Introduction

• The general bilinear TF is expressed as

T ( j ) = K
z1 + j
=K
( )
z1 1 + j 
z1
p1 + j
1 (
p 1+ j
p)
1
= T ( j )  ( ) ………………….. (1)
 Define
A = 20log|T(jω)| dB ……………….……… (2)
 A plot of the magnitude of the TF in dB (A on the
vertical axis on a linear scale) versus ω (on the
horizontal on a logarithmic scale) is known as a
Bode magnitude plot.
1
 The plot of θ(ω) as a function of ω on logarithmic
coordinates is known as a Bode phase plot.
• Let u1 = log ω1 and u2 = log ω2 .
• Any two points ω1 and ω2 on the frequency
coordinate (log scale) correspond to the points u1
and u2 respectively, on the linear scale so that
u2 - u1 = log (ω2 / ω1 )

ω1 ω2 ω (rad/s) – log scale

u1 u2 u – linear scale

2
• The distance between two frequencies that are
in the ratio 2:1 is known as an octave (in
musical notes, a distance of 8 notes corresponds
to a change in frequency by a factor of 2) e.g. if
ω2 = 2ω1, then the two frequencies are
separated by an octave.
• A change in frequency by a factor of 2 is
equivalent to a change in magnitude of TF by
6 dB.

3
• The number of octaves separating two frequencies
ω1 and ω2 is given by

n = log 2 ( )
2
=
log10(  ) = 3.322log (  )
2
1 2
1 log 210
10  1

• The distance between two frequencies that are in

the ratio 10:1 is known as a decade e.g. if ω2 = 10ω1,
the two frequencies are said to be separated by a
decade.
• A change in frequency by a factor of 10 is equivalent
to a change in magnitude of TF by 20 dB.
4
• The number of decades separating two frequencies ω1
and ω2 is given by
m = log10 ( )
2
1
• If the distance u2 - u1 defines an octave (decade), then
this distance defines an octave (decade) along the entire
ω scale.
un - u1 = nlog 2(10)(ω2 / ω1 ) = n(u2 - u1)

5
 Bode plots of Linear Factors
1 + j
From (1),
Kz1 z1
T ( j ) = …………………… (3)
p1
1+ j
p1
Substituting (3) for |T(jω)| in (2) gives

A( ) = 20log
Kz1
+ 20log 1 + j − 20log 1 + j dB
p1 z1 p1 ….(4)
 The phase function is given by

( )1
( )
 ( ) = 0(180 ) + tan −1  z − tan −1  p
1
……….(5)

• The complete Bode plot can be obtained by adding the

Bode plots of the three terms in equations (4) and (5).
6
 Bode magnitude plots
• Re-writing (4) as
A(ω) = A1 + A2(ω) + A3(ω)
• A1 is a constant which is either negative for |Kz1/p1| < 1
or positive for |Kz1/p1| > 1 .
A2 ( ) = 20log 1 + j
z1

( ) 
( ) 
2 2
=20log 1 +  dB = 10log  1 +   dB
z1  z1 
• If ω<< z1, A2 (ω)  0 dB.
• At high frequencies,

( z ) =20log  − 20log z dB ………...(6)

A2 ( )  20log 
1
1
7
• Equation (6) represents a straight line in Bode
coordinates and has a positive slope.
• The slope of the line is 6 dB/octave or 20
dB/decade
• The line intercepts the horizontal axis at ω= z1
• The low- and high-frequency asymptotes
intersect at ω= z1 as shown in Fig. 1

8
Linear scale High frequency
asymptote
A2 (dB)

20
Slope =
6dB/octave =
6 20dB/decade
ω (rad/s)
z1 2z1 10z1 log scale
Low frequency
asymptote
Fig. 1 9
• Similarly for A3(ω) for low frequencies A3(ω) = 0
• For high frequencies, straight line with a slope
of -6 dB/octave or -20 dB/decade
• The line intercepts the horizontal axis at ω= p1
• The low- and high-frequency asymptotes
intersect at ω= p1
• The characteristic of the pole (A3(ω)) is as shown
in Fig. 2

10
 Low frequency
asymptote
p1 2p1 10p1
ω (rad/s)
log scale
-6
Slope =
-6dB/octave =
-20dB/decade
-20
Linear scale
A3 (dB)

High frequency
asymptote

Fig. 2 11
 The linear distance in the ω direction of the Bode
plot is measured in octaves or decades.
 From (6), if ω1 = z1 and ω2 = 2z1, A2 increases from
0 dB to approximately 6 dB.
 If ω2 = 10z1, A2 increases by 20 dB.
 Thus, the gradient of the straight line of equation
(6) can be described as either 6dB/octave or
20dB/decade.
NB
The point ω = 0 cannot be shown on a log scale
since log 0 = -∞.
12
• For z1 > p1 , the complete Bode plot is as shown in
Fig. 3 for |Kz1/p1| = 1 (i.e. A1(ω) = 0)
Linear scale
A (dB)

A2(ω)

ω (rad/s)
p1 z1
log scale
A(ω)

A3(ω)
Fig. 3 13
NB:
• For a pole or zero at the origin, A2(ω) = ±20log ω
• Plot of magnitude is a straight line with a slope of ±20 dB that
intercepts the x-axis at ω = 1 rad/s as shown in Fig. 4
Linear scale

20 zero
A (dB)

10
ω (rad/s)
0.1 1 log scale
-10
-20
pole
Fig. 4 14
Frequency Actual Approx. Error
(normalized) (dB) (dB) (dB)

0.25 (2 octaves below) ± 0.3 0 ± 0.3

0.5 (1 octave below) ±1 0 ±1

1 (break frequency) ±3 0 ±3
2 (1 octave above) ±7 ±6 ±1

4 (2 octaves above) ± 12.3 ± 12 ± 0.3

15
• The actual response can be estimated as shown in Fig. 5.
Linear scale
A2 (dB)

Actual
response

1 dB
3 dB Asymptotic
1 dB response
ω (rad/s)
z1 z1 2z1 log scale
2 Fig. 5
16
 Bode phase plots
• Re-writing (5) as
θ(ω) = θ1 + θ2(ω) + θ3(ω)
• θ1(ω) is a constant i.e. 0º or 180º.
θ2(ω) = tan-1 ω/z1
• At low frequencies, θ2(ω) → 0º
• At ω = z1 , θ2(z1) = 45º
• At high frequencies, θ2(ω) → 90º
• Use three segment approximation: low,
mid, and high frequency
17
1st segment (low frequency asymptote)
intersects with the 2nd segment (mid frequency
asymptote) at 0.1z1
2nd segment intersects with 3rd segment (high
frequency asymptote) at 10z1 .
The 2nd segment extends over 2 decades and has
a slope of 45º/decade.

18
 Mid frequency High frequency
asymptote: Slope = asymptote
Linear scale

45º/decade
θ2 (deg)

90

45

ω (rad/s)
0.1z1 z1 10z1 log scale
Low frequency
asymptote Fig. 6
19
 Similarly for the pole

Low frequency asymptote

0.1p1 p1 10p1 ω (rad/s)
log scale
Linear scale

-45
θ3 (deg)

-90
Mid frequency High frequency
asymptote: Slope asymptote
= 45º/decade
Fig. 7 20
 90 θ2

45

p1
z1 ω (rad/s)
log scale
-45
θ
-90 θ3
Linear scale
θ (deg)

Fig. 8
21
Frequency Actual Approx. Error
(normalized) (deg) (deg) (deg)

0.01 (2 decades below) 0.6 0 0.6

0.1 (1 decade below) 6 0 6
1 (break frequency) 45 45 0
10 (1 decade above) 84 90 -6
100 (2 decades above) 89.4 90 -0.6

22
 The actual response can be estimated as shown in Fig. 9.
Linear scale
θ2 (deg)

Asymptotic
6º response
90

Actual response
45

ω (rad/s)
0.1z1 z1 10z1 log scale
6º
Fig. 9 23
θ (deg)

90
θ2
45
ω (rad/s)
p1 z1
θ
-45

-90 θ3
24
Fig. 11
 Example 1
Draw the asymptotic response Bode plots for a
network whose TF is
6s + 3
T ( s) =
s+3
Solution
 Re-write the TF as
3(1 + j 2 )
T ( j ) =
3(1 + j / 3)
z1 = ½ and p1 = 3
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 Bode magnitude plots of Quadratic Factors
1
• Consider the TF T ( s) = 2 ………….. (1)
s + as + b
1
Let s = j so that T ( j ) = …….. (2)
b −  + j a
2

1
T ( j ) =
( b −  ) + ( a )
2 2 2

(
A( ) = −10log ( b −  ) + ( a )
2 2 2
) dB ……….. (3)
For ω = 0; A(0) = 20log(1/b) dB (constant)
ω → ∞; A(∞) → -40log ω dB (straight line with a
gradient of -40 dB/decade)
26
 For the mid range of frequencies, A(ω) increases to a
maximum value and then decreases.
 A(ω) is max. at ωmax found by
d T ( j )
=0
d
a2 a2 a2
max = b − = b 1− for 1
2 2b 2b
a2
= 0 for 1
2b
If a2/2b << 1, then ωmax  b. This is called pole
frequency ωp .
27
At ωp
( (
A( p ) = −10log ( b − b ) + a b
2
)
2
) dB
 1 
= 20log   dB
a b
The height of the peak relative to the low frequency
asymptote is
 b
20log   dB
 a 
The parameter b/a is the pole Q (Qp) and it
determines the height of the bump.

28
 1
Eq. (1) can be written in the form T ( s) =
p
s +
2
s +  2p
Qp
1
20 log
a b 3 dB

1
20log -40 dB/decade
b
A (dB)

ω (rad/s)
ωp
 1   1  log scale
p 1−  p 1+ 
 2Q p   2Q p  29
30
 Bode phase plots for complex
pole/zero
• It can be seen from (2) that
 a 
 ( ) = − tan 
−1
2 
…………..….. (4)
b− 
For ω = 0; θ(0) = 0º
ω = ωp; θ(ωp) = -90º
ω → ∞; θ(∞) → -180º

31
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