INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY
Manufacturing Processes 244
Tutorial 10: Welding
1. Name the principal groups of processes included in fusion welding.
Answer. The principal groups of processes included in fusion welding are (1) arc welding, (2) resistance
welding, (3) oxyfuel welding, and (4) other. The “other” category includes EBW, LBW, thermit welding,
and others.
2. Electrodes in arc welding are divided into two categories. Name and define the two types.
Answer. The two categories are consumable and nonconsumable. The consumable type, in addition to
being the electrode for the process, also provides filler metal for the welding joint. The nonconsumable
type is made of materials that resist melting, such as tungsten or carbon.
3. A welding heat source is capable of transferring 160 kJ/min to the surface of a metal part. The
heated area is approximately circular, and the heat intensity decreases with increasing radius as
follows: 50% of the power is transferred within a circle of diameter = 0.25 cm and 75% is
transferred within a concentric circle of diameter = 0.625 cm. What are the power densities in (a)
the 0.25 cm diameter inner circle and (b) the 0.625 cm diameter ring that lies around the inner
circle? (c) Are these power densities sufficient for melting metal?
Solution: (a) Area A = π(0.25)2/4 = 0.049 cm2
160 kJ/min = 2.7 kJ/sec.
Power P = 0.50(2.7) = 1.35 kJ/sec
Power density PD = (1.35 kJ/sec)/0.049 cm2 = 27.55 kJ/sec-cm2
(b) A = π(0.6252 − 0.252)/4 = 0.2577 cm2
Power P = (0.75 − 0.50)(2.7) = 0.675 kJ/sec
Power density PD = (0.675 kJ/sec)/0.2577 cm2 = 2.62 kJ/cm2-sec
(c) Power densities are sufficient certainly in the inner circle and probably in the outer ring for welding.
4. A U-groove weld is used to butt weld 2 pieces of 7.0-mm-thick titanium plate. The U-groove is
prepared using a milling cutter so the radius of the groove is 3.0 mm. During welding, the penetration of
the weld causes an additional 1.5 mm of material to be melted. The final cross-sectional area of the
weld can be approximated by a semicircle with a radius of 4.5 mm. The length of the weld is 200 mm.
The melting factor of the setup is 0.57 and the heat transfer factor is 0.86. (a) What is the quantity of
heat (in Joules) required to melt the volume of metal in this weld (filler metal plus base metal)? Assume
the resulting top surface of the weld bead is flush with the top surface of the plates. (b) What is the
required heat generated at the welding source?
Solution: (a) From Table 27.2, Tm for titanium is 2070°K
Um = 3.33 x 10-6 (2070)2 = 14.29 J/mm3
Aw = πr2/2 = π(4.5)2 /2 = 31.8 mm2
V = AwL = 31.8(200) = 6360 mm3
Hw = UmV = 14.29(6360) = 90,770 J
(b) H = Hw/(f1f2) = 90,770/(0.86 x 0.57) = 185,200 J
5. A welding operation on an aluminum alloy makes a groove weld. The cross-sectional area of the weld
is 30.0 mm2. The welding velocity is 4.0 mm/sec. The heat transfer factor is 0.92 and the melting factor
is 0.48. The melting temperature of the aluminum alloy is 650°C. Determine the rate of heat generation
required at the welding source to accomplish this weld.
Solution: Um = 3.33 x 10-6(650 + 273)2 = 2.84 J/mm3
f1 f2 RH = UmAw v
RH = Um Aw v/f1 f2 = 2.84(30)(4)/(0.92 x 0.48) = 771 J/s = 771 W.
6. A GTAW operation is performed on low carbon steel, whose unit melting energy is 10.3 J/mm 3. The
welding voltage is 22 volts and the current is 135 amps. The heat transfer factor is 0.7 and the melting
factor is 0.65. If filler metal wire of 3.5 mm diameter is added to the operation, the final weld bead is
composed of 60% volume of filler and 40% volume base metal. If the travel speed in the operation is 5
mm/sec, determine (a) cross-sectional area of the weld bead, and (b) the feed rate (mm/sec) at which the
filler wire must be supplied.
Solution: (a) RHW = f1f2EI = UmAwv
A = f f EI/(U v) = 0.7(0.65)(22)(135)/(10.3x5.0) = 26.24 mm2
w 12 m
(b) Volume of weld per second = Awv = 26.24(5.0) = 131.2 mm3/s
Filler wire A = πD2/4 = π(3.5)2/4 = 9.62 mm2
At 60% filler metal, feed rate of filler wire = 131.2(0.60)/9.62 = 8.18 mm/s
7. An RSW operation is used to join two pieces of sheet steel having a unit melting energy of 8369.85
J/cm3. The sheet steel has a thickness of 0.3125 cm. The weld duration will be set at 0.25 sec with a
current of 11,000 amp. Based on the electrode diameter, the weld nugget will have a diameter of 0.75 cm.
Experience has shown that 40% of the supplied heat melts the nugget and the rest is dissipated by the
metal. If the electrical resistance between the surfaces is 130 micro-ohms, what is the thickness of the
weld nugget assuming it has a uniform thickness?
Solution: H = I2Rt = 11,0002(0.000130)(0.25) = 3,930 J
V = Hw/Um = (0.4)(3930/(8369.85)) = 0.189 cm3
V = (d)πD2/4; d = V/(πD2/4) = 0.189/(0.25π(0.75)2) = 0.428 cm
8. An oxyacetylene torch supplies 0.23 m3 of acetylene per hour and an equal volume rate of
oxygen for an OAW operation on 0.625 cm steel. Heat generated by combustion is transferred to
the work surface with a heat transfer factor of 0.3. If 80% of the heat from the flame is
concentrated in a circular area on the work surface whose diameter = 1 cm, find: (a) rate of heat liberated
during combustion, (b) rate of heat transferred to the work surface, and (c) average power density in the
circular area.
Solution: (a) Rate of heat generated by the torch RH = (0.23 m3/hr)(57.44 MJ/m3)
= 13.21 MJ/hr = 3.7 kJ/sec
(b) Rate of heat received at work surface = f1RH = 0.30(3.7 kJ/sec) = 1.11 kJ/sec
(c) Area of circle in which 80% of heat is concentrated A = πD2/4 = π(1)2/4 = 0.7854 cm2
Power density PD = 0.80(1.11 kJ/sec)/(0.7854 cm2) = 1.13 kJ/sec-cm2
9. An electron-beam welding operation will join two pieces of steel plate together. The plates are 2.5 cm
thick. The unit melting energy is 8050 J/cm 3. The diameter of the work area focus of the beam is 0.15
cm, hence the width of the weld will be 0.15 cm. The accelerating voltage is 30 kV and the beam current
is 35 milliamp. The heat transfer factor is 0.70 and the melting factor is 0.55. If the beam moves at a
speed of 125 cm/min, will the beam penetrate the full thickness of the plates?
Solution: Assume the melted portion of the weld bead has a rectangular cross-section with a width of
0.15 cm and a depth, d. Therefore Aw = 0.15d or d = Aw/0.15
Aw = f1f2EI/Umv = (0.70)(0.55)(30,000)(0.035) × 60/(8050 × (0.01)-3 × 125 × 10-2) = 2.4 × 10-6 m2 =
0.024 cm2
d = Aw/D = 0.024/(0.15) = 0.16 cm
The electron beam does not penetrate the full thickness of the material.
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