the motor con-
FIGURE 6.7 The percentage of the total amount of stride-
trol system the type of step-pattern alteration that
length adjustments for the final fixe strides for the long-jumpers
in the experiment by Montagne et al. [Modified Figure 3 from
will be needed to step over the object. The primary
Montagne et al. (2000). A perception-action coupling type of control in information is specified by the height, width, and
long jumping. Journal of Motor Behavior. 32, 37^t3.] shape of the object. In addition, predictions about
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 109

A CLOSER LOOK
Vision Provides Body-Scaled Information When We Climb Stairs
Stair climbing common, everyday activity. But,
is a the relationship between the stair/step height and the
how do we know we need to climb are
that the stairs person's leg length. Researchers (e.g., Warren, 1994)
actually climbable? That is, how do we know that have shown that if the riser height is equal to or less
we can use a typical forward-stepping movement to than 88 percent of the person's leg length, the per-
climb a set of stairs? Vision operates in this situa- son will judge that stair step to be climbable by a
way that is similar to how it enables us to
tion in a normal, forward-stepping movement. If the propor-
determine if we can walk through a doorway with- tion exceeds 88 percent, the person will use a differ-

out having to turn our shoulders to avoid contact ent movement pattern to climb the stair steps, such
with the sides of the doorway. The visual system de- as children often do when they sit on the step first,

tects and uses body-scaled information that involves or lift a knee to put the lower leg on the step first.

how solid or fragile the object is are also impor- ity, regardless of the height of the jump. The results

tant. For example, people will increase the height of this experiment support this prediction, which
of their leading leg, which increases the amount of means that the visual variable tau mediated the
toe clearance, more for an obstacle perceived to be control of the onset of the muscle activity required
fragile than for an object perceived to be solid. for jumping from different heights.

VISION AND JUMPING VISION AND CATCHING

FROM HEIGHTS In many ways, catching an object is like the pre-
Jumping from a platform to the floor is another hension action discussed earlier. However, there
skill for which experimental results have sup- are two important differences. First, catching in-
ported the view that the visual variable tau triggers volves a moving object; prehension typically in-
specific preparatory movement-related activities volves a stationary object. Second, the grasp of the
so that a person can achieve an action goal. For object in the catching action ends the action; pre-
example, in an experiment by Sidaway, McNitt- hension typically involves doing something with
Gray. and Davis (1989), people jumped from three the grasped object. Although in some sport situa-
different heights: 0.72 m, 1.04 m, and 1.59 m. tions, such as baseball and softball, there are occa-

The researchers instructed the participants to land sions in which a player must remove the ball from
with both feet on a force plate on the floor, and to the glove after the catch and throw the ball, this sit-

direct their visual attention toward this force plate uation is uniquely sport and situation specific and
throughout the jump. will not be included in this discussion of catching.
A unique characteristic of this experiment is that
the researchers measured the EMG activity of the Three Phases of Catching an Object
rectus femoris so that they could assess the onset To catch an object, the person must first move the
of activity in this agonist muscle in relation to the arm and hand toward the oncoming object. Then,
distance the person was from landing on the floor. he or she must shape the hand to catch the object.
The logic here was that if the visual variable tau Finally, the fingers must grasp the object.
acts as a triggering mechanism for initiating a cer- Williams and McCririe (1988) provided re-
tain action, there should be a specific relationship search evidence demonstrating the phases of catch-
between tau and the onset of rectus femoris activ- ing with their study of 1
1
-year-old boys trying to
110 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

25 50 75 Catch

;% of ball flight]

No arm Beginning of Hand begins to Final finger

movement elbow flexion and withdraw from positioning
finger extension ball and is

spatially positioned

FIGURE 6.8 The arm. hand, and fingers movement characteristics involved in catching a ball in relation to the percentage of ball

flight time. {Data from Williams & McCririe (1988). Journal of Human Movement Studies, 14, 241-247.1

catch a ball with one hand (figure 6.8).A movement Vision of the Object and Catching
analysis of the catching action showed the follow- Catching an object, such as a ball, is a complex ac-
ing sequence. There was no arm motion for the hist tion that has challenged researchers in their efforts
160 to 240 msec of the ball flight. Then, elbow flex- to understand how the visual and motor control
ion gradually began and continued slowly and systems interact to enable people to successfully
uniformly for about 80 percent of the ball flight. At catch a moving object. The results of these research
about the same time, the fingers began to extend. efforts have identified several factors that influence
The hand began to withdraw from the oncoming successful catching that relate specifically to the
ball until about one-half of the ball flight time had visual observation of the object.
elapsed. Then the upper arm accelerated about the One factor is the amount of time of visual con-
shoulder, which resulted in the hand's being trans- tact with the moving object. Research evidence in-

ported to the spatial position required for intercept- dicates that constant visual contact is needed
ing the ball. Boys who caught the ball began final during two critical periods of time in the object's

positioning action 80 msec earlier than boys who flight: the initial part of the flight and the period of
it. By the time 75 percent of the ball
failed to catch time just prior to contact with the hand(s). How
flightwas complete (113 msec prior to contact), much time is required during each of these time
each successful boy had his hand and fingers in a periods has not been established, and undoubtedly
ready state for catching the ball. depends on the situation. Some researchers have
These results indicate that vision provides ad- reported evidence indicating that observation of
vance information enabling the motor control the initial flight should continue until the ball
system to spatially and temporally set the arms, reaches its zenith (Amazeen, Amazeen, Post, &
hands, and fingers before the ball arrives so that Beek, 1999), although others have indicated that
the individual can catch the ball. It is especially only the first 300 ms of flight are important (e.g.,

noteworthy here that the person bases the grasping Whiting, Gill, & Stephenson, 1970). The impor-
action on visual information obtained before the tant point here is that visual contact with the ob-
ball actually makes contact with the hand, rather ject is needed for an amount of time during its

than on feedback obtained after the ball has hit the initial flight phase that is sufficient to obtain infor-
hand. The extent of involvement of proprioception mation to determine estimates of the direction and
during pre-ball contact stages is not well under- distance of the flight.
stood. However, we know that proprioceptive and In terms of visual contact with the object dur-
tactile feedback become involved after contact be- ing its final portion of flight, research evidence in-
cause the catcher needs to make adjustments to the dicates that the time period between 200 and 300
grasp. Research evidence also shows that both cen- ms before hand contact is critical for successful
tral and peripheral vision operate when a person catching (Savelsbergh, Whiting, Pijpers, & van
picks up information critical to catching an object. Santvoord. 1993), although the precise amount of
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 111

A CLOSER LOOK
The Use of Looming in Television and Movies: An Illustration of Our Use of Tau

In their review of the issues related to determining flying out of the screen directly at the viewer. This il-

the visual information people use to time the ap- lusion is created by making the object appear small
proach of an oncoming object, Abernethy and on the screen and then having it nonlinearly expand
Burgess-Limerick (1992) stated that if a raw-based in size (i.e., slowly at first and then rapidly). This
method for picking up time to contact is viable, "ob- change in the rate of expansion creates the optical il-

servers must first and foremost be sensitive to infor- lusion that the object will fly out of the screen and hit
mation provided by optical expansion or 'looming'" you. Undoubtedly you have observed this looming il-

(p. 366). They went on to describe several research lusion, and have actually responded to it by moving
studies supporting this prediction. Although these your head to avoid the object hitting you. What is es-

studies are important to establish scientific support pecially interesting about this behavioral reaction is

for tau, we can find evidence of our sensitivity to that it occurs even though you know it is not possible
looming from a common everyday experience. for the object to physically fly out of the screen and
Have you ever watched a television program or hit you. The important point here is that the object
movie and experienced the illusion of an object fly- made no distance and velocity changes; only size
ing out of the screen directly at you? Because televi- changed. It is this size-based change, and its nonlin-
sion and movies are two-dimensional media, creators ear rate of expansion, that is the basis for tau provid-
of visual effects implement the concept of looming to ing a means for people to time the approach of an
create the three-dimensional quality of an object oncoming object.
moving from far away and then acting as if it were

time may depend on the specific characteristics of Thus, people can use visual samples of ball flight

the situation, especially the length of time the characteristics to obtain the information they need
object is in flight and its velocity (see Bennett, to catch the ball. This capability to use intermittent
Davids, & Craig, 1999). The need to see the ball visually detected information to catch an object
during the final portion of its flight is to obtain spe- helps us understand how an ice hockey goalie can
cific time-to-contact information for the final spa- catch a puck or a soccer goalkeeper can catch a ball
tial positioning of the hand and fingers, and the even though he or she must visually track it

timing of the closing of the fingers during the grasp through several pairs of legs on its way to the goal.

of the object. Another important motor control question con-

What about visual contact with the object in cerning vision of the object and catching is this:

flightbetween these two time periods? Research Does the motor control system use the visual vari-
evidence, primarily from Elliott and his colleagues able tau to enable people to catch an object? Al-
(e.g., Elliott, Zuberec, & Milgram, 1994), indicates though there is considerable debate about the
that continuous visual contact with the ball during answer to this question (see Abernethy & Burgess-
this period of time is not essential. The Elliott et al. Limerick, 1992, for a more complete discussion of
(1994) study showed that people can catch a ball this issue), a significant amount of research evi-
that has a flight time of 1 sec by intermittently see- dence indicates that tau is involved in solving
ing brief "snapshots " (approximately 20 msec) of the time-to-contact problem when catching an
the ball every 80 msec of its flight. Interestingly, object (Abernethy & Burgess-Limerick, 1992;
these results are remarkably similar to those re- Bootsma & Peper, 1992). When an object moves
ported for people walking on a balance beam directly toward a person, the angle created at the
(Robertson et al., 1999) and across a horizontal person's eyes by the top and bottom edges of the
ladder (Assaiante, Marchand, & Amblard, 1989). object increases in size in a nonlinear way as the
112 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

Interesting as the Smyth and Marriott results

LAB LINKS
may be, research since their work has shown that
Lab 6 in the Online Learning Center Lab Manual experience is an important factor influencing a per-
provides an opportunity for you to compare catch- son's catching success when he or she cannot see
ing a ball when you can and when you cannot see his or her hands. We might expect this, as Davids
your hands. ( 1988) argued, because the effective use of periph-
eral vision is a function of age and experience. Be-
cause we use peripheral vision to see our hands as
we try to catch an oncoming object, it is logical to
object approaches the person. The nonlinearity
expect that our need to see our hands to catch a ball
refers to the perceived slowness of this angle in-
will depend on our age and experience.
crease when the ball is farther away from the per-
Fischman and Schneider (1985) provided em-
son and the rapid increase in size as it gets close to
pirical evidence that supports the influence of ex-
the person. It is this rate of expansion of angular
perience. Using the same experimental procedures
size, which is often referred to as looming, that the
as those of Smyth and Marriott, they included par-
visual system uses to determine when collision of
ticipants who had had at least five years' experi-
the object with the person will occur. For the ac-
ence in varsity baseball or softball. The results of
tion of catching, this optical expansion establishes
this experiment (figure 6.9) showed that although
when the appropriate movement characteristics for
the number of catches decreased when the people
the arm, hand, and finger will be in place to catch
could not see their hands, the type of error did not
the object. For objects that do not move directly to-
depend on whether or not the participants could see
ward the person but require the person to run to
their hands.However, for the inexperienced ball
catch them, tau also provides the visual basis for
catchers,more positioning errors than grasp errors
timing the catch, although the mathematics for cal-
occurred when they could not see their hands.
culating tau are distinctly more complex.
Researchers now generally agree that both ball
catching experience and skill level influence the
Vision of the Hands and Catching need for a person to see his or her hands while
An important question related to catching is this: catchinga ball (see Bennett, Davids, & Craig,
Must a person be able to see his or her hands 1999). More-experienced and skilled catchers do
throughout the flight of a ball to successfully catch not need to see their hands; less-experienced and
the ball? In one of the first experiments investigat- low-skill catchers require vision of their hands. The
ing this question, Smyth and Marriott (1982) at- reason for this difference appears to relate to a per-
tached a screen to the participants so they could see son's capability to use proprioceptive feedback to
the oncoming ball, but not their hands. When the catch a moving object. The less-experienced, low-
participants were able to see their hands, they aver- skilled person needs visual feedback to assist in the

aged 17.5 catches out of 20 balls thrown. However, use of proprioceptive feedback to spatially position
when they could not see their hands, they were able his or her arms and hands, and to effectively grasp

to catch an average of 9.2 balls out of 20. More im- the object. In terms of helping people improve their

portant, when they could not see their hands, par- catching skill, this relationship between experience
ticipants typically made a hand-positioning error: and the need for vision of the hands suggests that
they could not get their hands into the correct spa- beginners and less-skilled people should practice
tial position to intercept the ball. But when they catching primarily in situations where they can see
could see their hands, their typical errors involved their hands throughout the ball flight, from the
grasping: they initiated too early the finger flexion point where the ball leaves the thrower's hand until
they needed to grasp the ball. the ball is grasped.
CHAPTER 6 • PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 113

A CLOSER LOOK
"Watch the Ball All the Way to Your Bat!"

A common instruction coaches give when teaching It is worth noting that more-skilled batters watch
hitting in baseball is to tell players, "Watch the ball amount of time than less-skilled
the ball for a longer
all the way to your bat." In light of this, it is interest- players. Beginners tend to have the bat swing initia-
ing to note that research (e.g.. Bahill and LaRitz, tion movement influence their head position and
1984) indicates that batters probably never see the bat "pull" their head out of position to see the ball/bat
hit the ball. If they do, it is because they have jumped contact area.
in their visual focus from some point in the ball flight From an instruction point of view, these characteris-
to the bat contact point. They do not visually track tics suggest that it is worthwhile to instruct a person,
the ball continuously all the way to bat contact be- "Watch the ball all the way to your bat." Even though
cause this is virtually a physical impossibility. Bat- the person can't really do that, this instruction directs

ters commonly track the ball to a certain point and the person's visual attention so that the person tracks
then visually jump to a point where they predict the the ball for as long as physically possible, and keeps his

ball will be at bat contact. or her head in position to see the ball/bat contact area.

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FIGURE 6.9 Results of the experiment by Fischman and Schneider showing the number of right-hand catches made (out of
20 chances) for experienced softball /baseball players and nonexperienced subjects, and the percentage of errors made (based on
360 attempts) by each group that were classified as positioning (P) or grasp (G) errors when subjects either could or could not see
their hands. [Source: Data from Fischman. M.G.. & Schneider, T. (1985). Skill level, vision, and proprioception in simple one-hand catching.

Journal of Motor Behavior. 17, 219-229.]

114 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
How Does a Person Catch a Ball That Requires Running to Catch It?

In many sports, players must run to catch a ball. A

motor control question concerning this situation that has in-
trigued scientists for many years is this: What control
strategy does a person use to catch a ball that requires
running some distance to catch it? This question has generated interest because people seem to be able to learn
to successfully perform this skill relatively easily, which is evident when we observe how quickly children learn
this skill. The primary approach taken by scientists to answer this question has been to develop mathematical
models that identify the critical favors involved in this skill and describe how the motor control system manages
these factors.
The mathematical models identify two angles of two triangles as the critical factors involved in this catching
situation (see McLeod. Reed, & Deines. 2001 These triangles and the angles are shown in figure 6.10.
).

FIGURE 6.10 An illustration depicting the criti-

cal angles that McLeod. Reed, and Dienes propose

the motor control system must manage so that a
fielder can run and catch a ball. The tilled circles

represent the locations of the ball during its flight;

the open circles represent the locations of a fielder

who must run to catch the ball. The figure shows a

ball hit to the fielder"s right. To make the figure

represent a ball hit along the line directly in front

or behind the fielder, the lines that converge to Ball

form angles a
and P (which are to the left of the projection
point
final ball and fielder location) would converge to
form these angles along line C-, in front of or be-
hind the final ball and fielder location. [Source:

Modified Figure I, p. 1348 in McLeod, P.. Reed, N., &

Dienes. Z. (2001 1. Toward ;i unified fielder theory: What Fielder
we do not yet know about how people run to catch a ball. start point GEO O
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception
* & '

and Performance. 27, 1347-1355.] Z.

O Fielder

VISION AND STRIKING tended to synchronize the start of the step forward
A MOVING OBJECT with the release of the ball from the pitcher's hand.
And, perhaps most important, the durations of the
Two experiments investigating the striking of a batters' swings were remarkably consistent from
moving object illustrate how vision is involved in swing to swing, indicating that it was the initiation
this action.
of the swing that batters adjusted according to the
speed of the oncoming pitch. Interestingly, these
Vision and Baseball Batting findings agree precisely with expectations from a
The most commonly cited experiment related to raw-based strategy for hitting. That is, the initiation
was performed
the role of vision in baseball batting of the batting action occurred at a critical time to
many years ago by Hubbard and Seng (1954). contact.
Using photographic techniques, they found that Some of the findings of Hubbard and Seng have
professional baseball players tracked the ball only been either verified or extended in research re-
to a point, at which time they made their swing. ported since their study. For example, thirty years
This point did not coincide with the point where later, Bahill and LaRitz (1984) used more sophisti-

the bat made contact with the ball. Each batter cated technology to closely monitor eye and head
CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 115

A CLOSER LOOK (continued)

• Triangle I involves the ball flight and the fielder's involved because the fielder's position would be
position. Within this triangle, the critical angle is along A-, and its extension. Fielders time their ar-
the angle of elevation of the fielder's point of gaze rival at the ball by running forward or backward at

above the horizontal (angle a). This angle is cre- a speed that maintains a between 0° and 90°.
ated by a line from the ball location in the air at • To catch a ball that requires running to the side,
any moment to the fielder's position on the ground both angles a and p are critical. As in the situation
at that moment, and a line from the fielder's posi- in which the fielder must run forward or backward,
tion to the location on the ground directly under fielders time their arrival at the ball by running
the ball. forward or backward at a speed that maintains a
• Triangle 2 involves the ball flight, the ball projec- between 0° and 90°. However, researchers do not
tion point, and the fielder's position. Within this yet know why fielders choose the spatial path they
triangle, the critical angle (P) is the angle created follow to make the catch, which involves the con-
by a line from the ball projection point to the trol of p.
fielder's position and a line from the fielder's posi-
McLeod, Reed, and Dienes (2001) summed up the
tion to the location on the ground directly under
status of our current knowledge about the issue of
the ball.
how people run to catch a ball by saying: "We under-
Research based on this type of mathematical model stand how a is controlled but not P" (p. 1355). Re-
has resulted in some general agreement with Chap- gardless of how this issue is resolved, the important
man's (1968) original model for the catching situa- point in terms of the discussion in this chapter is the
tion in which the person must run straight forward or critical involvement of the visual system. And vision
backward. However, there is no consensus among sci- appears to be involved in a way that requires little
entists for the situation in which the person must run conscious control of the movements that must be ex-
to the side to catch the ball. ecuted to enable a person to achieve the action goal.

• To catch a ball that requires running directly for-

ward or backward, angle a is the primary angle

movements of a major league baseball player and head position changed less than one degree across
several college baseball players. The study was all pitches. Interestingly, he made slight head
done in a laboratory situation that simulated play- movements while tracking the ball, but never
ers'responses to a high-and-outside fastball thrown moved his body.
by a left-handed pitcher to a right-handed batter.
The major league player visually tracked the ball Vision and Table Tennis Striking
longer than the college players did. The college In a study of five top table tennis players in the

players tracked the ball to a point about 9 ft in front Netherlands, Bootsma and van Wieringen (1990)
of the plate, at which point their visual tracking showed from movement analysis results that the

began to fall behind the ball. The major league players could not rely completely on consistent
player kept up with the ball until it reached a point movement production. Players seemed to compen-
about 5.5 ft in front of the plate before falling be- sate for differences in the initiation times of their
hind in his tracking. Also, regardless of the pitch swings in order to hit the ball as fast and as accu-
speed, the major league player followed the same rately as possible. For example, when time to
visual tracking pattern and was very consistent in contact was shorter at swing initiation, players
every stance he took to prepare for the pitch. His compensated by applying more force during the
116 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
General Vision Training Programs for Athletes:
Do They Improve Sports Performance?
Bruce Abernethy and his colleagues at the University of Queensland in Australia have asserted for many years
that although general vision training programs (e.g., Eyerobics) may help to improve certain basic vision func-
tions, they do not improve sport-specific performance. Abernethy and Wood (2001) presented three lines of rea-
soning, all of which are supported by research evidence, as the basis for their position:

Above-normal basic visual function (e.g., foveal used to train specific visual functions are
and peripheral acuity, contrast sensitivity) does not commonly procedures that are the same as, or sim-
favor elite athletes. A significant amount of ilar to, the tests used to evaluate the functions.
research has shown that the visual advantage of Experimental evidence is lacking to validate the
elite athletes is sports-specific and perceptual in effectiveness of general vision training programs
nature, i.e., the interpreting and use of visual infor- for improving sports performance. In fact, in the
mation to specific sports activities. (We will dis- experiment reported in this article, two visual
cuss this aspect of vision and motor control in training programs (Sports Vision and Eyerobics)
chapters 7 and 8). led to performance improvements that were no
Although many commonly measured visual func- better than reading about and watching televised
tions can improve with training and repetitive tennis matches during the four-week training time,
practice, many of the reported improvements occur which consisted of four 20-min sessions each
for people with visual defects. And, the exercises week.

stroke. And evidence suggests that some of these aspects of the coordination of limb and body
players were making very fine adjustments to their segments.
swings while they were moving. Thus, whereas vi-
Vision tends to dominate as a source of sensory
sual information may trigger the initiation of the
information, which is well illustrated by a move-
swing and provide information about its essential
ment response to visual information in situa-
characteristics, vision also provides information
tions in which vision and proprioception provide
that the player can use to make compensatory ad-
conflicting information, as was demonstrated in
justments to the initiated swing, although these are
the "moving room experiment."
very slight in terms of time and space quantities.
Research evidence has shown that vision plays
several important roles in the motor control of
SUMMARY complex daily activities and sports skills. We
examined how these roles are involved in the
Proprioception and vision are two important
performance of several types of motor activities
sources of feedback involved in movement control.
and skills, namely, manual aiming actions; pre-
• To investigate the role of proprioception in hension actions; handwriting; locomotion ac-
motor control, researchers have used several ex- tions, including those that involve maintaining
perimental techniques to remove or distort pro-
dynamic postural balance, contacting objects,
prioceptive feedback. Results of experiments
and avoiding contact with objects; jumping
that have used these techniques have shown that
from heights; catching a ball; and hitting a base-
proprioceptive feedback provides important
ball and a table tennis ball.
information that influences motor control func-
tions such as movement accuracy, the timing As a result of our examination of several types
of the onset of motor commands, and various of motor activities and skills, we determined that
 )

CHAPTER 6 PROPRIOCEPTION AND VISION 117

vision is critically involved in motor control Michaels. C. R. Zeinstra. E. B., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2001 ).

functions, such as the preparation of movements Information and action in punching a falling ball. Quarterly

required to initiate and carry out an action; the Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50A, 69 93.

guidance and correction of limb-movement Portier, S. J.. & van Galen, G. P. (1992). Immediate \s. post-

kinematics: the maintaining of postural balance; poned visual feedback in practicing a handwriting task.

and the timing and spatial positioning involved

Human Movement Science. II, 563-592.

in the contacting or intercepting of objects, and

Starkes, J., Helsen. W.. & Elliot. D. (2002). A menage a trois:

The eye, the hand and on-line processing. Journal of Sports

in avoiding contact with objects.
Sciences, 20, 217-224

RELATED READINGS
STUDY QUESTIONS
Bingham. G. P.. Bradley. A.. Bailey. M.. & Vinner, R. (2001
1. Describe four methods for investigating the
Accommodation, occlusion, and disparity matching are used
role of proprioception in the control of move-
to guide reaching: A comparison of actual versus virtual en-
ment. What do the results of the investigations
vironments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
using these methods tell us about the role of
Perception and Performance. 27. 1314—1334
Bootsma. R. Predictive information and the control of
proprioception in controlling movement?
J. ( 1991 ).

action: What you see is what you get. International Journal 2. What two roles does vision play in controlling
of Sport Psychology, 22. 271-278. manual aiming movements? How is the dura-
Carnahan. H., Goodale. M. A., & Marteniuk, R. G. (1993). tion of the movement a variable influencing
Grasping versus pointing and the differential use of visual these roles?
feedback. Human Movement Science. 12, 219-234.

Dietz. V. (2002). Proprioception and locomotor disorders. 3. Discuss how vision is involved in controlling
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3, 781-790 prehension. Use an example to illustrate.

Haggard. P. 1997). Coordinating actions. Quarterly Journal of

(
4. Discuss how time to contact is involved in the
Experimental Psychology, 50A. 707-725
control of locomotion when the goal is to con-
Inhoff. A. W.. & Gordon. A. M. (1997). Eye movements and
tact a target. Include in this discussion the role
eye-hand coordination during typing. Current Directions in
vision plays in this situation.
Psychological Science, 6, 153-157.
Hibbard. P. B.. & Bradshaw. M. F. (2003). Reaching for virtual 5. Discuss how vision is involved when a person
objects: Binocular disparity and the control of prehension. must (a) catch a thrown ball; (b) strike an on-
Experimental Brain Research, 148. 196-201 coming ball.
 Chapter

Action Preparation

Concept: Performing voluntary, coordinated movement

requires preparation of the motor control system

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Discuss why reaction time (RT) can be an index of preparation required to perform a motor
skill

• Explain how Hick's law describes the relationship between the number of alternatives in a
choice-RT situation and RT
• Describe various task and situation characteristics that influence action preparation

• Describe various performer characteristics that influence action preparation

• Discuss several motor control activities that occur during action preparation

Application tween the moment you see this and the moment
you begin to move your foot off the accelerator and
Many sport and daily activities demonstrate our onto the brake pedal. In each of these very differ-
need to prepare the motor control system to carry ent action scenarios, intended action is preceded

out an intended action. For example, many sporting by an interval of time which the motor control
in
events, such as running, swimming, and trap shoot- system is prepared according to the demands and
ing, incorporate the importance of preparation into constraints of the situation.
the rules of the activity, which require an audible Consider the preparation of action from a dif-
signal warning the competitors to get ready. ferent perspective. Undoubtedly, at some time or
Certain performance characteristics of activities other you have said, following a poor performance
also provide evidence of the need to prepare for the in an activity, I wasn't "ready". By saying this, you
action. For example, when you decide to pick up a imply that you had been "ready" you would have
if

glass of water for a drink, there is a slight delay be- performed much better than you just have. Or, if
tween your decision and the intended action. In an- you work with physical therapy patients, you un-
other example, if you are driving a car along a doubtedly have heard one tell the therapist, "Don't
street and another car unexpectedly pulls out in rush me. If I get out of this chair before I'm ready,
front of you, there is a measurable time delay be- I'll fall."

118
CHAPTER 7 ACTION PREPARATION 119

Discussion index of preparation required to produce an

action.
1
By investigating factors that increase or
In chapters 4 through 6, we focused on factors
decrease this time interval and the mental activities
influencing the control of an ongoing action.
that occur during this interval, we can gain some
Although there was occasional mention of the ini-
understanding of the action preparation processes
tiation of the action, we only touched on what our motor control system engages in to enable us
is involved in the actual preparation of an intended
to perform a skill.
action. In the present discussion, our interest is in
One of the things that RT tells us is that prepar-
what occurs between the intention to act and the
ing to produce voluntary movement takes time.
initiation of the action itself. In the motor control
Planned movement does not occur instantaneously.
literature, researchers sometimes use the term
Certain actions and circumstances require more
movement preparation to designate this activity.
preparation than others. In the following sections,
However, in we made
keeping with the distinction
we discuss a variety of factors that influence the
in chapter 1 between actions and movements, we
amount and type of preparation needed.
will use the term action preparation when refer-
ring to this process. TASK AND SITUATION
In this context, preparation does not refer to the CHARACTERISTICS
long-term preparation that occurs during the days INFLUENCING PREPARATION
prior to an event, but to the specific preparation the
motor control system makes just prior to initiating One set of factors that influence action preparation

an action. We will address two preparation issues includes characteristics of both the task itself and

here. First, how do different skill, performance- the situation in which it must be performed.
context, and personal factors influence the prepara-
The Number of Response Choices
tion process? Second, exactly what is the motor
An important characteristic of task and perfor-
control system preparing that makes preparation
mance situations that influences preparation time is
such a critical part of any performance? Before we
the number of response alternatives the performer
discuss these issues, we will establish how we
has to choose from. As the number of alternatives
know that the motor control system needs to be
increases, the amount of time required to prepare
prepared for action.
the appropriate movement increases. The easiest
way to demonstrate this relationship is by looking
ACTION PREPARATION at the choice-RT situation you were introduced to
REQUIRES TIME in chapter 2. RT number
increases according to the

The principle that the motor control system needs of stimulus or response choices. The fastest RTs
preparation before it can initiate an action has its
occur in simple-RT situations, which have only one
roots in research carried out in the middle of the
stimulus and one response. RT slows down when

nineteenth century by Donders (1868/1969), a

Dutch physician. This principle is derived from an 'When RT is used as an index of action preparation, it is often
used as described in chapter 4. to determine the amount of time
inference based on the effects of various factors on
required for "motor programming."
observed differences in the amount of time be-
tween the production of a signal telling a person to
begin performing a skill and the instant experi- action preparation the activity that occurs be-
menters actually observe the beginning of move- tween the intention to perform and the initiation of
ment. As you studied in chapter 2, we call this an action; sometimes, the term motor programming
interval of time reaction time (RT). When consid- is used to refer to this activity.

ered in the context of action preparation. RT is an

120 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
A Historical Look at the Use of Reaction Time to Study Action Preparation

The study of reaction time (RT) as an indicator of Donders reasoned that the RTs for the three tasks
mental operations has a history that can be traced would be different because of the different "mental
back to the middle of the nineteenth century. Scien- operations" involved in identifying the stimulus and
tists were becoming interested in determining the selecting the appropriate response for each task. He
basic elements of thought. The investigation of RT developed the following subtraction method to deter-
provided a useful means of investigating this ques- mine the speed of each of the two mental operation
tion because it represented the time interval between stages:
the detection of a stimulus and the initiation of a re-
• RT for the c task - RT for the a task = Amount of
sponse to it. Dr. F.C. Donders. a Dutch physician, hy-
time for the stimulus discrimination stage
pothesized that specific mental operations occur in a
• RT for the c task - RT for the b task = Amount of
specific series of stages during the RT interval, and
time for the response selection stage
was certain that he could identify each stage. He ini-

tiated research that was published in 1868 (Donders. The simple-RT task provided the baseline RT be-
1868/1969), and continues to influence researchers cause it involved only stimulus identification and the
today. To test his hypothesis, he set up three different selection of one response, whereas the choice- and
"methods" for performing reaction-time tasks. discrimination-reaction time tasks required the dis-
crimination of different stimuli and the selection of
• Simple reaction-rime task (Donders called this the
one response from more than one possible response.
a method): The participant pressed a telegraph-type
Unfortunately, few researchers following Don-
key as soon as possible when a light illuminated.
ders' lead with any degree of effort until after World
• Choice reaction-time task (Donders called this
War II, when in 1952 Hick reported his work con-
the b method): The participant pressed a telegraph-
cerning the systematic influence of the number of
type key as soon as possible with the right hand
stimulus-response alternatives on RT (which is dis-
when the right light illuminated and with the left
cussed in this chapter). Since that time, the study of
hand when the left light illuminated.
reaction time as a means of understanding the action
• Discrimination reaction-time task (Donders called
preparation process, which is now a part of the area
this the c method): The participant pressed a
of study referred to as mental chronometry, has gen-
telegraph-type key as soon as possible when a
erated a substantial amount of research (for a review
light of specified color illuminated, but not when
of this research, see Meyer et al., 1988).
any other light illuminated (e.g.. respond to the red
light, but not to the green light).

more than one stimulus and more than one response resulting RT on a graph, RT increases linearly as
are possible, as in the choice-RT situation. the number of choices increases. The equation that
The relationship between the amount of RT describes this law is RT = K log 2 (N + 1), where K
increase and the number of response choices is so is a constant (which is simple RT in most cases)
stable that a law, known as Hick's law, was devel- and N equals the number of possible choices. Fig-
oped that predicts a person's RT when his or ure 7.1 illustrates how we can predict the magni-
her simple RT and the number of choices are tude of this increase mathematically by applying
known. Hick's law (Hick, 1952) states that RT Hick's equation.
will increase logarithmically as the number of The important component of Hick's law is the
stimulus-response choices increases. This means log 2 function, because it designates that the RT
that when we calculate the logarithm of the num- increase is due to the information transmitted by
ber of choices in a choice-RT situation and plot the the possible choices, rather than to the actual
CHAPTER 7 ACTION PREPARATION 121

700 -i FIGURE 7.1 Predicted reaction times

(RT). according to Hick's law. for one
through eight choice-RT situations, based
600 -
on a simple (i.e.. one choice) RT of 200
msec.
_500
o
n
E,400 -
l-

300 -

200 -

100 -

3 4 5 6
Number of choices

The Predictability of the Correct

LAB LINKS
Response Choice
Lab 7a in the Online Learning Center Lab Man- If anumber of response alternatives exist in a per-
ual provides an opportunity for you to perform formance situation and one alternative is more pre-
choice-reaction time tasks with characteristics dictable than the others, response preparation time
that will allow you to experience how Hick's law will be shorter than it would if all the alternatives
describes the relationship between the number of were equally likely. Research evidence has consis-
choices and RT.
tently shown that os the predictability of one of the
possible choices increases, RT decreases.
An experimental procedure, popularized in the

number of choice alternatives. In information the- early 1980s by Rosenbaum (1980, 1983), is com-
ory, log
2 specifies
a bit of information. A bit, monly used to investigate this relationship. In this
short for i»/nary digif, is a yes/no (i.e., 1/0) choice procedure, known as the precuing technique,
between two alternatives. In a 1-bit decision, researchers provide participants with differing
there are two alternatives; there are four alterna- amounts of advance information about which
tives in a 2-bit decision; a 3-bit decision involves movement must be made in a choice situation. In
eight choices; and so on. The number of bits in- Rosenbaum's experiments, participants had to
dicates the smallest number of "yes/no" decisions move the appropriate finger as quickly as possible
needed to solve the problem created by the num- to hit the signaled target key. There were three re-

ber of choices involved. For example, if eight sponse dimensions, all of which involved a two-
choices were possible in a situation, an individual choice situation: the arm to move (left or right); the
would have to answer three yes/no questions to direction to move (away from or toward the body);
determine the correct choice. Thus, an eight-
choice situation is a 3-bit decision situation. Ac-
cordingly, Hick's law not only correctly predicts Hick's law a law of human performance stating

that RT increases as the number of choice alter- that RT will increase logarithmically as the number
natives increases: it also predicts the specific size of stimulus-response choices increases.

of increase to expect.
122 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Applying Hick's Law to a Sport Performance Situation

A football quarterback running an option play has ever, given the time constraints of the situation, the
three response alternatives to choose from. He can quarterback must reduce the "stimulus" choices in
hand the ball off to a back, keep the ball and run, or order to reduce the decision time required. The coach
run and pitch out to another back. The problem for can help by instructing the quarterback to look for
the quarterback is that there are so many possible only a very few specific characteristics in the de-

"stimulus" choices. All players on the defensive fense. These few "keys" reduce the choice alterna-
team, along with certain of his own offensive play- tives and provide the quarterback a relatively simple
ers, are potential sources of information to help him basis from which to decide which of the three options
determine which response alternative to make. How- to select.

and the extent of the movement (short or long). price of preparing the wrong movement before
Prior to the signal to move, the participants could preparing the correct one? We can learn the answer
receive advance information (the precue) specify- from the results of experiments such as one by Lar-
ing the correct upcoming response for none, one, ish and Stelmach (1982), which has become the
two, or all three of the dimensions. The results model approach to study this issue. Participants re-
showed that as the number of precued dimensions ceived advance information about whether the right
increased, the RT decreased, with the fastest RT oc- hand or the left hand should hit the target. But this

curring when all were precued.

three dimensions information was correct only 20 percent, 50 per-
The benefit of the advance information was that cent, or 80 percent of the time. The results (shown
participants would need to prepare only the remain- in figure 7.2) illustrate the cost-benefit trade-off
ing non-precued dimensions after the "go" signal. associated with this situation. When there was a
50-50 chance (50 percent correct condition) of the
The Influence of the Probability precue's being correct, participants responded as if

of Precue Correctness the task were a two-choice RT task. However, in

An interesting twist to the precuing situation occurs the 80-20 condition, participants obviously biased
when the advance information may or may not be their responses to move in the direction of the pre-
correct. The critical factor influencing preparation cued target. When they were correct, there was a
time in this situation is the probability of the ad- benefit; their RTs were faster than if they had not
vance information's correctness. For example, in a biased their responses. However, when they were
two-choice situation, if the advance information has wrong (the 20 percent case), there was a cost: their
only a 50-50 chance of being correct, the performer RT was slower than it was in the 50-50 condition.
will ignore it and respond as if no advance informa-
tion has been given. This occurs because the proba- Stimulus-Response Compatibility
bility of correctness of the advance information is Another task characteristic that influences the
no greater than the probability of correctness of the movement preparation time is the physical relation-
information the person already has. However, if the ship between the stimulus and response choices.
advance information has an 80 percent chance of The study of what is termed stimulus-response
being correct, the performer will bias his or her compatibility has a long history that dates back to
preparation toward making that response. World War II (for a discussion of this history, see
What happens when the signal requires the non- Proctor & Reeve, 1990). This extensive study has
prepared movement? In other words, what is the shown consistently that RT will be faster as the
CHAPTER 7 • ACTION PREPARATION 123

FIGURE 7.2 Results from the experi-

ment by Larish and Stelmach showing the
effects on RT of different probabilities of
a precue's correctness. [Adapted from
Larish. D., & Stelmach. G. E. ( 1982). Prepro-

gramming, programming, and reprogramming

of aimed hand movements as a function of age.
Journal of Motor Behavior. 14, 322-340. Copy-
right © 1982 Heldref Publications, Inc.. Wash-
ington. DC. Reprinted by permission!

.50 .20
Probability condition

relationship between the stimulus events and their ation exists when the ink color of a word is the
required response becomes more compatible. Con- same as the color it names and the person must say
versely. RT will be slower as this relationship be- the ink color; but an incompatible situation exists
comes less compatible. when the word is written in a color that is different
The spatial relationship between the stimulus from the one it names and the person must say the
and response devices is the most common way of ink color.
considering stimulus-response compatibility. For To account for the effect of stimulus-response
example, suppose a person has to push one of three compatibility on RT, Zelaznik and Franz (1990)
keys in response to the illumination of one of three presented evidence showing that when stimulus-
lights. If the lights and keys are arranged horizon- response compatibility is RT increases are due
low,
tally with the key to be pushed located under the to response selection problems. On the other hand,
light indicating that response, then the situation is when stimulus-response compatibility is high, re-
more compatible than if the lights are vertical and sponse selection processing is minimal, so that any
the buttons are horizontal. A more compatible rela-

tionship would lead to faster RTs than a less com-

patible situation. Also, as compatibility decreases,
cost-benefit trade-off the cost (in terms of slower
the number of choice errors will increase.
RT), and benefit (in terms of faster RT) that occur as
A different type of stimulus-response compati-
a result of biasing the preparation of an action in
bility situation occurs when the appearance of the
favor of one of several possible actions (as opposed
stimulus suggests one type of response, but the sit-
to preparing as if each possible action were equally
uation requires a different response. The best probable).
example of this is the Stroop effect, which is a phe-
nomenon that occurs when a person must verbally stimulus-response compatibility a characteristic
of the spatial arrangement relationship between a
respond to the ink color of a word that names a
stimulus and a response. This relationship includes
color. When the word name and ink color of the
the spatial arrangement of stimuli and the limb
word are the same. RT is faster than if the word is
movements required to respond to them, and the
a different color than its name. For example, if
physical characteristics or meaning of a stimulus and
BLUE is the word, people will say "blue" faster the type of response required. This relationship will
when the ink color is blue than when the word influence the amount of preparation time in a reaction
name is RED but the ink color is blue. In terms of time task involving stimulus and response choices.
stimulus-response compatibility, a compatible situ-
124 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Biasing Actions Is Common in Many Sport Contexts

In many sport activities, athletes often bias their ac- allow them to move more quickly to that side. Base-
tion preparation to produce one particular action ball players commonly bias their hitting decisions
some other possible one. For example, if
rather than and actions according to a pitcher's tendency to throw
knows that the player he or she is
a basketball player a certain pitch in a specific situation.
defending goes to the right to make a shot only on In each of these examples, the players have found
rare occasions, the defensive player undoubtedly will that they can gain an advantage by "playing the per-
bias his or her movement preparation by anticipating centages" and biasing their preparation. The clear ad-
the need to defend moves to the left when the offen- vantage is that if they are correct, they can initiate

sive player has the ball, rather than preparing to de- the appropriate action faster than they could other-
fend moves to the left or right with equal probability. wise. But they run the risk of being wrong. If they
In racquet sports, players who consistently hit to one are, the appropriate action will take longer to initiate

side of the court will find their opponents anticipat- than it would if no biasing had occurred. And this

ing the ball's being hit to that side by standing closer extra preparation time can lead to an unsuccessful
to that side or leaning somewhat in a way that will performance.

RT changes reflect motoric processes related to result, the person can prepare the required action
preparation of the selected response. Weeks and in advance of the go signal, such that the actual ini-
Proctor (1990) further developed this point by tiation of it begins before the go signal.
demonstrating that the specific response selection The starts of sprint races in track or swimming
problem is due to translation problems involving illustrate the need to implement an understanding
the mapping of the stimulus locations to the re- of the effect on RT of a constant foreperiod length.
sponse locations. Because this translation process If the starter of these races maintains a constant
requires time, RT increases. amount of time between his or her signal for the
athletes to get ready and the gun or sound to start
Foreperiod Length Regularity running or swimming, the athletes can anticipate
A part of the preparation process begins when a the go signal and gain an unfair advantage over
person detects a signal indicating that the signal to other athletes who did not anticipate the signal as
respond will occur shortly. The interval between accurately. We
would expect some variation in the
this "warning" signal and the stimulus, or "go" sig- actual initiations of movement because people
nal, is known as the foreperiod. In simple-RT situ- vary in terms of their capability to time the precise
ations the regularity of the length of this interval amounts of time typically involved in the RT
influences RT. If the foreperiod is a constant length, foreperiods of sprint starts.

i.e., the same amount of time for every trial, RT

will be shorter than the amount of time that typi- Movement Complexity
cally characterizes simple RT. Movement complexity is based on the number of
We can attribute the shorter RT associated with parts to amovement. Research evidence demonstrat-
constant foreperiods to anticipation by the per- ing the effect of movement complexity on RT was
former. Because it is a simple-RT situation, the per- reported primarily in the 1960s through the early
son knows before the warning signal what response 1980s, beginning with the now classic experiment
will be required. And because every trial has the by Henry and Rogers (1960). They demonstrated
same foreperiod length, he or she knows when the that for a ballistic task, which requires both fast RT
go signal will occur after the warning signal. As a and fast movement, RT increases as a function of the
CHAPTER 7 • ACTION PREPARATION 125

LAB LINKS
Lab 7b in the Online Learning Center Lab Man-
ual provides an opportunity for you to experience
the influence of movement complexity on RT by
participating in an experiment that is similar to the

jr>
one by Henry and Rogers ( 1960).

1984) carried out a series of experiments that pro-

vided support for the Henry and Rogers conclusion
that the number of component parts is the key in
the RT increase.

Movement Accuracy
As demands for a movement increase,
the accuracy
the amount of preparation time required also in-
creases. Researchers have nicely demonstrated this
effect in comparisons of RTs for manual aiming
tasks that differed according to the target sizes. For
example, Sidaway, Sekiya, and Fairweather (1995)
had people perform manual aiming tasks in which
Several situation and performer characteristics discussed in this they had to hit two targets in sequence as quickly
chapter influence a swimmer's preparation to start a race. as possible. Two results showed the influence on
preparation of the accuracy demands of the task.
First, RT increased as target size decreased. Sec-
number of component parts of the required action. ond, when the first target was a constant size, the
Numerous other experiments have confirmed dispersion of the location of hits on that target was
these findings since that time (e.g., Anson, 1982; related to the size of the second target. This result
Christina & Rose, 1985; Fischman, 1984). From a demands increased as
indicated that preparation
preparation-of-action perspective, these results indi- movement accuracy demands increased, due to the
cate that the complexity of the action to be performed additional preparation required for a person to con-
influences the amount of time a person requires to strain his or her limb to move within spatial con-
prepare the motor control system. straints imposed by the smaller target.

A question that arose from these experiments

related to whether, in fact, the key factor is the The Repetition of a Movement
number of component parts involved in the action. A well-known characteristic of human perfor-
Because the amount of time to perform the mance is that when the performance situation re-
action and the number of component parts of the quires a person to repeat the same response on the
action are confounded when actions of different next attempt, that person's RT for the next trial will
complexity are compared, it is possible that the
amount of time required may be the cause of the
RT increase. To investigate which of these two fac- foreperiod in a reaction time paradigm, the time
tors influenced RT in the Henry and Rogers experi- interval between a warning signal and the go signal,
ment, Christina and colleagues (e.g., Christina, or stimulus.
Fischman, Lambert. & Moore, 1985; Fischman
126 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
The Classic Experiment of Henry and Rogers (1960)

Henry and Rogers (1960) hypothesized that if people and strike the hanging tennis ball with the back of the
prepare movements in advance, a complex movement hand, reverse direction and push a button, and then
should take longer to prepare than a simple one. In finally reverse direction again and grasp another ten-
addition, the increased preparation time should be re- nis ball. Participants were to perform all of these
flected in changes in reaction time (RT). To test this movements as quickly as possible.
hypothesis, they compared three different rapid- The results supported the hypothesis. The average
movement situations that varied in the complexity of RT for movement A was 165 msec; for movement B
the movement. The least complex movement required the average RT was 199 msec; and for movement C
participants to release a telegraph key as quickly as the average RT was 212 msec.
possible after a gong (movement A). The movement The researchers held that the cause of the increase
at the next level of complexity (movement B), re- in RT was the increase in the amount of movement-

quired participants to release the key at the gong and related information that had to be prepared. They pro-
move the arm forward 30 cm as rapidly as possible to posed that the mechanism involved in this movement
grasp a tennis ball hanging from a string. The most preparation was a motor program, similar to a com-
complex movement (movement C) required partici- puter program, that would control the details of the
pants to release the key at the gong, reach forward sequence of events required to perform the movement.

be faster than it was for the previous attempt. As a person cannot select the second movement until
the number of trials increases, the influence of the after he or she selects and initiates the first. As
repetitions on RT lessens. Again, as in other per- such, the PRP reflects a distinct limitation in the
formance situations, the decrease in preparation action preparation process.
time is due to a reduction in the response-selection Figure 7.3 illustrates the PRP using the basket-
process (see Campbell & Proctor, 1993). ball one-on-one situation described The earlier.

player with the ball (Player A) fakes a move to the

The Time Between Different Responses left but then quickly moves to the right. He or she

to Different Signals gains extra time to carry out the move to the right
There are some performance situations that require because of the RT delay created by the PRP that re-
a person to respond to a signal with one action and sults from Player B's initial reaction to the fake.
then very quickly respond to another signal with a The illustration shows that Player B's RT would be
different action. For example, when a basketball the same amount of time for Player As move to the
player is confronted by a defensive player in a one- right if it had not been preceded by a fake move to
on-one situation, he or she might fake a move in the left. But the fake requires Player B to initiate a
one direction (the first signal) before moving in the response to the fake before he or she can initiate a

opposite direction (the second signal). Each "sig- response to the move to the right.
nal" by the offensive player requires the defensive
player to initiate a movement. In this situation, RT
will be slower for the defensive player's second
PERFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
movement than for his or her first.
INFLUENCING PREPARATION
The RT delay for the second movement is due In addition to task and situation characteristics, cer-
to thepsychological refractory period (PRP), tain characteristics of the performer also influence
which can be thought of as a delay period (the term the process of action preparation. We should think
refractory is synonymous with delay) during which of these characteristics as situational, because they
CHAPTER 7 • ACTION PREPARATION 127

Player A Player B's Player A Player B's

moves to left movement moves to right movement

Player B's RT, Player B's RT,

Player A Player B's

fakes to left movement

Player B's RT,

Player A Player B's

moves to right movement

(-— PRP — -)

Player B's RT 2

FIGURE 7.3 The psychological refractory period (PRP) illustrated in terms of the time advantage gained by an athlete for moving
when it follows a fake for moving to the left, (a) Player B's RT when Player A moves to the left (RT,) or the right (RT 7 ),
to the right

when neither is preceded by a fake in the opposite direction, (b) Player B's RT when Player A first fakes moving to the left but then
moves to the right. In this situation. Player A gains extra time to carry out the move to the right because of the increased RT-, for
Player B. which results from the delay caused by the PRP.

refer to the state of the person at the time a skill spond appropriately is to provide some type of
must be performed. It is important to note here that warning signal that indicates he or she must re-
these performer characteristics typically influence spond within the next few seconds. Researchers
not only the time needed to prepare a voluntary demonstrated the benefit of this warning signal
movement but also the quality of its performance. more than a century ago, in the early days of
human performance research. For example, in a re-
Alertness of the Performer view of RT research, Teichner (1954) reported that
An important principle of human performance is there was sufficient evidence accumulated in the

that the degree of alertness of the performer influ- first half of the 1900s to conclude that RT is signif-

ences the time he or she takes to prepare a required icantly faster when the signal to respond is pre-
action, as well as the quality of the action itself. In ceded by a warning signal than when there is no
two types of performance situations, the role of warning signal.

alertness is especially critical. One type is the RT An important point is that after the warning sig-

task, where a person does not have to wait for any nal, there is an optimal length of time for the per-
length of time beyond a few seconds, but must re- son to develop and maintain alertness while
spond as quickly and as accurately as possible. The waiting for the go signal. If the go signal occurs too
other type, involving the long-term maintenance of
alertness, is the task for which fast and accurate
responding is important, but the signals to which psychological refractory period (PRP) a delay
the person must respond occur infrequently and period during which a person seems to put planned
irregularly. action "on hold" while executing a previously initi-

For RT tasks, a way to increase the likelihood ated action.

that a person is optimally alert and prepared to re-
128 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

Warning "Go" signal "Go" signal

signal [too soon] [too late]

Optimum time range for "go" signal

Time
FIGURE 7.4 An illustration of the warning signal to "go" signal time relationship necessary to ensure optimal readiness to re-
spond in a reaction time situation. The actual amounts of time for these events depend on the task and situation in which they
are performed.

soon after the warning signal, or if the person must work long hours and still be able to identify symp-
wait too long, RT will be longer than if the go sig- toms of health problems correctly and perform sur-
nal occurs sometime between these two points in gical techniques requiring precise motor control.
time. These performance effects indicate that peo- In each of these situations, RT increases as a
ple require a minimum amount of time to develop function of the amount of time the person must
optimal alertness and that we can maintain that maintain alertness to detect certain signals. Detec-
level of alertness for a limited amount of time. tion errors increase as well. Scientists first reported
As you can see in figure 7.4, there is an optimal this phenomenon during World War II (see Mack-
time range during which the go signal should occur worth, 1956). In experiments investigating the de-
following the warning signal. The exact amounts tection of signals simulating those observed on a
of time to insert depend on the
in this figure will radar screen, results showed that both the RT to a
skill and situation. However, for simple-RT situa- signal and the accuracy of detecting signals deteri-
tions, a reasonable rule of thumb is this: the opti- orated markedly with each half hour during a two-
mal foreperiod length should range between 1 and hour work interval.

4 sec. Eason, Beardshall, and Jaffee (1965) nicely

Tasks that involve long-term maintenance of demonstrated that alertness deterioration con-
alertness are known as vigilance tasks. In vigilance tributes to the performance decrements associated
situations, an individual must perform an appropri- with long-term vigilance. They provided physio-
ate action when he or she detects a signal to act. logical evidence consistent with decreases in vigi-
The problem is that signals occur very infrequently lance performance over one-hour sessions. Skin
and irregularly. There are many vigilance situa- conductance in participants decreased, indicating
tions in skill performance contexts. In sports, a sit- increased calming and drowsiness over the session.
uation involving vigilance occurs when a baseball In addition, participants' neck tension steadily
outfielder must maintain alertness throughout an increased, as their nervous systems attempted
inning in the field despite having only one ball hit to compensate by increasing muscle activity in
his or her way, out of the many pitches thrown. In the neck.
industry, a worker who must detect and remove de-
fective products from the assembly line will see Attention Focused on the Signal
many products move
past him or her for long peri- versus the Movement
ods of time, but only a few will be defective. Simi- Many motor skills, such as sprints in track and
larly, driving a car along an uncrowded freeway is swimming, require a person to move as fast as pos-
a vigilance task when a person drives for an ex- sible when the signal to move occurs. In these situ-
tended time. Lifeguarding at a pool or beach can ations, there aretwo important components, the RT
be a vigilance problem, because during a long shift and the movement time (MT). To prepare to initi-
on duty, situations requiring a response are very in- ate his or her movement, the person can focus on
frequent. Medical personnel often are required to the signal itself (a sensory set) or on the movement
CHAPTER 7 ACTION PREPARATION 129

A CLOSER LOOK
Vigilance Problems Result from Closed-Head Injury

Closed-head injury involves brain damage and often The authors pointed out that the following results
results from an auto accident or a Numerous cog-
fall. were most noteworthy because they added to previ-
nitive and motor problems can accompany this type ous knowledge of vigilance problems related to

of injury, depending on the area of the brain that is closed-head injury. //; contrast to the non-brain-
damaged. Included in the problems associated with injured participants, the patients showed that their
closed-head injury is difficulty sustaining attention
over a period of time in vigilance tasks. 1. overall vigilance performance was differentially

Loken et al. ( 1995) provided evidence for this dif- affected by the complexity of the stimulus array
ficulty by comparing patients with severe closed-head on the computer screen (i.e., detection perfor-
injuries to non-brain-injured people. All participants mance decreased as the set size of circles

observed on a computer screen sets of two, four, or increased).

eight small blue circles (1.5 mm diameter). On some 2. detection time latency (RT) increased as a func-
trials, one of the circles was solid blue (this occurred tion of the length of time engaged in performing
on only 60 percent of the 200 trials). When partici- the task (i.e., the amount of time taken to detect
pants detected the solid blue circle, they were to hit a a solid blue circle increased linearly across the
specified keyboard key. The set of trials lasted 20 200 trials).

min, with only 2 to 5 sec between trials.

required (a motor set). Research evidence, first pro- embedded a pressure-sensitive switch in the rear-
vided by Franklin Henry (1961), indicates that foot starting block. They measured MT as the time
which of the two components the performer con- from the release of this switch until a photoelectric
sciously focuses attention on influences RT. light beam was broken 1 .5 meters from the starting
However, because Henry's results were based line. Results showed that for both novices and ex-
on the participants' opinions of what their sets perienced sprinters, RT was faster for the sensory-
were, Christina (1973) imposed on each participant set condition.

either a sensory or a motor set to initiate a fast arm

movement. The sensory-set group was told to focus
attention on the sound of the go signal, a buzzer,
WHAT OCCURS DURING
PREPARATION?
but to move off the response key as fast as possi-
ble. The motor-set group was told to focus on mov- On the basis of the discussion so far, you can see
ing as quickly as possible. Results showed that the that the process of preparing an action is complex.
sensory-set group had an RT 20 msec faster than It includes perceptual, cognitive, and motor com-
that of the motor-set group. Interestingly, MT was ponents. One way to demonstrate that the prepara-
not statistically different for the two groups. Thus, tion process includes these components is to divide

participants' focusing of attention on the signal and an EMG recording of the RT interval into compo-
allowing the movement to happen naturally short- nents by using a technique known as fractionating
ened the preparation time required and did not pe- RT, which was introduced in chapter 2.

nalize movement speed, yielding a faster overall

response time.
Jongsma. Elliott, and Lee (1987) replicated vigilance maintaining attention in a performance
these laboratory results in a sport performance sit- situation in which stimuli requiring a response occur
uation. They compared sensory and motor sets for infrequently.

To measure RT, the authors

a sprint start in track.
130 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
A Summary of Task and Performer Characteristics That Influence
the Amount of Time Required to Prepare an Action

Characteristics That Increase Action Preparation Characteristics That Decrease Action Preparation
Time Time
• An increase in the number of movement alternatives • A decrease in the number of movement alternatives
• An increase in the unpredictability of the correct • An increase in the predictability of the correct
movement response alternative movement response alternative
• Following an expectation bias toward performing • Following an expectation bias toward performing
one of several movement alternatives, the required one of several movement alternatives, the required

movement not being the one expected movement being the one expected
• An increase in the degree of spatial incompatibil- • An increase in the degree of spatial compatibility
ity between environmental features and the move- between environmental features and the
ments required movements required
• An increase in the irregularity of foreperiod • An increase in the regularity of foreperiod lengths
lengths in an RT situation in an RT situation
• No previous experience (i.e., practice) performing • An increase in the amount of experience (i.e., prac-
the task in the required situation tice) performing the task in the required situation
• A decrease in performer alertness • An increase in performer alertness
• An attention focus on the movement rather than • An attention focus on the "go" signal rather than
the "go" signal the movement

Evidence from Fractionating RT motor component begins the actual motor output
To fractionate RT, we divide into two distinct com- phase of a movement. During this time, the specific
ponents the EMG recording taken from the agonist muscles involved in the action are firing and prepar-
muscle involved in a movement (see figure 7.5). ing to begin to produce observable movement.
The first is the premotor component (sometimes re- By fractionating RT, we can gain insight into
ferred to as electromechanical delay). Notice that what occurs during the action preparation process.
the EMG signal does not change much from what Researchers look at which of these RT components
it was prior to the onset of the signal. However, is influenced by the various factors we discussed
shortly after the onset of the signal, the EMG sig- earlier that influence RT. For example, Christina
nal shows a rapid increase in electrical activity. and Rose (1985) reported that the changes in RT
This indicates that the motor neurons are firing and due to increases in response complexity were re-
the muscle is preparing to contract, even though no flected in increases in the premotor component. For
observable movement has yet occurred. In this pe- a two-part arm movement, the premotor compo-
riod of time, the motor component is the increased nent increased an average of 19 msec over that for
EMG activity preceding the observable movement. a one-part arm movement, whereas the motor com-
The premotor and motor components of RT rep- ponent increased only 3 msec. Siegel (1986) found
resent two distinct activities that occur prior to ob- that RT increased linearly as movement durations
servable movement and reflect different types of increased from 150, through 300 and 600, to 1200
movement preparation processes. The premotor msec, the length of the premotor component also
component includes the perceptual or cognitive pro- increased linearly. The motor component, on the
cessing of the stimulus information and preparing other hand, remained the same length until the re-
the movement features of the required action. The sponse duration became 1200 msec; then it showed
CHAPTER 7 ACTION PREPARATION 131

Observable FIGURE 7.5 Schematization of fractionated

Stimulus movement reaction time indicating the relationship be-
onset begins tween the EMG signal activity and the premotor
and motor components of the RT interval.

Time

Reaction time

a slight increase. Sheridan (1984) showed that the eral and ipsilateral legs (biceps femoris and rectus
premotor component was also responsible for RT femoris) activated prior to the onset of the arm ag-
increases due to increases in movement velocity. onist muscles (biceps brachii). And as the arm ve-
However, Carlton, Carlton, and Newell (1987) locity increased, the onset of the anticipatory
found changes in both the premotor and motor postural muscle activity occurred at an earlier time
components by altering force-related characteris- prior to arm agonist muscle activation. The authors
tics of the response. found different onset orders for the various postural
muscles.
Postural Preparation Similar postural preparation effects were found
When a person must perform arm or leg move- in a studyby Mercer and Sahrmann (1999) for leg
ments, a part of the preparation process involves movements. People of three age groups (8-12,
organizing supporting postural activity. EMG 25-35, and 65-73 yrs) who had no neuromuscular
recordings of postural muscle activity provide evi- impairments performed two types of stair-stepping
dence for this preparation. movements: stepping onto a stair step with one foot
Weeks and Wallace (1992) reported an example (the "place task"); and stepping onto a stair step
of research that demonstrates postural preparation with one foot and then putting the other foot on the
for an arm movement. They asked people to per- step (the "step task"). The experimenters analyzed
form an elbow-flexion aiming movement in the EMG recordings from four muscles of the stance
horizontal plane while standing in an erect posture. leg (tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius-soleus, ham-
Participants learned to make this movement in three string,and gluteus maximus) and two muscles of
different velocities defined by criterion movement the moving leg (rectus femoris and gluteus max-
times. The authors made EMG recordings from imus). When the experimenters analyzed the EMG
various muscles of both legs and the responding results in terms of the onset (i.e., activation) times
arm. The results showed that a specific sequence of for each muscle for all participants, they found that
supporting postural events occurred; for each the tibialis anterior (TA) of the stance leg was the
movement velocity, the muscles of the contralat- first muscle to activate. On average, it activated
132 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Fractionated Visual Reaction Time Can Provide Insights into the Locus
of Developmental Coordination Disorder

Children with developmental coordination disorder to kick their right leg forward as fast as possible when
(DCD) have no evident physical or mental condition a light in front of them illuminated. The results
that would result in motor disabilities, yet they dis- showed:
play motor performance levels below those of age-
• Children with DCD had slower RTs than children
matched peers, and have significant difficulties with
who were not diagnosed with DCD.
activities of daily living. In their attempts to better
• The fractionated RTs showed slower premotor and
understand DCD. researchers have presented evi-
motor components for the DCD children.
dence that children with DCD have slower visual re-

action time (RT) for a simple voluntary movement The results of the fractionated RT not only supported
compared to normally coordinated children. Many of the premotor locus hypothesis, but also presented
those researchers hypothesized that this slower RT is new evidence that the motor component contributes
due to problems related to selecting the appropriate to the coordination difficulties. Thus, the RT fraction-
action or preparing the movements required for that ation technique enabled the researcher to gain in-
action. Annette Raynor (1998) investigated this hy- sights into DCD not previously seen. From this new
pothesis by fractionating simple visual RT for six- base of understanding, researchers can plan investi-
and nine-year-old children with and without DCD. gations to identify the specific reasons for the move-
With the children in a sitting position, she asked them ment planning and implementation delays.

215 ms before the initiation of movement by the tists traditionally have assumed that postural mus-
opposite leg for the stepping task, and 307 ms cle preparation is rigidly temporally organized. The
before movement initiation for the place tasks. This advantage of the flexibly organized synergy is that

initial activation of the TA in the stance leg ensured anticipatory postural activity can occur according
postural stability when the opposite leg stepped for- to the person's equilibrium needs of various pre-
ward. Another important result of this experiment movement postures.
is the variety of muscle activation sequences
demonstrated by each participant and across the Preparation of Limb Movement Characteristics
participants for each task. Figure 7.6 shows the spe- An essential part of the action preparation process
cific muscle activation sequences exhibited for the is selecting and organizing the specific movement
two tasks and the number of participants in each characteristics of the limbs to perform according to
age group who displayed each sequence on at least the dictates of task constraints and characteristics.
75 percent of the trials (which the experimenters Because an individual often can perform the same
referred to as representative of a "preferred" se- action using several different limbs or different
quence). These results demonstrate that no specific segments of the same limb, he or she must specify
sequence of muscle activation characterized all or and prepare the limb or limb segments to be in-
any one of the participants for either task. volved in performing a given task.

The sequences of muscle activation reported in One feature of limb movement a person must
these two experiments demonstrate that the prepa- prepare is the direction or directions in which the
ration of postural stability is an important part of limbs must move. For a very rapid movement, a
action preparation. And both experiments show person may prepare several different directions be-
that postural preparation involves organizing a flex- fore initiating the movement. Another feature re-
ibly organized synergy of postural muscles. This lated to direction preparation is the trajectory the
conclusion is important because movement scien- arm will follow during movement. For a task re-
CHAPTER 7 ACTION PREPARATION 133

Step task Place task

TA-GM

Older adults

J Young adults
I Children

4 6 8 10 12 14 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Number of participants Number of participants

FIGURE 7.6 Results of the experiment by Mercer and Sahrmann (1999) showing the number of children, young adults, and
older adults who exhibited specific "preferred" sequences of muscle activation for the stance leg for the place and step tasks. Each
sequence indicates the order of activation for the muscles listed (TA = tibialis anterior, GM = gluteus maximus, HS = hamstring,
GS = gastrocnemius-soleus). Source: Figure 4, p. 1 149 in Mercer, V. S., & Sahrmann. S. A. (1999). Postural synergies associated with a stepping

task. Physical Therapy, 79. 1 142-1 152.

quiring a ballistic movement and spatial accuracy, energy-efficient, continuous, fluent motion. In con-
an individual must prepare in advance, constrain- trast, children with handwriting problems often use
ing the limb movement to meet the accuracy con- excessive pen pressure and grip the pen barrel with
straints of the task. In addition, as we discussed in excessive force.
chapter 6. a person catching a ball must prepare his Another movement feature prepared prior to
or her hand and finger movements before the on- manipulating an object is setting the amount of
coming ball reaches him or her. force required to lift or move the object. As an il-
lustration of this type of preparation, think about
Preparation of Movements for Object Control situations in which you have looked at an object
When the action to be performed involves manipu- and, because of certain characteristics, judged it to
lating an object, a part of the preparation process be heavy. But when you began to lift it, you dis-
involves specifying certain movement features covered it was light. Undoubtedly, you lifted the
needed to control the object. Three examples illus- object much more quickly and higher in the air
trate some of those features that can be involved in than you had intended. Why did you respond in this
this aspect of movement preparation. way? The reason is that because of certain observ-
One feature is the specification of pen pressure able characteristics of the object, such as a bever-
on the writing surface and grip force of the fingers age can that looks unopened although it is actually
on the writing instrument ( Wann & Nimmo-Smith, empty, you anticipated that a certain amount of
1991). Experienced writers adjust the amount of muscular force would be required to lift the object.
pen pressure on the writing surface according This anticipated amount of force was used to pre-
to certain characteristics of the surface to allow pare the musculature for the lifting action.
134 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

A CLOSER LOOK
Achieving a Standing Posture from Various Sitting Postures: An Example of How
Functional Demands Affect Action Preparation

Changing from a sitting posture to a standing posture • In the fully flexed sitting posture: the hip joint
(referred to as a sit-to-stand action) is a common began to extend before the knee began to
everyday activity that provides a good example of extend.
how the motor control system adapts to allow the
These different initiation patterns of joint movements
same action to occur from a variety of initial postural
illustrate how functional demands influence the order
positions. Shepherd and Gentile ( 1994) presented ev-
of muscle activation in preparing an action. Because
idence of this adaptability by having healthy adults
different sitting postures will require different sup-
sit in different postures on a chair (an erect trunk, a
port, propulsion, and balance characteristics during
fully flexed trunk, and a partially flexed trunk, i.e.,
the sit-to-stand action, the order of the initiation of
flexed between the fully flexed and erect positions),
movement of the knee or hip joints is a critical factor
and then stand. Analyses of the various joint move-
in enabling a person to carry out the intended action
ments involved in this action showed this:
without losing balance.
• //; the erect and partially flexed sitting postures:

The knee began to extend before the hip joint

began to extend.

Researchers have used this common everyday Of the several hypotheses proposed to explain
experience to provide evidence that the movement the end-state comfort effect, one that continues to
force characteristics are prepared in advance of the gain support is the precision hypothesis (e.g.,
manipulation of objects. For example, Butler et al. Rosenbaum, van Heutgen, & Caldwell, 1996; Short
(1993) showed that when men did not know the & Cauraugh, 1999). This hypothesized explanation
weight of a box that looked like it was filled with proposes that precision in limb positioning will be
heavy objects, they performed with a jerking mo- greater, and the movement will be faster, when a
tion. Movement kinematics of these showed
lifts person's limb is in a comfortable position. Thus, to
that velocities at the shoulders and knees were ensure a faster and more accurate final limb and
much higher than the velocities when the men object position, a person prepares movement char-
knew the actual weight of the box. acteristics according to the comfort of the final

A third object control feature that individuals rather than the starting position of the limb. Al-
prepare is what Rosenbaum and Jorgenson (1992) though this strategy may require some awkward
referred to as end-state comfort. This means that hand and arm postures when picking up an object,
when a person has several options for specifying it enables the person to more effectively and effi-

how an object will be manipulated, as when he or ciently achieve the object manipulation goal.
she must pick up an object and place it in a speci-
fied location, the person will organize the limb Preparation of Sequences of Simple Movements
movements so that a comfortable limb position will Playing the piano and typing on a keyboard are
result at the completion of the action. For example, examples of skills that involve the sequencing of
if a person must pick up an object and place it up- series of simple movements. Two types of research
side down on a tabletop, the person typically will evidence indicate that short sequences of these
pick up the object with a hand position that will movements are prepared in advance of the initial
yield the most comfortable position when the ob- movement. One is the systematic increase in RT as
ject is placed upside down. movement complexity increases, which we dis-
CHAPTER 7 ACTION PREPARATION 135

A CLOSER LOOK
Correcting Handwriting Problems Due to Grip and Pen Force

The results of the experiment by Wann and Nimmo- required based on sensations in the fingers holding
Smith (1991) showed that when handwriting, chil- the pen.
dren with handwriting problems often do so because Teachers and therapists who work with children
they use excessive pen pressure and grip the pen bar- struggling with this type of problem can encourage
rel with excessive force. The have not acquired the an increasing sensitivity in the children to appropri-
necessary association between the "feel" of the pen ate pen pressure. One way to do this is by providing
against the surface and the appropriate pen pressure handwriting experiences with a variety of writing sur-
to apply. The researchers speculated that adults who faces. A teacher or therapist should monitor each
made the appropriate force adjustments had acquired child's grip force, with the goal of keeping it at the

this capability through experience, which had led to minimum amount of force needed to produce a visi-

their nonconsciously learning the amount of pressure ble trace on the writing surface.

cussed earlier in this chapter. The other type of evi- situations, people take into account the spatial rela-
dence is the kinematic characteristics of hand tionships of the stimulus and response locations in
movements during the performance of typing and the movement preparation process. They translate
piano playing (e.g., Engel, Flanders, & Soechting, these relationships into meaningful codes that they
1997; Soechting & Flanders, 1992). For example, then use to produce the required responses. Re-
in the Engel, Flanders, & Soechting study, skilled search has shown that this spatial coding accounts
pianists played short excerpts from three pieces for many stimulus-response compatibility effects
written for the piano. In one piece, the first four (see Weeks & Proctor, 1990 for a discussion of
notes were the same for the right hand. However, these). The simplest spatial coding, which leads
the fourth note in one phrase is typically played by to the fastest preparation (i.e., RT), occurs when
a different finger from the fourth note of the other left and right stimulus locations are compatible
phrase. For one phrase, the sequence of finger with left and right response locations. Beyond that

movements for the same first four notes was: arrangement, it appears that up-to-right and down-
— —
thumb index finger middle finger ring finger; — to-left stimulus-to-response relationships lead to
but for the other phrase it was: thumb index fin- — faster preparation times. The limb involved in per-

ger — middle finger —thumb. To hit the fourth note forming the required response is not as critical as
with the thumb the pianists moved the thumb under the spatial relationship of the stimulus location to
the fingers and repositioned the hand between the the response location.
third and fourth notes. Because of the consistency
of the kinematics of the third and fourth note move- Rhythmicity Preparation
ments for several trials of playing these phrases, the Many skills require that the component movements
researchers concluded that movements for each follow specific rhythmic patterns. We can see this

phrase were prepared in advance. If the hand and fin- characteristic in any of the various types of gait,
ger repositioning had not been prepared in advance performance of a dance sequence, shooting of a
of playing the previous three notes, the kinematics free throw in basketball, and so on. In some of
of the hand and finger positioning would have been these activities, the participant can take time before
somewhat variable across the several trials. performing it to engage some preperformance
in

activities that are commonly referred to as rituals.

Preparation of Spatial Coding Interestingly, rhythmic patterns also characterize
In performance situations requiring specified preperformance rituals and appear to influence
responses to certain stimuli, such as choice-RT performance. Although this relationship has not
136 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II • INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

TABLE 7.1 Types of Behaviors Involved in Preperformance Rituals in Activities Investigated

by Southard and Amos (1996)

Activity Behaviors in Preperformance Rituals

Golf putt 1. Swinging the putter back and forth without contacting the ball
2. Pause; no movement for 1 sec or more
3. Moving the toes or either foot up and down
4. Swaying the body back and forth without swinging the putter
5. Lifting the putter vertically

Tennis serve 1. Bouncing the ball with the racquet or the hand not holding the racquet
2. Pause; no movement for 1 sec or more
3. Moving the racquet forward to a position in front of the body waist high
4. Moving the racquet back from the front of the body and then forward again
5. Moving the racquet to a ready position in order to initiate serving the ball

Basketball free throw 1. Bouncing the ball

2. Pause, no movement for 1 sec or more
3. Bending at the knees or waist
4. Moving the ball upward with the arms
5. Spinning the ball

6. Bringing the ball to an initial shooting position

Table based on text and table 1 (p. 290) in Southard. D.. & Amos. B. (1996). Rhythmicity and preperformance ritual: Stabilizing

a flexible system. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 288-296.

been widely studied, the few research studies in- observed, individual participants did not exhibit
vestigating it have consistently shown a positive every behavior. The researchers also analyzed the
correlation between the rhythm of the preperfor- total time to perform the ritual and the relative time

mance routine and the success of the performance for each behavior in the ritual, which was the per-
itself (e.g.. Southard & Miracle. 1993: Southard & centage of time engaged in each behavior in

Amos. 1996; Wrisberg & Pein, 1992). In terms of the ritual. Results showed a moderately high .77
the preparation of action, the preperformance ritu- correlation between the relative time for the ritual
als would appear to stabilize the motor control sys- behaviors and successful performance. This rela-
tem and orient it to engaging in a rhythmic activity. tionship suggests that the consistent relative timing
The Southard and Amos (1996) study will serve of preperformance ritual behaviors may be an im-
as a good example of how these researchers have portant part of the successful performance of
determined that such a relationship exists. They closed motor skills that provide an opportunity for
video recorded fifteen basketball free throws, golf the performer to engage in preperformance rituals.

putts, and tennis serves for experienced university Mack (2001) provided additional evidence that
men who had established rituals for each of these the consistent performance of the components of a
activities. Each video recording was analyzed to preperformance routine is more important than the
determine the preperformance behaviors each par- total amount of time taken to perform the routine.
ticipant used on each trial. The types of behaviors Although he did not assess the relative time of the
for each activity are listed in table 7.1. It is impor- components of a routine, he compared the influ-
tant to note that although each of the behaviors was ence of altering a normal routine in terms of its
CHAPTER 7 - ACTION PREPARATION 137

duration and component activities. He found essen- attention focus on the signal to move or on the
tially no influence on the free-throw shooting per- movement required at the signal
formance of university basketball players when
The premotor and motor components of the RT
they had to double the amount of time they nor-
interval, which can be identified by fractionating
mally took for their pre-shot routine, but a decrease the interval on the basis of EMG recordings
in performance when they had to include some new from the agonist muscles, can provide insight
activities in their normal routine. into the extent to which various preparation ac-
tivities involve perceptual, cognitive, or motor

processes.

Motor control activities that occur during action

SUMMARY preparation include

postural organization
To perform a motor skill, a person must prepare the
motor control system. limb performance characteristics
• The preparation process requires time, which object control characteristics
can be measured by reaction (RT); the amount
of time required depends on a variety of task, sit- sequences of simple movements
uation, and personal characteristics.
spatial coding
• Task and situation characteristics that influence
the amount of time required to prepare an action movement rythmicity

include

the number of movement response alternatives

from which the performer must
in the situation
choose only one
RELATED READINGS
the predictability of the correct movement re-
sponse alternative when there are several from Carson, R., Chua, G. R., Goodman, D.. & Byblow, W. D.,
(1995). The preparation of aiming movements. Brain and
which to choose
Cognition, 28, 133-154.

the degree of stimulus-response compatibility Klapp, S. T. (1996). Reaction time analysis of central motor
control. In H. N. Zelaznik (Ed.); Advances in motor learning
the regularity of the length of the RT fore- and control (pp. 13-35). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
period Mohagheghi, A. A., & Anson, J. G. (2002). Amplitude and
target diameter in motor programming of discrete, rapid
movement complexity aimed movements: Fitts and Peterson (1964) and Klapp
(1975) revisited. Acta Psychologica, 109, 1 13-136
movement accuracy demands
Stelmach, G. E., Teasdale, N., & Phillips, J. (1992). Response

the amount of movement response repetition initiation delays in Parkinson's disease patients. Human
involved in a situation Movement Science, 11, 37-45.
Weeks, D. J., Proctor, R. W., & Beyak, B. (1995). Stimulus-
the amount of time available between different response compatibility for vertically oriented stimuli
movement responses and horizontally oriented responses: Evidence for spatial
coding. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48A,
• Personal characteristics that influence the 367-383.
amount of time required to prepare an action Wing, A. M., & Ledeman, S. J. (1998). Anticipating load

include torques produced by voluntary movements. Journal of Ex-

perimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,
the degree of the performer's alertness 24, 1571-1581
138 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR CONTROL

Wright, D. L., Black. C, Park. J. H.. & Shea. C. H. (2001). What is the cost-benefit trade-off involved in
Planning and executing simple movements: Contributions of
biasing the preparation of an action in the ex-
relative-time and overall-duration specification. Journal of
pectation of making one of several possible re-
Motor Behavior, 33, 273-285
sponses? Give a motor skill performance
example illustrating this tradeoff.

STUDY QUESTIONS Describe two performer characteristics that can

influence action preparation. Discuss how these
1. Discuss how we can use reaction time (RT) as characteristics can influence preparation.
an index of the preparation required to perform
Select a motor skill and describe two motor
a motor skill.
control features of that skill that a person pre-
2. Discuss how Hick's law is relevant to helping pares prior to the initiation of performance of
us understand the characteristics of factors that the skill.
influence motor control preparation.
 UNIT

Attention
and Memory

Chapter 8
Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource

Chapter 9
Memory Components, Forgetting, and Strategies
 —

Chapter

Attention as a Limited
Capacity Resource

Concept: Preparation for and performance of motor skills

are influenced by our limited capacity

to select and attend to information

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Define the term attention as it relates to the performance of motor skills

• Discuss the concept of attention capacity, and identify the similarities and differences
between fixed and flexible central-resource theories of attention capacity

• Describe Kahneman's model of attention in relationship to a motor skill situation

• Discuss dual-task techniques that researchers use to assess the attention demands of per-
forming a motor skill

• Explain the different types of attentional focus a person can employ when performing a
motor skill

• Define visual search and describe how it relates to attention capacity limits and to the per-
formance of a motor skill

• Describe two different types of techniques that researchers have used to help understand
visual search in a motor skill performance situation

• Discuss how skilled performers engage in visual search in the performance of different
types of motor skills

Application congested with other traffic? Isn't it difficult to

carry on a conversation with your passenger or on
When you are driving your car on an open highway your phone while driving under these conditions?
that has little traffic, it is relatively easy for you to Consider some other examples in which doing
carry on a conversation with a passenger in the car more than one activity at a time may or may not be
or on a cell phone at the same time. But what hap- a problem. A skilled typist can easily carry on a con-
pens when the highway you are driving on becomes versation with someone while continuing to type

140
CHAPTER 8 ATTENTION AS A LIMITED CAPACITY RESOURCE 141

but a beginner cannot. A child learning to dribble a example, detecting information in the environment
ball has difficulty dribbling and running at the same is an attention-demanding activity. We observe and
time, whereas a skilled basketball player does these attend to the environment in which we move to de-
two activities and more at the same time. A physi- tect features that help us determine what skill to
cal therapy patient tells the therapist not to talk to perform and how to perform it. Although this
her while she is trying to walk down a set of stairs. observation and detection activity demands our at-
These examples raise an important human per- tention, it does not always require that we are con-

formance and learning question: Why is it easy to sciously aware of what we observe and detect that

do more than one thing at the same time in one sit- directs our actions.

uation, but difficult to do these same things simul- Since the earliest days of investigating human
taneously in another situation? The answer to this behavior, scholars have had a keen interest in the

question comes from the study of attention as it re- study of attention. For example, as early as 1859,
lates to the performance of multiple activities at the Sir William Hamilton conducted studies in Britain

same time. dealing with attention. Around the same time,

Another aspect of attention occurs when you William Wundt, generally acknowledged as the
need to visually select and attend to specific fea- "father of experimental psychology," investigated

tures of the environmental context before actually the concept of attention at the University of Leipzig

carrying out an action. For example, when you in Germany. In America, William James provided

reach for a cup to drink the coffee in it, you visu- one of the earliest definitions of attention in 1890,
ally note where the cup is and how full it is before describing it as the "focalization, concentration, of

you reach to pick it up. When you put your door consciousness."
key into the keyhole, you first look to see exactly Unfortunately, this late-nineteenth- and early-
where it is. When you
need to maneuver around twentieth-century emphasis on attention soon
people and objects as you walk along a corridor, waned, as those under the influence of behaviorism
you look to see where they are, what direction they deemed the study of attention no longer relevant to

are moving in, and how fast they are going. To the understanding of human behavior. A renais-

drive your car, you also must visually select infor- sance in attention research occurred, however,
mation from the environment so that you can get when the practical requirements of World War II

safely to your destination. included the need to understand human perfor-

In sport activities, visual attention to environ- mance in a variety of military skills. Researchers
mental context information is also essential. For were interested in several attention-related areas,
example, visually selecting and attending to ball- such as the performance of more than one skill at
and server-based cues allows the player to prepare the same time; the selection of and attention to rel-

to hit a return shot in tennis or racquetball. Skills evant information from the performance environ-
such as determining where to direct a pass in soc- ment; the performance of tasks where people had
cer or hockey, or deciding which type of move to to make rapid decisions when there were several

put on a defender in basketball or football, are all response choices; and the performance of tasks
dependent on a player's successful attention to the where people had to maintain attention over long
appropriate visual cues prior to initiating action. periods of time. The discussion in this chapter will

Discussion attention in human performance, the conscious or

nonconscious engagement in perceptual, cognitive,
When the term is used in the context of human per-
and/or motor activities before, during, and after per-
formance, attention refers to engagement in the forming skills; the human information-processing
perceptual, cognitive, and motor activities associ- systems includes limitations to the number of these
ated with performing skills. These activities may activities that can be performed simultaneously.
be performed consciously or nonconsciously. For
142 mhhe.com/magill7e UNIT III ATTENTION AND MEMORY

address two of these issues: the simultaneous per- processing system performs each of its functions
formance of multiple activities, and the selection in serial order,and some of these functions can
of and attention to relevant information from the process only one piece of information at a time.
environment. This means that somewhere along the stages of in-
formation processing, the system has a bottleneck,
where it filters out information not selected for fur-
ther processing (see figure 8.1). Variations of this
ATTENTION AND MULTIPLE TASK
theory were based on the processing stage in which
PERFORMANCE
the bottleneck occurred. Some contended it existed
Scientists have known for many we have
years that very early, at the stage of detection of environmen-
attention limits that influence performance when tal information (e.g., Welford, 1952, 1967; Broad-
we do more than one activity at the same time. bent, 1958), whereas others argued that it occurred
In fact, in the late nineteenth century, a French
later, after information was perceived or after it had
physiologist named Jacques Loeb (1890) showed been processed cognitively (e.g., Norman, 1968).
that the maximum amount of pressure that a per- This type of theoretical viewpoint remained
son can exert on a hand dynamometer actually de-
popular for many years, until it became evident that
creases when the person is engaged in mental
the filter theories of attention did not adequately
work. Other researchers in that era also pointed out
explain all performance situations. The most influ-
this multiple-task performance limitation (e.g.,
ential alternative proposed that attention limits
Solomons & Stein, 1896). Unfortunately, it was not
were the result of the limited availability of re-
until the 1950s that researchers began to try to pro-
sources needed to carry out the information-
vide a theoretical basis for this type of behavioral
evidence.
processing functions. Just as you have limited eco-
nomic resources to pay for your activities, we all

Attention Theories have limited attention resources to do all the activi-

The most prominent among the first theories ad-

ties that we may attempt at one time.
Theories emphasizing attentional resource lim-
dressing attention limitations' was the filter theory
of attention, sometimes referred to as the bottle- its propose that we can perform several tasks si-

neck theory. This theory, which evolved into many multaneously, as long as the resource capacity

variations, proposed that a person has difficulty

limits of the system are not exceeded. However, if

doing several things at one time. The reason for these limits are exceeded, we experience difficulty

this limitation is that the human information- performing one or more of these tasks. Theorists
who adhere to this viewpoint differ in their views
'For an excellent review and discussion of the history and evo- of where the resource limit exists. Some propose
lution of attention theories, see Neumann (1996). that there is one central resource pool from which

Environmental
information
Environmental Response
information, Selection of Preparation of
detection, and response response
identification
[Stimuli]

FIGURE 8.1 A generic information-processing model on which filter theories of attention were based. The figure
illustrates the several stages of information processing and the serial order in which information is processed. Filter theo-
ries varied in terms of the stage at which the filter occurred. Prior to the filter, the system could process several stimuli at
the same time. In the model illustrated in this figure, the filter is located in the detection and identification stage.
CHAPTER 8 « ATTENTION AS A LIMITED CAPACITY RESOURCE 143

all attention resources are allocated, whereas oth-

ers propose multiple sources for resources.
Finally, more recent attention theories have
Task A
moved away from the concept of a central capacity (driving
limit to one that emphasizes the selection and inte- a car)
gration of information and activities associated
with the various functional aspects of human per-
formance, such as those depicted in figure 8.1. The
primary focus of these theories has been in the area Task B
(talking with
of visual selective attention, which will be dis-
a passenger)
cussed later in this chapter.
FIGURE 8.2 Diagram showing that two tasks (A and B)
can be performed simultaneously (e.g., driving a car while
Central-Resource Capacity Theories talking with a passenger) if the attention demanded by the
According to some attention theories, there is tasks does not exceed the available attention capacity. Note

a central reserve of resources for which all activi- that theamount of available capacity and the amount of atten-
ties compete. Following the analogy of your eco- tiondemanded by each task to be performed may increase or
decrease, a change that would be represented in this diagram
nomic resources, these central-resource theories
by changing the sizes of the appropriate circles.
compare human attention capacity to a single
source from which all activities must be funded.
To illustrate this view, consider the available vidual, the tasks being performed, and the situa-

attention resources as existing within one large cir-

tion. According to the illustration in figure 8.2, this

cle, like the one depicted in figure 8.2. Next, con- flexible central-capacity theory states that the size

sider as smaller circles the specific tasks that require of the large circle can change according to certain

these resources, such as driving a car (task A) and personal, task, and situation characteristics.

talking with a friend (task B). Each circle by itself

Kahneman views the available attention that a

fits inside the larger circle. But for a person to suc-

person can give to an activity or activities as a
cessfully perform both tasks simultaneously, both general pool of effort, which involves the mental

small circles must fit into the large circle. Problems resources necessary to carry out activities. The per-

arise when we try to fit into the large circle more son can subdivide this one pool so that he or she

small circles than will fit.

can allocate attention to several activities at the

A good example of a central resource theory is

same time. Allocation of resources is determined
one proposed by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman by characteristics of the activities and the alloca-
(1973). Although this theory was originally pre- tion policy of the individual, which in turn is influ-

sented many years ago, it continues to influence enced by situations internal and external to the

our present views about attention. And although individual.

some researchers have pointed out shortcomings in Figure 8.3 depicts the various conditions

Kahneman's theory in terms of accounting for all that influence how a person will allocate the avail-

aspects of attention and human performance