Food

Chemistry
0711-2101
DEPARTMENT OF NUTRITION & FOOD ENGINEERING
DAFFODIL INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Today’s topic
Fats & Oils
Intoduction
Lipids are one of the large group of organic compunds characterized by their hydrophobic nature
which are of great importance in food we eat because they are readily digested and absorbed in
the body. They are the triesters of long chain fatty acids with glycerols.
They include triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, and waxes.
Triglycerides are the most common form and consist of glycerol linked to three fatty acid chains.
Lipids play vital roles in energy storage, insulation, cell membrane structure, and signaling
pathways.
 Classification of Lipids
Simple Lipids: Contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
◦ Fats and oils are called triglycerides (or triacylcylgerols)
◦ Fats: Predominantly saturated fatty acids, solid at room temperature.
◦ Oils: Contain unsaturated fatty acids, liquid at room temperature.

Compound Lipids: Contain additional elements like phosphorus,

nitrogen, or sulfur.
◦ Phospholipids: Form cell membranes and participate in cellular
signaling.
◦ Glycolipids: Present in cell membranes, involved in cell recognition.

Derived Lipids: Result from hydrolysis or other chemical reactions.

◦ Steroids: Include cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and
testosterone.
◦ Waxes: Provide waterproofing and protective coatings in plants and
animals.
Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids: have carbon chains in which all carbon atoms are bonded to the
maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible, resulting in no double bonds.
Examples of saturated fatty acids include stearic acid (C18H36O2) found in animal fats
and coconut oil, and palmitic acid (C16H32O2) found in palm oil and butter.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: have one or more double bonds in their carbon chain, which
results in fewer hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon [Link] can be further
classified as monounsaturated (containing one double bond) or polyunsaturated
(containing multiple double bonds).
Monounsaturated fatty acids are typically liquid at room temperature and are found in
olive oil, canola oil, and avocado.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, are essential
nutrients and are found in sources like fish, nuts, and seeds.
**Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are another unsaturated fatty acids with at least one trans
double bond in their molecular structure. They can occur naturally in small amounts in
certain animal products like meat and dairy. However, the primary source of trans fats
in the human diet is through the process of partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils.
Sources of Some SFA and UFA
Role of Fats and Oils in Food
Fats and oils serve various functions in food products, including:
◦ Texture enhancement: Providing creaminess, crispiness, or flakiness.
◦ Flavor development: Carrying and enhancing the flavors of other ingredients.
◦ Nutrient absorption: Facilitating the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
◦ Satiation: Contributing to the feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating.

Common dietary sources of fats and oils include:

◦ Animal fats: Butter, lard, tallow.
◦ Plant oils: Olive oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil.
◦ Fish oils: Rich in omega-3 fatty acids, beneficial for heart health.
Essential Fatty acids
Essential fatty acids, such as omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and omega-6 (linoleic acid), cannot
be synthesized by the body.
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are polyunsaturated fatty acids that are essential for human health
but cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet. The two primary
types of EFAs are omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and omega-6 (linoleic acid).
They must be obtained from dietary sources like fish, nuts, and seeds.
Essential fatty acids are crucial for brain function, cardiovascular health, and inflammatory
response regulation.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids:
◦ Examples include alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA).
◦ Found in fatty fish (such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines), flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, and certain
algae.
◦ Omega-3 fatty acids play crucial roles in brain function, heart health, inflammation regulation, and the
maintenance of healthy skin and hair.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids:

◦ Examples include linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA).
◦ Found in vegetable oils (such as corn oil, soybean oil, and sunflower oil), nuts, seeds, and certain grains.
◦ Omega-6 fatty acids are important for growth and development, immune function, and the regulation
of inflammation.
Physical Properties of fats and oils
Melting Point: Temperature at which solid fat transits to liquids. The melting point of fats
depends on the degree of saturation and the length of fatty acid chains.
▪saturated fatty acids tend to have higher melting points as they have straight molecular chains
(stronger intermolecular forces), e.g- coconut oil.
▪Unsaturated fatty acids tend to have lower melting points.
▪Fats with longer fatty acid chains generally have higher melting points because longer chains
allow for more surface area contact and stronger intermolecular forces.
▪Polymorphism is important to understanding the melting point behavior of fats and fatty acids.
It plays role in any operation where fats are solidified. e.g- when chocolate are dipped the
formation of high melting point forms is producing by controlling the temperature of
solidification
Softening Points: Temperature at which solid fat transits to semisolids or plastic consistency.
closely related to the melting point.
Specific Gravity: the specific gravity of fats provides information about their density compared
to water. Unsaturation of fatty acids and increase in chain length tend to increase the specific
gravity. It is measured at 25°C, but at 40°C or even 60°C for high melting fats.
Refractive Index: It is the measure of how much light is bent (or refracted) as it passes through a
sample of fat. It decreases as the temperature rises but increases with the length of carbon
chains and no of double bonds present. It is measured at 25°C, but at 40°C or even 60°C for high
melting fats.
Smoke, Flash and Fire point: The smoke point is the temperature at which a fat or oil gives off a
thin bluish or smoke. The Flash point is the temperature at which the mixtures of vapor with air
will ignite; The fire point is the temperature at which the substance will sustain combustion,
meaning it continues to burn after being ignited.
Turbidity point: also known as the crystallization point, refers to the temperature at which a
clear fat or oil starts to become cloudy or turbid due to the formation of crystals. This
phenomenon occurs when the fat undergoes a phase transition from a liquid to a semi-solid or
solid state as it is cooled.
Chemical Properties of fats and oils
Hydrolysis: Fats and oils can undergo hydrolysis, a chemical reaction in which water molecules break
the ester bonds that link fatty acids to the glycerol backbone. This reaction, catalyzed by enzymes
called lipases or by acids, produces fatty acids and glycerol. Hydrolysis can occur during food digestion,
food processing, or storage, leading to the degradation of fats and the formation of off-flavors and
odors.
Triglyceride+3 Water→Glycerol+3 Fatty Acids
Oxidation: Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which fats and oils react with oxygen molecules, leading
to the formation of oxidative by-products such as peroxides, aldehydes, and ketones. This process,
known as lipid oxidation or rancidity, can occur through autoxidation, photooxidation (exposure to
light), or enzymatic oxidation (catalyzed by enzymes). Lipid oxidation affects the flavor, aroma, and
nutritional quality of fats and oils, leading to off-flavors, rancid odors, and loss of unsaturated fatty
acids.
Fatty Acid+Oxygen→Peroxides+Aldehydes+Other Oxidation Products
Polymerization: Under certain conditions, such as prolonged heating or exposure to high
temperatures, fats and oils can undergo polymerization, a chemical reaction in which the fatty acid
molecules combine to form larger molecules or polymers. Polymerization can lead to the formation of
polymers with altered physical properties, such as increased viscosity or decreased fluidity. In food
processing, polymerization can affect the texture and stability of fats and oils, leading to changes in
product quality
Interesterification: Interesterification is a chemical reaction involving the rearrangement of fatty
acids within triglyceride molecules. It is typically used to modify the physical properties of fats
and oils, such as their melting point, crystallization behavior, and stability, without the need for
hydrogenation. Interesterification can be carried out enzymatically or chemically, and it involves
the exchange of fatty acid chains between different triglyceride molecules.

Hydrogenation: Unsaturated fats are saturated with hydrogen, converting liquid oils into solid
fats, but may also produce trans fats with health implications.
Unsaturated Fatty Acid+Hydrogen→Saturated Fatty Acid
Rancidity in Fats : refers to the development of off-flavors and off-odors in fats and oils due to the
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids present in the lipid molecules.
The three main types of rancidity in fats and oils are:
1. Hydrolytic Rancidity: Hydrolytic rancidity occurs when the ester bonds between fatty acids and
glycerol in fats and oils are broken down by water or enzymes called lipases. One example is the
rancidity of butter due to the action of lipases naturally present in the milk. When butter is stored
improperly, moisture can promote the hydrolysis of its triglycerides, resulting in the release of
free fatty acids and the development of a sour taste and smell.
2. Oxidative Rancidity: Oxidative rancidity occurs when fats and oils react with oxygen in the air,
leading to the formation of oxidative by-products such as peroxides, aldehydes, and ketones. This
process, known as lipid oxidation, alters the flavor, aroma, and nutritional quality of the fats and
oils, resulting in off-flavors and off-odors. For instance, when cooking oil is repeatedly used for
frying at high temperatures, it can undergo oxidative rancidity, leading to the development of off-
flavors and off-odors.
3. Ketonic Rancidity: This type is most frequently encountered as a result od action of molds and
fungus such as Aspergillus niger , Penicillium glaucum on coconut or other oilseeds The tallowy
odour developed maybe due to aldehydes and ketones formed by the action of the enzymes
present in the fungi on oils. For example, when nuts or seeds containing fats are stored in warm
and humid conditions, molds can grow and produce enzymes that cause microbial rancidity,
resulting in a musty or unpleasant taste and smell. .
Chemical tests
To identify fats and to detect adulteration-
Reichert Meissl Number: the number of milliliters of 0.1 N alkali (KOH) required to neutralize the volatile
fatty acids obtained from 5 grams of fat or oil. It is a parameter used to quantify the amount of volatile
fatty acids (the range of molecular weights from butyric acid(C4) to myristic acid (C14) ),present in a fat
or oil sample. It is commonly used as an indicator of the extent of hydrolysis or rancidity in fats and oils.
Saponification Value (SV) Test: the milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to saponify 1 gram
of fat or oil . It Calculates average molecular weight of fatty acids. Fats with higher saponification
numbers generally contain shorter fatty acid chains or a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids,
whereas fats with lower saponification numbers typically have longer fatty acid chains or a higher
proportion of saturated fatty acids.
Acid Value (AV) Test: The acid value is expressed as the number of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required to neutralize the free fatty acids present
in one gram of fat or oil. It measures free fatty acids, indicating hydrolysis or rancidity. Also
provides valuable information about the freshness, quality, and stability of fats and oils, as
higher acid values indicate higher levels of free fatty acids, which can result from hydrolytic or
oxidative rancidity.
Iodine Value (IV) Test: The iodine number is expressed as the number of grams of iodine
absorbed per 100 grams of fat or oil. It provides information about the level of unsaturation
present in the sample, with higher iodine numbers indicating a higher degree of unsaturation
and lower iodine numbers indicating greater saturation. It helps determine the oxidative
stability, shelf life, and nutritional quality of fats and oils, as well as their suitability for various
culinary and industrial applications.
Peroxide Value (PV) Test: Quantifies peroxide concentration, signaling early lipid oxidation. It is
determined by titrating the sample with a reducing agent (e.g., potassium iodide) and then
titrating the liberated iodine with a standardized thiosulfate solution
Fat processing
Refining of oils and fats: is a vital process that eliminates impurities, undesirable flavors, and
colors from crude oils, ensuring high-quality edible oils. This process involves several key steps:
Neutralization: Crude oil undergoes treatment with an alkali, usually sodium hydroxide, to
remove free fatty acids. This reaction forms soap, which separates from the oil, reducing off-
flavors and enhancing quality.
Bleaching: The oil is treated with adsorbents like activated charcoal or bleaching earth to
remove pigments, trace metals, and other impurities, resulting in clearer and visually appealing
oil.
Deodorization: This final step removes volatile compounds causing off-odors from the oil. Steam
or vacuum distillation is used to heat the oil under reduced pressure, removing unwanted odors
and improving overall aroma and taste.
Edible oil Refining
Shortenings and Spreads: Shortenings are fats commonly employed in baking to impart tender
textures to pastries, cakes, and cookies. They facilitate the creation of delicate and flaky baked
goods by inhibiting gluten formation, resulting in a softer and more crumbly texture.
On the other hand, spreads refer to semi-solid fats applied to bread, crackers, and sandwiches for
flavor enhancement and moisture retention. They are versatile additions to various dishes and are
often used as substitutes for butter or as toppings for toast and other baked goods.
Examples of spreads include margarine, which is a vegetable oil-based spread, and vegetable
shortening, a solid fat primarily utilized in baking to achieve desired textures and consistency in
baked goods.
Fat Replacer: Substances used to mimic the functionality of fats in food products while
reducing overall fat content. Serve to maintain taste, texture, and mouthfeel of foods
while reducing fat content. Utilized in food manufacturing to create low-fat or reduced-
fat versions of products without compromising sensory qualities. Carbohydrate-based
replacers (e.g., cellulose derivatives) and protein-based replacers (e.g., whey protein)
are common.

Essential Oils: Concentrated hydrophobic liquids extracted from plants, containing

volatile aromatic compounds. Not fats or oils in the traditional sense but relevant to the
discussion due to their lipid-like properties. Utilized in food flavoring, aroma, and
preservation due to their potent aromatic properties. Examples include peppermint oil,
lavender oil, and lemon oil.
Extraction of Essential Oils
◦ Distillation: The most common method where steam is passed through plant material,
carrying volatile compounds which are then condensed to extract the essential oil.
◦ Expression (Cold Pressing): Used for citrus fruits where the peel is mechanically pressed to
release essential oils.
◦ Solvent Extraction: Solvents like hexane are used to dissolve essential oils from plant
material, and then the solvent is evaporated to leave behind the oil.
Refining of Essential Oils
◦ Filtration: Initial step to remove larger particles and impurities from the crude oil.
◦ Distillation: Further distillation may be employed to remove any remaining impurities or
unwanted compounds.
◦ Fractional Crystallization: Utilized to separate different components of the essential oil based
on their freezing points.
◦ Fractional Distillation: Used to separate components with different boiling points, ensuring
the final oil is pure and of high quality.
Emulsion
An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible liquids, where one is
dispersed in the other in the form of tiny droplets.
Fats and oils, being hydrophobic (water-repellent), do not mix
readily with water, which is hydrophilic (water-attracting).However,
by utilizing emulsifiers or stabilizers, it's possible to create stable
emulsions of fats and oils in water-based solutions.
Common emulsifiers include lecithin, egg yolks, and certain
proteins, which have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
that can interact with both water and oil molecules, facilitating
their dispersion. Examples of emulsions of fats and oils include
mayonnaise, salad dressings, and vinaigrettes, where oil droplets
are dispersed in a water-based medium.
The stability of these emulsions is crucial and can be affected by
factors such as the ratio of oil to water, the type and concentration
of emulsifier used, and the processing conditions. Emulsions play a
significant role in food texture, mouthfeel, and flavor, providing a
creamy and smooth consistency to various culinary preparations.
Thank you