Digestive System

By: Anchiye G 1
 Every cell of the body needs nourishment, yet most cells cannot

leave their position in the body and travel to a food source,

 so the food must be converted to a usable form and delivered.

 The digestive system, with the help of the circulatory system, acts

like a gigantic “meals on wheels,” providing nourishment to over

a hundred trillion “customer” cells in the body.

 It also has its own quality control and waste disposal system.

 The digestive system provides the body with water, electrolytes,

and other nutrients. By: Anchiye G 2

By: Anchiye G 3
 To do this, the digestive system is specialized to ingest food,
propel it through the digestive tract, digest it,
 and absorb water, electrolytes, and other nutrients from the lumen
of the gastrointestinal tract.
 This process of conversion of complex food substances to simple
absorbable forms is called digestion.
 Once these useful substances are absorbed, they are transported
through the circulatory system to cells, where they are used.
 The undigested portion of the food is moved through the digestive
tract and eliminated through the anus.

By: Anchiye G 4
 Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion is the introduction of solid or liquid food into the
stomach.
2. Mastication is the process by which food taken into the mouth is
chewed by the teeth. Mastication breaks large food particles into
many smaller particles.
3. Propulsion in the digestive tract is the movement of food from one
end of the digestive tract to the other.
 The total time that it takes food to travel the length of the digestive
tract is usually about 24–36 hours.
 Each segment of the digestive tract is specialized to assist in
moving its contents from the oral end to the anal end.
By: Anchiye G 5
 Deglutition or swallowing, moves food and liquids, called a bolus,
from the oral cavity into the esophagus.
 Peristalsis is responsible for moving material through most of the
digestive tract.
 Muscular contractions occur in peristaltic waves, consisting of a
wave of relaxation of the circular muscles, which forms a leading
wave of distention in front of the bolus, followed by a wave of
strong contraction of the circular muscles behind the bolus, which
forces the bolus along the digestive tube.
 Each peristaltic wave travels the length of the esophagus in about
10 seconds.
By: Anchiye G 6
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4. Mixing. Some contractions don’t propel food (chyme) from one
end of the digestive tract to the other but rather move the food back
and forth within the digestive tract to mix it with digestive secretions
and to help break it into smaller pieces.
5. Secretion. As food moves through the digestive tract, secretions
are added to lubricate the food and the lining of the tract by mucus,
liquefy, and digest the food.
 The mucus coats and protects the epithelial cells of the digestive
tract from mechanical abrasion, from the damaging effect of acid in
the stomach, and from the digestive enzymes of the digestive tract.
 Enzymes secreted by the oral cavity, stomach, intestine, and
pancreas break large food molecules down into smaller molecules
that can be absorbed by the intestinal wall.
By: Anchiye G 9
6. Digestion is the breakdown of large organic molecules into their
component parts
7. Absorption is the movement of molecules out of the digestive tract
and into the circulation or into the lymphatic system.
 The mechanism by which absorption occurs depends on the type of
molecule involved.
 Molecules pass out of the digestive tract by simple diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, active transport, or cotransport.
8. Elimination is the process by which the waste products of digestion
are removed from the body by the process of defecation.

By: Anchiye G 10
Types of digestive system
Mechanical digestion – muscular movement of the digestive
tract (mainly in the oral cavity and stomach) physically break
down food into smaller particles .
Chemical digestion – hydrolysis reactions aided by enzymes
(mainly in the stomach and small intestine) chemically break
down food particles into nutrient molecules , small enough to be
absorbed
Organization of The Digestive System
Organs of the digestive system are divided into 2 main group: the
gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and accessory structures.
 GI tract is a continuous tube extending through the ventral
cavity from the mouth to the anus – it consists of the mouth , oral
cavity , oropharynx , esophagus , stomach , small intestine , large
intestine , rectum , and anus .
Accessory structures include the teeth, tongue (in oral cavity) ,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas
By: Anchiye G 11
By: Anchiye G 12
Alimentary canal or GI-tract: is a continuous tube.
 It begins with an anterior opening the mouth, and it opens out
posteriorly through the anus.
 The wall of alimentary canal possesses four layers from
esophagus to rectum
1. Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin
mesothelium (epithelium of visceral organs) with some
connective tissues.
2. Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into
an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer. An oblique
muscle layer may be present in some regions.
3. submucosal layer is formed of loose connective and that contain
blood vessel, nerve and lymph vessel.
4. Mucosa layer the inner most lining the lumen alimentary canal
and form irregular folds in stomach and small finger like folding
called villi. Which produce many microscopic projection called
microvilli giving a brush border
By: Anchiyeappearance.
G 13
• Microvilli increase surface area to absorption of H2O and supplied
with network of capillaries and larger lymph vessel called the
lacteal
• Has goblet cells which secrete mucus that help in lubrication

By: Anchiye G 14
By: Anchiye G 15
 Accessory organs-digestive organs outside of canal
 They communicate with GI tract via ducts; such as salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, teeth and tongue.
Alimentary canal or GI-tract
 Mouth: is the 1st passage of food where large piece of food is
fragmented to small pieces with the help of teeth and mixed with
saliva. the food called bolus.
 The bolus moved inward through pharynx into esophagus.
 The process is known as deglutition or swallowing.
 3 pairs of salivary glands called parotid, submandibular and
sublingual gland secrete most of the saliva in the oral cavity , using
salivary ducts.
 Saliva helps moisten the food during mastication, dissolve the food
in forming the bolus , and help cleanse the teeth.

By: Anchiye G 16
• Saliva consists of 99.5% water , the remaining 0.5% is dissolved
substances including amylase enzyme (for chemically digesting
carbohydrate ), bicarbonate ion (HCO3 -; maintains pH of saliva
at 6.5-7.5) , and many electrolytes.

By: Anchiye G 17
By: Anchiye G 18
 Dentin of teeth is similar to the inorganic portion of bone
 Only example of gomphosis joint

 Incisors-clipping/cutting

 Canines-tearing/slashing

 Premolars-mashing/grinding

 Molars mashing/grinding

By: Anchiye G 19
 Esophagus is a food pipe or gullet and 25cm long. They found
behind the trachea and heart
 Which is used for conducting food from pharynx to stomach and
the food can be pushed down involuntarily by contraction of
circular muscle by movement peristalsis that move in wave form.
 Peristalsis is controlled by medulla oblongata, which move
through esophagus by 10sec.
 The lining of esophagus secrete mucus from esophageal gland to
lubricating to support the movement of food in easy form.
 When the bolus reaches stomach it must pass through a muscular
ringed valve called esophageal sphincter having lower and upper
sphincter, which provided to control the movement of material
through esophagus.
 Sphincter is to prevent stomach acid from back flowing into the
esophagus creating burning feeling known as heart burn (acidic
reflex).
By: Anchiye G 20
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 Stomach
 A pouch-like organ primarily designed for food storage (for 2-4
hours) , some mechanical and chemical digestion also occur .
 Contains two sphincters at both ends to regulate food movement
cardiac sphincter near the esophagus and pyloric sphincter near
the small intestine .
 Divided into 4 regions : cardiac stomach (or cardiac), fundic
stomach (or funded) , body of stomach , and pyloric stomach (or
Pylorus).
 Contain thick folds called rugae at its layer, for providing larger
surface area for expansion, secretion, digestion and some
absorption.
 Is muscular J- shaped organ in the left superior part of the
abdomen
 They preform mechanical digestion by churing (mix) the bolus
and also mix the bolus with gastiric juice (HCl, salt enzyems,
H2O and nucleic acid).
By: Anchiye G 24
• Then in the stomach the bolus form chyme
• Stomach is very acid environment
• Pepsin (PH=2) can initiating the breakdown of proteins found in
the food
• HCl is for killing microbes in the food
• Mucus make prevent stomach to small intestine by passing
through pyloric sphincter
• Gastric glands: The entire surface of stomach lining contains
mucus- secreting cells.
• The stomach mucosa has two types of tubular glands:
1. The oxyntic glands secrete HCl, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor
and mucus.
2. The pyloric gland secretes mainly mucus for protection from
stomach acid. They also secrete gastrin hormone.

By: Anchiye G 25
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 Small intestine: having three part such as duodenum, jejunum
and ileum.
 around 6.5m long and the longest part of alimentary canal
 Here the chyme moves by peristaltic movement
 It is responsible for all complete digestion of all macromolecules
and the absorption of their component molecules (like glucose,
glycerol, fatty acids, aa, nucleotides).
Duodenum:- is the 1st part of small intestine and U- shaped
 Approximately 30cm in length
 the most digestion is completed here and which lined by folds of
villi to microvilli
 Enzymes from pancreas and gall bladder are secreted into
duodenum (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, amylase, lipases and
nuclease and bile salt )
Jejunum:- the left digestion is take place
 is 2.5m long and having more villi and microvilli.
 Here also enzymes and bile salt are secreted.
By: Anchiye G 29
 Ileum:- 3m long and having a few villi and microvilli
 Which is used for pushing waste into large intestinal.

By: Anchiye G 30
Pancreas: a number of different enzyme into small intestine to
digest carbohydrate, lipids and proteins completely.
• They also secret bicarbonate ions for make near to neutralize HCl
in stomach (PH= 2 into 7-8 ).
Liver gland: is the largest organ (1.5kg)
• They produce bile which stored in gall bladder (sac of bile)
• Is used for fat digestion and absorption and emulsify fat particles
into small particles by lipase enzyme.
• Also for break down of old red blood cell and excretion of waste
product from blood.

By: Anchiye G 31
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Large intestine:- 1.5m long and having 3 parts cecum, colon and

rectum

• Cecum is pouch type structure having out growth is vestigial

body which vermiform appendix

• Colon is used for absorption of electrolyte and water from chyme

temporary storage of fecal matter.

• Then pull into rectum and out to environment through anus.

By: Anchiye G 33
By: Anchiye G 34
Place of digestion start and complete
Type of food start complete

 Carbohydrate mouth duodenum

 Protein stomach duodenum

 Fat duodenum duodenum

 Nucleic acid duodenum jejunum

By: Anchiye G 35
Absorption of Digested Products
 Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion
pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph.
 It is carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport
mechanisms.
Note that:- Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble cannot be
absorbed into the blood. They are first incorporated into small
droplets called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa.
• They are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules
called the chylomicrons which are transported into the lymph
vessels (lacteals) in the villi.
• These lymph vessels ultimately release the absorbed substances
into the blood stream
• The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilize
them for their activities. This process is called assimilation.
• The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
defecation.
By: Anchiye G 36
 Digestive System Regulation
 The brain is the control center for the sensation of hunger and
satiety.
 The functions of the digestive system are regulated through neural
and hormonal responses.

Neural Responses to Food

 In reaction to the smell, sight, or thought of food the first hormonal
response is that of salivation.
 The salivary glands secrete more saliva in response to the stimulus
presented by food in preparation for digestion.
 Simultaneously, the stomach begins to produce hydrochloric acid to
digest the food.
By: Anchiye G 37
 Recall that the peristaltic movements of the esophagus and other

organs of the digestive tract are under the control of the brain.

 The brain prepares these muscles for movement as well.

 When the stomach is full, the part of the brain that detects satiety

signals fullness.

 There are three overlapping phases of gastric control the cephalic

phase, the gastric phase, and the intestinal phase each requires

many enzymes and is under neural control as well.

By: Anchiye G 38
Digestive Phases
 The response to food begins even before food enters the mouth.
 The first phase of ingestion, called the cephalic phase, is
controlled by the neural response to the stimulus provided by food.
 All aspects such as sight, sense and smell trigger the neural
responses resulting in salivation and secretion of gastric juices.
 The gastric and salivary secretion in the cephalic phase can also
take place due to the thought of food.
 Right now, if you think about a piece of chocolate or a crispy
potato chip, the increase in salivation is a cephalic phase response
to the thought.
 The central nervous systemBy: prepares
Anchiye G
the stomach to receive food.
39
 The gastric phase begins once the food arrives in the stomach.

 It builds on the stimulation provided during the cephalic phase.

 Gastric acids and enzymes process the ingested materials.

 The gastric phase is stimulated by
(1) distension of the stomach
(2) a decrease in the pH of the gastric contents
(3) the presence of undigested material.

 This phase consists of local, hormonal, and neural responses.

 These responses stimulate secretions and powerful contractions.

By: Anchiye G 40
 The intestinal phase begins when chyme enters the small intestine

triggering digestive secretions.

 This phase controls the rate of gastric emptying.

 In addition to gastrin emptying, when chyme enters the small

intestine,

 it triggers other hormonal and neural events that coordinate the

activities of the intestinal tract, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

By: Anchiye G 41
Hormonal Responses to Food
 The endocrine system controls the response of the various glands
in the body and the release of hormones at the appropriate times.
 During the gastric phase, the hormone gastrin is secreted by G
cells in the stomach in response to the presence of proteins.
 Gastrin stimulates the release of stomach acid, (HCl) which aids in
the digestion of the proteins.
 However, when the stomach is emptied, the acidic environment
need not be maintained and a hormone called somatostatin stops
the release of hydrochloric acid.
 This is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism.
By: Anchiye G 42
 In the duodenum, digestive secretions from the liver, pancreas, and
gallbladder play an important role in digesting chyme during the
intestinal phase.
 In order to neutralize the acidic chyme, a hormone called secretin
 They stimulates the pancreas to produce alkaline bicarbonate
solution and deliver it to the duodenum.
 Secretin acts in tandem with another hormone
called cholecystokinin (CCK).
 Not only does CCK stimulate the pancreas to produce the requisite
pancreatic juices,
 it also stimulates the gallbladder to release bile into the duodenum.
By: Anchiye G 43
 Another level of hormonal control occurs in response to the

composition of food.

 Foods high in lipids take a long time to digest.

 A hormone called gastric inhibitory peptide is secreted by the

small intestine to slow down the peristaltic movements of the

intestine to allow fatty foods more time to be digested and

absorbed.

By: Anchiye G 44
Respiratory System

By: Anchiye G 45
 Respiratory system is of exchanging gas through our body with
the external environment.

 These means the process of supplying body with O2

 dispose of CO2 from body, which means every cell body needs
O2 to survive.

 To accomplish this function, at least four processes, collectively

called respiration, must happen:

1. Pulmonary ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs

so that the gases there are continuously changed and refreshed
(commonly called breathing).
By: Anchiye G 46
2. External respiration: movement of oxygen from the lungs to the

blood and of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs.

3. Transport of respiratory gases: transport of oxygen from the lungs

to the tissue cells of the body, and of carbon dioxide from the tissue

cells to the lungs.

 This transport is accomplished by the cardiovascular system using

blood as the transporting fluid.

By: Anchiye G 47
4. Internal respiration: movement of oxygen from blood to the
tissue cells and of carbon dioxide from tissue cells to blood.

 Note that: the actual use of O2 production of CO2 by

tissue cell is called cellular respiration.

 It is the cornerstone of all energy producing chemical

reaction in the body.

By: Anchiye G 48
Organs of respiratory system

They include nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx,

the trachea and bronchi and their bronchioles and lung and alveoli
(sac).

1). Nose: is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system.

 They provided airway for respiration.

 The air is warmed, moistened and filtered by mucous secretions

and hairs in the nose.

2). Pharynx: The pharynx (throat) is a tube like structure about

12.5 cm long that connects the posterior nasal and oral cavities to the
larynx and esophagus. By: Anchiye G 49
 It extends from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth
cervical vertebrae.

 Structurally the pharynx can be divided into three anatomical

parts according to its location.
1. The nasopharynx (posterior to the nasal chambers) is located
between the internal nares and the soft palate and lies superior
to the oral cavity. At the base of the nasopharynx are the soft palate
and the uvula.

 At the wall of the nasopharynx are the auditory (Eustachian) tubes

connected to the middle ear.

 The pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) are located in the nasopharynx on its

posterior wall opposite the posterior
By: Anchiye Ginternal nares. 50
2. The oropharynx (posterior to the mouth) is located posterior to

the mouth, inferior from the soft palate, and superior to the level of

the hyoid bone.

 At this location the mouth leads into the oropharynx and both

food and inhaled air pass through it.

 The palatine (faucial) tonsils lie in the lateral walls of the fauces.

By: Anchiye G 51
3. The laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) (posterior to the pharynx)

extends from the hyoid bone to the esophagus.

 It is inferior to the epiglottis and superior to the junction where the

airway splits between the larynx and the esophagus.

 The lingual tonsils are found at the posterior base of the tongue

which is near the opening of the oral cavity.

By: Anchiye G 52
By: Anchiye G 53
3). Larynx or Voice Box: The larynx sits at the top of the trachea.

 It contains your vocal cords.

 Each time you breathe in or inhale, the air passes through the

larynx, down the trachea and into the lungs.

 When you breathe out or exhale, the air moves from your lungs,

up your trachea and out through your nose and mouth.

 When you speak, the vocal cords tighten up and move closer

together. By: Anchiye G 54

 Air from the lungs is forced between them and causes them to
vibrate.

 This produces sound.

 Your tongue, lips and teeth form words out of these sounds.

4). Trachea: The trachea is the tube that connects the mouth and
nose to your lungs.

 It is also called the windpipe.

 You can feel some of your trachea in the front of your neck.

 It feels firm with tough rings around it.

By: Anchiye G 55
5). Bronchial Tubes (respiratory tree): The trachea splits into 2
bronchial tubes in your lungs.

 These are called the left bronchus and right bronchus.

 The bronchus tubes keep branching off into smaller and smaller
tubes called bronchi.

 Only the primary bronchi are external to lungs and the rest at re
embedded in the lungs tissue.

 The tubes are lined with fine hair-like structures called cilia,
smooth muscle and cartilage rings

By: Anchiye G 56
By: Anchiye G 57
 As the cilia sway back and forth, they carry the mucous upwards
to the trachea where it can be coughed up or swallowed.

6). Alveoli: At the end of the bronchial tubes (alveolar

duct) are air sacs called alveoli.

 The alveoli look like bunches of grapes but contain air.

 This is where the oxygen enters the blood and the

carbon dioxide exits.

 There are about 300 million alveoli in each lung.

By: Anchiye G 58
7). Lungs: Your lungs are made up of 5 pink, spongy lobes.

 There are 3 lobes on your right side and 2 lobes on your left side.

Your heart is between them a little to the left.

 Thoracic cavity is lined with a body membrane called parietal pleura,

while the surface of lungs is covered with visceral pleura.

 The thin space between the two pleural membranes is called pleural

cavity which is filled with a clear fluid called plural fluid

By: Anchiye G 59
 to minimize friction between the tissues and

 to provide surface tension and

 to prevent collapsing of lungs in the pleural cavity.

 A chemical substance called surfactant secreted by the lungs also

facilitate the surface tension

By: Anchiye G 60
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8). Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a long, flat muscle that sits below

your lungs.

 The diaphragm helps you get air in and out of your lungs by

moving up and down.

 When your diaphragm moves down, you breathe in or inhale.

 When your diaphragm moves up, you breathe out or exhale.

By: Anchiye G 64
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Mechanism of breathing

 Gas exchange between the air and the blood occur within
the alveoli.

 The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar and

capillary walls.

 Gas changed through these walls.

 About 30 billion capillaries can be found in each lung

and roughly 100 capillaries per alveolus (single sac)

By: Anchiye G 66
 blood returning from the systemic circulation depleted in the
oxygen has a partial oxygen pressure (PO2) of about 40mmHg.

 By contrast the PO2 in the alveoli is about 105mmHg.

 The difference in pressure 65mmHg (Fick law).

 These lead to O2 moving into blood.

 The blood leaving the lungs as a result of this gas exchange

normally contain PO2 of about 100mmHg.

 The lungs do very affective but, not perfect jobs of oxygenating

blood.

By: Anchiye G 67
Note that: the two laws state about gas exchange between
difference pressures.

The Gas law states that gas molecules always diffuse

from a higher pressure area to a lower pressure area.
The Boyle's law states that pressure and volume are
inversely related (with the temperature remains constant),
where pressure will increase in a smaller volume of
gases, and pressure decreases in a larger volume of gases

By: Anchiye G 68
 INSPIRATION: is the active part of the breathing process, which
is initiated by the respiratory control center in medulla oblongata
(Brain stem).

 Activation of medulla causes a contraction of the diaphragm and

intercostal muscles leading to an expansion of thoracic cavity and
a decrease in the pleural space pressure.

 The external intercostal muscles connect adjacent ribs.

 When they contract the ribs are pulled upward and forward
causing further increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity.

By: Anchiye G 69
 As a result fresh air flows along the branching airways into the

alveoli until the alveolar pressure equals to the pressure at the

airway opening (atmospheric pressure).

 EXPIRATION: is a passive event due to elastic recoil of the lungs

and the diaphragm recoil to their original position.

 Thus, the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles relax and

 recoil thoracic volume decrease which raise the intra alveolar

pressure (again due to the boyle's law).

By: Anchiye G 70
 However, when a great deal of air has to be removed quickly, as in
exercise,
 or when the airways narrow excessively during expiration, as in
asthma,
 the internal intercostal muscles and the anterior abdominal muscles
contract and accelerate expiration by raising pleural pressure.
 When intralveolar pressure is raised above the atmospheric
pressure (762 mmHg versus 760 mmHg, respectively),
 gases move from the lungs into the environment (again due to the
gas law).

By: Anchiye G 71
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Control of Acid-Base Balance
 The body's balance between acidity and alkalinity is referred to as
acid-base balance.
 The blood's acid-base balance is precisely controlled because even
a minor deviation from the normal range can severely affect many
organs.
 The body uses different mechanisms to control the blood's acid-
base balance.
 These mechanisms involve the

 Lungs
 Kidneys
 Buffer systems
By: Anchiye G 74
Role of the lungs
 One mechanism the body uses to control blood pH involves the
release of carbon dioxide from the lungs.
 Carbon dioxide, which is mildly acidic, is a waste product of the
processing (metabolism) of oxygen and nutrients (which all cells
need) and, as such, is constantly produced by cells.
 It then passes from the cells into the blood.
 The blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs, where it is exhaled.
 As carbon dioxide accumulates in the blood, the pH of the blood
decreases (acidity increases).

By: Anchiye G 75
 The brain regulates the amount of carbon dioxide that is exhaled

by controlling the speed and depth of breathing (ventilation).

 The amount of carbon dioxide exhaled, and consequently the pH

of the blood, increases as breathing becomes faster and deeper.

 By adjusting the speed and depth of breathing, the brain and lungs

are able to regulate the blood pH minute by minute

By: Anchiye G 76
Role of the kidneys
 The kidneys are able to affect blood pH by excreting excess acids
or bases.
 The kidneys have some ability to alter the amount of acid or base
that is excreted,
 but because the kidneys make these adjustments more slowly than
the lungs do, this compensation generally takes several days.
Buffer systems
 Yet another mechanism for controlling blood pH involves the use
of chemical buffer systems, which guard against sudden shifts in
acidity and alkalinity.
 The pH buffer systems are combinations of the body's own
naturally occurring weak acids and weak bases.
 These weak acids and bases exist in pairs that are in balance under
normal pH conditions. By: Anchiye G 77
 The pH buffer systems work chemically to minimize changes in
the pH of a solution by adjusting the proportion of acid and base.
 The most important pH buffer system in the blood involves
carbonic acid (a weak acid formed from the carbon dioxide
dissolved in blood) and bicarbonate ions (the corresponding weak
base).

By: Anchiye G 78
The main factor that affect the rate of breathing

 Exercise

 Anxiety

 Drugs

 Environmental factor

 Altitude

 Weight

 Smoking
BY: Anchiye. G 79
Smoking BY: Anchiye. G 80
Circulatory system

BY: Anchiye. G 81
 Circulatory system refers to the heart, blood vessels (Arteries,
veins and capillaries) and the blood.

 The heart is a pumping while blood vessels are for carrying the
blood.

 Arteries carry blood away from heart and veins carry blood
towards to heart and

 capillaries are microscopic blood vessels that connect the

smallest arteries to the smallest veins.

BY: Anchiye. G 82
 Another term usually in use is the cardiovascular system which
refers the passage through which the blood flow the heart and
the blood vessels.

 The human circulatory system is called a closed system, because

the blood is contained within either the heart or blood vessels at

all time.

BY: Anchiye. G 83
 Two fluids move through the circulatory system:
 blood and lymph.
 The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the Cardiovascular
System.
 The lymph, lymph nodes and lymph vessels form the
Lymphatic System.
 The Cardiovascular System and the Lymphatic System
collectively make up the Circulatory System.

BY: Anchiye. G 84
The main function of the circulatory system

a. Transport of nutrients, gases, hormones, blood cells,

nitrogen wastes products to and from the cells in the
body
b. Help to fight disease
c. They help stabilize body temperature and PH to
maintain homeostasis

BY: Anchiye. G 85
 Component of Circulatory System
A. Blood
Blood is a liquid connective tissue and our body contains 4 or 5
litters of blood. Function of the blood are:-

 Transporting nutrients and oxygen to the cell

 Transporting carbon dioxide and wastes away from the cells
 Transfers heat to the body surface and involve in temperature
regulation
 Plays role in regulation of PH and electrolytes
 Prevents accidental loss of blood from the body by forming blood
clot
 Plays a role in body defense against disease
BY: Anchiye. G 86
i. Blood composition

 Blood is composed of a liquid part (called blood plasma) and

cellular part (called blood cells)

a) Blood plasma:- is approximately 55% of blood and made up of a

straw colored fluid.

 Plasma is 90% water and 10% dissolved fats, sugar and proteins

called plasma proteins.

BY: Anchiye. G 87
 There are 3 types of proteins

Albumus: is the most abundant plasma protein and help

to regulate osmotic pressure
Globulms ( antibody): includes antibody that gives
immunity
Fibrinogens: responsible for blood clotting and prevent
loss of blood from the body

BY: Anchiye. G 88
b, Blood cell:- the cellular portion of the blood constitute 45% of
the blood. It includes three types of the cells.
1. Erythrocytes or red blood cell: RBC found in large numbers.
One microliters of blood contains about 5 million RBCs.

 They are produced in the bone marrow and contain iron (Fe)
containing protein called haemoglobin.

 Haemoglobin gives RBC the ability to carry oxygen and

responsible for the red color of RBCs.

 Matured RBCs do not have nucleus and organelles and stay in

circulation for about 120 days.
BY: Anchiye. G 89
2. Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC): WBCs are produced
by the red marrow, lymph nodes and spleen.
 They are larger than RBCS almost colorless, do not have
haemoglobin they are numerous than RBCs.
 WBCs have nucleus and can live for many months or years.
 The main function of WBCs is to protect the body against
invasion by foreign cells or disease causing organisms.
 There are five groups of WBCs.
 Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, lymphocytes and
Monocytes.

BY: Anchiye. G 90
3. Blood platelets: are not cells but are tiny fragments of other cells

that are formed in the bone marrow.

 Platelets plays important role in the blood clotting to prevent blood

loss.

 They help clotting process releasing protein called clotting factors.

BY: Anchiye. G 91
ii, Blood cell production

 The process of blood cells production is called hematopoiesis or

hemopoies (hemo, hemato= blood; poiesis = to make). This
process occurs in the red bone marrow. The tissues that produce
blood are called hemopoietic tissues.

Erythrocyte production: the process is called erythropoiesis.

 It generates about 2.5 million RBCs per second (20 ml/day). The
sequence of cell transformations leading to an erythrocytes is
hemocytoblast = proerythroblast= erythroblast= normoblast=
reticulocyte= erythrocyte. The overall process from
hemocytoblast to reticulocytes takes 3 to 5 days.
BY: Anchiye. G 92
iii, Blood types

 Blood type is determined by the types of antigen presents on the

surface of RBC.

 An antigen is a protein or carbohydrate that acts as a signal

enabling the body to recognize foreign substances in the body.

 Three of the most important human blood antigens are A, B, and

Rh. An individual’s RBC many carry an A antigen, B antigen,
both A and B antigens or no antigen at all.

 Based on this there are 4 blood types (groups) in the A, B, AB and

O.
BY: Anchiye. G 93
Table 1. types of blood and their antigen and antibody.

Blood type Antigen type Antibody type

A A Anti B antibody

B B Anti A antibody

AB AB No antibody

O No antigen Anti A antibody and Anti B antibody

BY: Anchiye. G 94
 Transfusion of blood is possible with compatible blood types.

 If incompatible an antigen will react with antibodies and

agglutination (clumping of RBCs) will occur.

 Types AB can receive any types of blood and is known as

universal receiver.

 Type O can donate blood to any one and known as universal

donor.

BY: Anchiye. G 95
 Table 2. Blood donor receiver chart
Blood Can donate to Can receive from
type
A A, AB A,O

B B, AB B,O

AB AB A, B, O (universal receiver)

O A,B, AB, O (universal donor) O

BY: Anchiye. G 96
A. The Heart

 The heart is a four chambered, double pump, located in the

throracic cavity between the lungs.

 It is a hollow, cone shaped muscular organ about the size of a

fist.

 It has a mass of between 250 and 350 grams. The heart is

composed of cardiac muscle.

 The term cardiac (as in cardiology ) means related to the heart

and comes from the Greek word kardia for heart.

BY: Anchiye. G 97
Structure and function of the heart

 The primary function of the heart is to pump blood through the

blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions.

 The heart has two separate pumps, a right heart the pumps
blood through the lungs and a left heart that pumps to peripheral
organs.

 The heart keeps blood circulating properly.

BY: Anchiye. G 98
 Covering of the heart

 The heart is surrounding by a double membrane called the

pericardium a sac with two layers.

1. The outer fibrous pericardium, which anchors the

heart to the surrounding structures.

2. The inner serous pericardium, which consists of an

outer parietal layer and an inner visceral layer.

BY: Anchiye. G 99
Layers of the heart wall

The heart wall richly supplied with blood vessels is

composed of three layers.

Epicardium is the superficial visceral layer of the

serous pericardium
Myocardium (muscle heart) it is the middle layer
composed mainly of cardiac muscle
Endocardium inside layer is a thin smooth endothelial
inner lining of the heart.
BY: Anchiye. G 100
i) Heart chambers

 The heart has 4 chambers, two superior atria and two inferior
ventricles. Atria have thinner walls than ventricles.

 The atria are divided into right and left atria, which receive blood
coming into the heart.

 The ventricles are divided into right and left ventricle, pump
blood out of the heart. The left ventricle is the thickest chamber of
the heart because it pumps blood to all parts of the body.

 Vertically diving the right and left sides is a common wall called
septum, which prevents mixing of oxygenated and non-
oxygenated blood. BY: Anchiye. G 101
BY: Anchiye. G 102
Valves: valves are present in the heart and blood vessels. Valves
prevent the backflow of blood to ensure the blood flow only in one
direction. These valves are grouped into two main categories

a). Semilunar valves: are present in the arteries leaving the

heart. Two of the valves are:-

 The pulmonary semilunar valve
The aortic semilunar valve
b). Atrioventricular (AV) are located between atria and ventricles
 The right AV valve (tricuspid valve)
 The left AV valve ( bicuspid valve)

BY: Anchiye. G 103

a) Semilunar valves: are present in the arteries leaving the heart.

Two of the valves are:-

 The pulmonary semilunar valve: lies between the right ventricle

and the pulmonary trunk and

 The aortic semilunar valve: located between the ventricle and

the aorta blood from flowing back into the ventricles.

BY: Anchiye. G 104

b) Atrioventricular (AV): are located between atria and ventricles.
They prevent the back flow of blood from atria into the ventricles.
These valves include`:-
 The right AV valve: it is also called the tricuspid valve, located
between the right atrium and the right ventricles. The tricuspid
valve allows blood to flow the right atrium into the right
ventricle when the heart is relaxed during diastole.
 The left AV valve: is also called the bicuspid valve. This valve
prevent flow of blood in the left ventricle from flowing into the
atrium.

BY: Anchiye. G 105

BY: Anchiye. G 106
 Quize 5%
1. What is diaphragm and its importin's?
2. Heart wall richly supplied with blood vessels is composed
of three layers. Thus, what are their?
3. Blood plasma was composed from plasma protein to
function our body ; as a result list them with their
function.
4. Define the term expiration and inspiration briefly.
5. What is the important of oxygen in our body?

BY: Anchiye. G 107

C. Circulatory pathways

 Blood returning from the lungs enters the left atrium and
passes through flaps of tissue called atrioventricular (AV)
valve.

 The valve that separates the left atrium and ventricle is called
the bicuspid (mitral) valve.

 From the left ventricle blood is pumped through a semilunar

valve called the aortic valve into the aorta artery that carries it
to every part of the body except the lungs.

 Aortic valve prevents blood from flowing back into the left
ventricle. BY: Anchiye. G 108
C. Circulatory pathways

BY: Anchiye. G 109

 Types of circulation
 Are 2 major paths:-
1) Pulmonary circulation is carries blood between the heart and
lung.

 It begins at the right ventricle and ends at the left atrium.

 Deoxygenated blood is pumped out of right ventricle into the

lungs through the pulmonary arteries, which are the only arteries
that carry deoxygenated blood.

 Blood return to the heart through the pulmonary veins which are
the only veins to carry oxygenated blood.

BY: Anchiye. G 110

2) Systematic circulation: at the left ventricle and ends at atrium
carries blood to the rest of the body.

 Oxygenated blood leaving the heart passes through aorta, a

number of arteries and capillaries that lead to veins through
which blood returns to the right artrium.

 The systematic circulation can be divided into 3 subdivision:

i) coronary circulation: supplies blood to the heart;

ii) renal circulation: supplies blood to the kidney;

iii) hepatic portal circulation: nutrients are picked up by

capillaries in the small intestine and are transported to the liver.
BY: Anchiye. G 111
BY: Anchiye. G 112
A. The heartbeat (Cardiac cycle) and cardiac output

 The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat, the

simultaneous contraction of the 2 atria followed by the

simultaneous contraction of the 2 ventricles

The heartbeat has 2 phases

A). systole: the contraction of the cardiac muscle tissue in the

ventricles is called systole.

BY: Anchiye. G 113

B). diastole: the relaxation of the cardiac muscle tissue in
the ventricle is called diastole.

Each heartbeat produces 2 sounds often called lub-dup

that can be heard with a stethoscope.

BY: Anchiye. G 114

 The first sound the loudest and longest is caused by ventricular
systole closing the AV valves.

 the lub is a longer lower pitched sound that occurs at the start of
ventricular systole.

 The second sound is caused by the closure of the aortic and

pulmonary valves (SL).

 The dup sound is shorter and sharper.

BY: Anchiye. G 115

 Blood pressure

 Blood pressure is a measure of force that blood exerts

against a blood vessel wall.

 Blood pressure is expressed as the systolic number over

the diastolic number.

 The normal blood pressure of an adult male is

120/80mmHg and that female is 110/70mm mercury.

BY: Anchiye. G 116

C. Blood vessel

 There are 3 types of blood vessels

 Arteries and veins walls of blood vessels are made up

of 3 layers of tissue that provide strength and elasticity.

BY: Anchiye. G 117

I) Arteries: is carry blood from the heart to capillaries and the rest of

the body.

 Except pulmonary arteries, all arteries carry oxygenated blood.

 The largest artery is called aorta and it carry oxygenated blood

from left ventricle to all parts the body except the lungs.

BY: Anchiye. G 118

II) Capillaries: arteries into network of very small blood vessels

called capillaries.

 Its wall is made up of only one layer of cells (thin-Walled)

through which materials (nutrients, oxygen, waste) can diffuse

easily.

BY: Anchiye. G 119

III). Veins: blood flows from capillaries into veins.

 Veins collect blood from every part of the body and

carries back to the heart.

 The largest veins are called vena cava and the smallest
ones are called venues.

 There are 2 types inferior and superior vena cava

BY: Anchiye. G 120

Electrical conduction system

BY: Anchiye. G 121

P wave = passage of current through atria from SA Node

conduction through atria is very rapid atrial depolarization

QRS wave = passage of current through ventricles from

AV Node – AV Bundle – Purkinje Fibers impulse slows as

it passes to ventricles ventricular depolarization

BY: Anchiye. G 122

T wave = repolarization of ventricles (atrial repolarization is masked

by QRS)

 by comparing voltage amplitudes and time intervals between these

waves from several leads can get idea of how rapidly the impulses

are being conducted and how the heart is functioning

BY: Anchiye. G 123

BY: Anchiye. G 124