University of Alberta L'brai

0 1620 2872314 4

181
P234
1959
bk.2

CURR
HIST
 i

PROTOZOA
(15,000 species) INVERTEBRATES (Animals
without Backbones) . .
O
PORIFERA (Sponges)
(3,000 species)

COELENTERATA (Coelenterates)
TRANSITION FORMS

VERTEBRATES (Animals
. .

O
(9,000 species) with Backbones) ....

CTENOPHORA (Comb Jellies)

(80 species)

PLATYHELMINTHES (Flatworms)
(6,500 species)

NEMATODA (Roundworms) - Starfishes

(3,500 species) - Brittle Stars
- Sea Urchins
ECHINODERMATA (Echinoderms)
- Sea Cucumbers
(5,000 species)
- Sea Lilies

—
ANIMALS

Gastropods
MOLLUSCA (Mollusks) Pelecypods, or Bivalves
(80,000 species) Cephalopods

Bristle Worms
ANNELIDA (Segmented Worms) Earthworms
(5,000 species) Leeches

Crustaceans
Arachnids
ARTHROPODA (Arthropods)
Myriapods
(675,000 species)
Insects

Tunicata

Acrania
Fishes
CHORDATA (Chordates)
(15,000 species)
(40,000 species) Amphibians
(2,000 species)
Vertebrata Reptiles
(5,000 species)
Birds
(14,000 specie^' ;

Marrimals , ,

(4,000 sped€^:fey;'?
:
THE BASIC SCIENCE EDUCATION SERIES

ANIMAL WORLD

BERTHA MORRIS PARKER

LABORATORY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

and

ILLA PODENDORF
Laboratory School, University of Chicago

COPYRIGHT, 1949 ROW, PETERSON AND COMPANY printed in US A.

Home Office: EVANSTON, ILLINOIS

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED IN ALL COUNTRIES

3 102
 :

The Animal World

LANTS and animals together make up the world of

P living The many kinds of plants form the

things.
plant kingdom; the many kinds of animals, the animal
kingdom.
All living things — —
plants and animals alike are built chiefly
of protoplasm. Protoplasm is the one and only living material.
It is not surprising, therefore, that all living things are alike
in certainways. Here are some of those ways
Living things have the power of growth. Everyone has seen
both plants and animals grow larger.
Living things are able to change when conditions around
them change. We say that they respond to stimuli. Ageranium
plant, for example, turns its leaves to the light, and a dog
barks when a stranger comes into the house it is guarding.
Although many living things cannot move by themselves
from one place to another, they all have some power of move-
ment. Thinking again of a geranium plant which turns its

leaves to the light will help you understand that there is

movement in plants as well as in animals.

Living things have the power of reproduction —they can pro-
duce or help to produce new living things much like themselves.
Even the simplest living things show some organization
into different parts for different purposes.
Chemical changes go on constantly in all living things.
—
Through one such change a kind of slow burning food — is

made to release energy, which all living things must have in

order to stay alive. Through some chemical changes food is

built into new protoplasm. Other chemical changes help in

other ways. All the chemical changes which go on in living
things are spoken of together as metabolism.
In metabolism wastes are produced. Every living thing
must have a way of getting rid of these wastes.
All living things must have food, water, and oxygen.
3
 Although plants and animals are ahke in many ways, it is
not in the least difficult to put most living things in the right

kingdom. Almost everyone, for example, recognizes a rosebush

as a plant and a rabbit as an animal. But the case is different
with some of the simplest living things.
Animals are sometimes defined as “living things which have
the power of locomotion.” It is true that most animals can
move from place to place while most plants cannot. But some
small animals stay in one place all their lives, while some
small plants are able to move through water easily.
Most plants are green and, because of their green pigment,
can make their own food. But some plants are not green and
must, like most animals, take in food already made.
Animals on the whole respond to stimuli much more quickly
than do plants. But there are plants like the sensitive plant
that respond to stimuli very quickly.
Living things are made up of tiny blocks of protoplasm
called cells. In all large plants the cells have walls made of
cellulose. No large animals have cellulose cell walls. But among
small plants and animals there are exceptions.
The picture below shows three kinds of tiny living things
as they look when greatly magnified. All three move about
freely in an animal-like fashion. All three respond to stimuli
readily. But they are all green and can make their own food.
Are they animals? What definition of an animal can we use
to tell? Really there is no definition which all scientists will
accept. Some scientists list these small living things as
animals; some list them as plants. Others, by calling them
“plant-animals,” suggest that they belong on the borderline
between the two kingdoms. But such puzzling cases make up
only a small part of the whole world of living things. Most
living things are clearly either plants or animals.
 Classifying Animals
There are in the whole world billions and bil-
lions and more billions of individual animals. It goes
without saying that some are very different from others.
But some are so much alike that it is hard to tell one from
another. Their likenesses and differences have made it pos-
sible for scientists to classify animals —
to divide the billions of
individuals into groups.
A group of animals which are alike except for minor details
and for differences due to sex is called a species. When a
scientist talks about a kind of animal he means a species of
animal. The bobcat, for example, is a species. All bobcats are
much alike and can be told rather easily from other animals.
Species (the plural of this word is the same as the singular)
that have much in common are grouped together to form a
genus. The bobcat is a kind of lynx. It belongs to the genus
of lynxes.
Genera (“genera” is the plural of “genus”) which have much
in common are grouped into a family. The lynxes belong to the
cat family.
Families in turn are grouped into orders, orders into classes,
and classes into phyla (fi'la). The cat family belongs to the
order of carnivores, the carnivores belong to the class of mam-
mals, and the mammals belong to the phylum of chordates
(kor'dats).
About a known. There may be
million species of animals are
several times as many. Every year hundreds of species are
discovered and added to the list. There are, of course, fewer
genera than there are species. There are still fewer families,
orders, and classes, and only twenty or so phyla.
You might expect, since the phyla are the chief divisions of
the animal kingdom, that scientists would agree as to the

5
number. But they do not. The chart on the inside front cover
lists eleven well-known phyla. These eleven phyla make up a
very, very large part of the whole animal kingdom. There are
several other less well-known phyla about which most scien-
tists agree. But besides there are some small groups of animals
that do not fit well with other groups but which still do not
have any very marked characteristics of their own. Should
they be called separate phyla, or should they be considered
fringes of other phyla? No one knows surely. Every scientist
has a right to his own idea. Some scientists, therefore, divide
the animal kingdom into twenty or more phyla, others into less
than twenty.
An animal may have a number of common names. “Bay
lynx” and “wildcat” are two other names for the bobcat. In
addition to its common names, every animal has a scientific
name. This name is in Latin, the language that was used for
centuries by all the scientists of Europe. An animal’s scientific
name is made up of a genus name and a species name. The
scientific name of the bobcat is Lynx rufus.
Every family, order, class, and phylum also has a Latin
name. For example, the Latin name for the cat family is
Felidae. A common name and a Latin name may be the same.
“Lynx” is a good illustration.
Within a species there may be varieties. The house cat, for
example, is a species of animal, but within this species there
are Siamese cats, Maltese cats, Manx cats, Persian cats, and
still other varieties. If one variety of an animal is found in a
particular region, it is often called a subspecies. An animal’s
scientific name may have a third word which tells to what sub-
species it belongs. The scientific name of the California bobcat
is Lynx rufus calif ornicus.
Many scientific names are long. But some are not. The sci-
entific name of one kind of bat is la io.

Scientific names tell scientists clearly what animals are being

talked about. They also show something about animal relation-
ships. The scientific name of the house cat is Felis domestica.
The name of the lion is Felis leo. Clearly the two are closely

,
’UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
TIMU/PDCITV r»r M. '
i
related, since they belong to the same genus. The bobcat
belongs to the cat family, but its name. Lynx rufus, shows
that it is not so closely related to the house cat as is the lion.

About 95 per cent of all the species of animals in the world

are invertebrates —animals without backbones. As the chart
on the inside front cover shows, the vertebrates the animals—
—
with backbones form only a part of one phylum. Although
animals without backbones are much more numerous than ani-
mals with backbones, the largest and most conspicuous animals
are vertebrates. In this group are all the fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
All vertebrates have inside their bodies a rather complicated
skeleton made of bone or cartilage. The backbone is a part of
this skeleton. It is made up of a number of vertebrae. They
surround the nerve cord, or spinal cord, which in all verte-
brates extends from the brain along the back. The vertebrates
used to be called a phylum. Now this group is called a sub-
phylum of the chordates. The chordates include, in addition to
the vertebrates, a few animals that do not have backbones.
These few animals are not well known except to scientists.
They are like vertebrates in having a nerve cord along the back,
at least for part of their lives, but the cord is not surrounded
by bone or cartilage. Instead, there is a stiff rod of a material
much like cartilage which acts as a support.
Scientists believe that all the many kinds of animals of
today came from very simple animals of long ago. The “tree”
on page 2 shows something about the relationships of the
animals of today. From it you can see that of all the inverte-
brates the insects are thought to have advanced farthest from
the first animals. Highest of the vertebrates are the mammals,
the group to which we ourselves belong.
 Protozoa
Until microscopes came into use, scientists knew
nothing about the big group of animals we call pro-
tozoa. All the animals of the group are very small most —
of them too small to be seen with the naked eye. The giants
among them are only about a tenth of an inch long. It is
not surprising that protozoa are tiny, for each animal is a
single cell.

The name “protozoa" means “first animals." All the animals

of today are believed to havecome from protozoa of long ago.
Today some fifteen thousand species of protozoa are known.
There may be several times as many, for new kinds are being
found all the time. Not only are there many species of these
tiny animals, but there are countless individuals —probably
more than of all other kinds of animals put together. They are
found in both fresh water and salt water practically all over
the world. Besides, many
them live inside the bodies of
of
other animals and get their food from their “hosts."
The one cell of a protozoan must carry on all the activities
which larger animals have to carry on in order to stay alive.
It must get food, digest it, and build it into new protoplasm.

It must burn food for energy. It must take in water and

oxygen. It must get rid of waste.

The five kinds of protozoa pictured on these two pages are

shown as they look through a microscope. Of the five kinds the
ameba is the simplest. An ameba is a tiny bit of protoplasm
surrounded by a thin membrane of protoplasm. An ameba
has no definite shape: it changes shape as it moves about. It
moves by sending out tiny “false feet," or pseudopods.
So tiny an animal needs no special device for taking in water
or oxygen. These materials can move in easily through the
cell membrane. Wastes leave through the cell membrane, too.
When a bit of food is near, the ameba flows around it and
takes it into its body. It digests what it can. The rest it leaves
behind as it moves on.
An ameba way it simply divides
reproduces in a very simple :

in two. This way new animals is called asexual

of forming
reproduction. “Asexual" means “without sex." There are no
male or female amebas.
Amebas cannot grow and reproduce unless they are in water
or in a very moist place. But they can often survive a lack of
water by forming a protective covering around themselves.
The paramecium, which is very common in pond water, is
like the ameba in many ways but is more complicated. It has
a definite shape, and it moves rather rapidly by means of
hairlike projections called cilia. Food comes in at only one
place. A paramecium may simply divide, just as an ameba
does. But here we also find the beginnings of sexual reproduc-
tion. Two of these tiny animals may come together and join.
A part of each moves into the other. The two then separate,
and each divides to form new animals.
The other protozoa pictured are also considerably more
complicated than the ameba. One of them builds a shell for
itself. The chalk cliffs of Dover are made of countless billions

of shells of close relatives of this tiny animal. Two of the pro-

tozoa pictured have stalks with which they fasten themselves
to shells, stones, or plants. If we call the little living things

—
on page 4 animals, they are protozoa, too protozoa that differ
from most animals because they can make food for themselves.
Although small, protozoa are important. Many of them fur-
nish food for higher animals. Others are disease germs. Ma-
laria and sleeping sickness are among the diseases caused by
these tiny, one-celled animals.

9 Vorticellas
 !

Sponges never move about except when they

are very young, and a great many of them never
move about at all. They are, moreover, very slow to re-
spond to stimuli. No wonder they used to be called plants
Although you may never have seen a living sponge, you
are sure to have seen a sponge skeleton, for the sponges we
buy are skeletons of these animals. Those for sale in opr mar-
kets are made of a horny substance. But some sponges have
skeletons of chalk, while others have glassy skeletons.
Sponges all live in water, most of them in salt water. Com-
pared with protozoa, they are large animals each one is made
;

up of many cells. The cells are of several different kinds. In

fact, of the main kinds of cells found in higher animals, only
—
one kind is lacking in sponges nerve cells. The Latin name
for the sponges is Porifera (po-rif'er-a) which means “pore-
,

bearers.” This name comes from little openings scattered over

each sponge’s body. Water comes in through these openings,
bringing with it food (tiny plants and animals) and oxygen.
It leaves through larger openings, carrying waste away.

A new sponge may simply branch from an older one. Or a

nqw sponge may grow from a fertilized egg. A fertilized egg,
which is often called a zygote, is formed by the joining of a
male cell, or sperm, and a female cell, or egg. Among sponges
we find, then,both asexual and sexual reproduction.
A fertilizedegg hatches into a tiny larva which swims about
for a while. Soon, however, it settles to the bottom of the water
and grows fast to something there.
Sponges have remarkable powers of growing anew parts that
have been lost. Sponge-fishers sometimes cut up big sponges
into pieces and fasten the pieces to the floor of the sea. Each
piece then grows into a whole animal.
 —

•^yoRA

Coelenterates
The coelenterates (se-len'ter-ats), like the
sponges, are water animals. The group includes
all

the fresh-water hydra as well as the jellyfishes, corals,

sea anemones, and sea fans of the oceans.
Coelenterates vary greatly in size. Hydras are less than
an inch long, while jellyfish of some kinds may be several
feet across and have hundred-foot tentacles.
The name “coelenterate” means “hollow intestine.” Every
coelenterate has a mouth that leads into a digestive cavity.
Around the mouth there are, as a rule, tentacles armed with
—
stinging cells cells which shoot out poisonous darts and help
capture prey. Water moving in and out of the digestive cavity
brings oxygen with it and carries waste away.
Coelenterates are the simplest animals to have cells of all

the chief kinds found in higher animals. They have nerve cells,

which, you remember, sponges lack.

All the animals in the group are built on a wheel plan
scientists say that theyhave radial symmetry. When a coelen-
terate moves, any part of the wheel may be in front.
Some coelenterates glide slowly about, some float, some swim
freely, and some stay in one place all their lives. Many species
go through two stages a polyp ^tage, in which they are shaped
:

like hydras and remain in one place, and a medusa, or jellyfish,

stage, in which they swim about freely.
Many coelenterates live in colonies. Some colonial coelen-
terates build “houses” for themselves. The great coral reefs
of the warm seas were built by colonies of corals.
As among the sponges, new animals may simply branch
from older animals. They may be formed by the dividing of an
animal. They may grow from a small piece of an animal. Or
they may come from fertilized eggs.

11
 Comb Jellies
Comb jellies are small, transparent marine
animals. They form an important part of the “sea
soup’' on which many of the larger marine animals feed.
Some are beautifully colored when seen in the daytime.
At night many of them give off light.
The comb jellies are built on a wheel plan, just as jellyfish
are, and they are like jellyfish in a number of other ways. In
they were classified along with the
fact, until rather recently
But now they are put in a phylum
jellyfish as coelenterates.
by themselves, largely because of their combs. These combs
are made of tiny plates joined together like the teeth of a real
comb. They are arranged in eight rows. Ctenophora (te-nof'o-
ra), the Latin name of the phylum, means “comb-bearers.”
None of these little animals go through a stage in which
they cannot move from place to place. One species creeps
about, but most of them swim by moving their combs up and
down. They are, however, feeble swimmers. Often great
numbers of them are washed up on shore by the tides.
All comb jellies are meat-eaters. Some have long tentacles
with which they catch tiny fish or shrimps. These tentacles
are merely sticky; they do not have any stinging cells. The
comb jellies that do not have long tentacles have short ones
or none at all. They feed on small animals brought to their
mouths by the moving of cilia.
Like the sponges and coelenterates, comb jellies have re-
markable powers of growing new parts. In some cases a tiny
part broken off may grow into a whole new animal. It is
thought that some individuals simply divide in half to form
new animals. But much of the reproduction among the comb
jellies is sexual. There are, however, no male or female animals.
Each comb jelly produces both eggs and sperms.
 Echinoderms
The starfish is not a fish, the sea lily is not a
fiower, and the sea cucumber is not a vegetable.
Instead, all phylum
three are animals belonging to the
of echinoderms (e-ki'no-durms). To this phylum belong
also the sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars.
The word “echinoderm” means “spiny-skinned.” Most
echinoderms have stiff, pointed projections, or spines.
All echinoderms are marine. Unless you live near a seashore
you are much more likely to have seen their limy skeletons
than to have seen the living animals.
The animals of this phylum differ from all others in having
inside their bodies a system of water canals. These canals
are connected with tube feet, which, as a rule, end in suction
disks. Tube feet are helpful in moving about, catching prey,
and breathing. The starfish pictured above has five canals, one
in each of its five arms. Most echinoderms have five or some
multiple of five.

Notice in the animal tree on page 2 that the echinoderms

are on the branch which ends with the vertebrates. If scien-
tists knew only adult echinoderms, they would not put them
there. Adult echinoderms are very little like vertebrates. They
have no backbone, no head, no brain, and no nerve cord along
the back. They show radial symmetry. Adult echinoderms are
not much like the lower chordates either. They owe their place
on the tree to their young, or larval, forms. An echinoderm
larvais much like the larval forms of the lower chordates.

Echinoderm larvas do not have radial symmetry. Instead,

they are built on the two-sided plan found among all higher
animals. It is called bilateral symmetry. You will find out
more about bilateral symmetry in connection with the flat-

worms, the simplest animals to show it.

13
 Worms
The animals pictured on these two pages are all
worms, but they are not closely related. They rep-
resent three different phyla: the flatworms, the round-
worms, and the segmented worms. The earthworm and
the flower worms are segmented worms.
The word ^‘worm” has come to mean something to be de-
spised. Perhaps this is because, although flower worms are
beautiful, most worms are not pleasant to look at. Moreover,
many worms live inside the bodies of other animals and, in
some cases, do much harm. The scientific name of the hook-
worm, the roundworm pictured above, means “American kill-
er.” Another kind of roundworm causes a disease which makes
one part of the body grow very large. Tiny roundworms some-
times found in uncooked pork cause another serious disease.
The tapeworm, of which you have surely heard, is a flatworm.
Leeches, many of which suck the blood of other animals, are
segmented worms.
In contrast with the worms about which you have just been
told, earthworms are very helpful. They live on decaying plant
material in the soil. In burrowing into the soil they do much
to fertilize it and to help air enter it.
Of the three chief worm phyla, the flatworms are the sim-
plest. But even they show important advances over the groups
below them on the animal tree. These worms are the simplest
animals with a definite head. They show, as you already know,
bilateral symmetry. Radial symmetry is satisfactory for ani-
mals that stay in one place or move about slowly. For fast-
moving animals bilateral symmetry is much better. It makes
streamlining possible. Flatworms differ from the animals below
them in having cells arranged into definite organs. They do
not, however, have all the organs found in higher animals.
 The flatworm pictured on page 14 is the planaria, a little
worm very common in ponds and streams. It eats tiny living
animals or larger dead animals. This worm is much used in
science experiments to show that simple animals have remark-
able powers of growing new parts. If a planaria is cut into
grow into a whole worm. Some-
several pieces, each piece will
times a planaria divides of itself into two worms. But most
planarias grow from fertilized eggs. There are, however, no
males or females. Each worm produces both eggs and sperms.
There are many thousands of species of roundworms. They
are found in water, in soil, and in almost every other place
where animals of any kind can live. The scientific name of the
phylum means “threadlike.” Many roundworms are very small.
They rank higher than the flatworms because their organs are
more fully developed. Like most higher animals, they have
lost the power of asexual reproduction. New roundworms come
only from fertilized eggs. The two sexes are separate.
The segmented worms are so called because their bodies are
divided into sections, or segments. These worms are at about
the halfway mark between the simplest animals and the most
complex ones. As a rule, scientists rank them higher than the
mollusks, about which you will next be told. All animals which
rank above the segmented worms are segmented. Science
classes often study earthworms in great detail. They do so
partly because earthworms can be found in almost every
locality but chiefly because the organs of earthworms are
arranged in systems much like those of higher animals.
The flower worms pictured here do not look much like
worms. As a matter of you see of the worms in
fact, all that
the picture are their feathery gills and the tubes they make
for themselves. The gills are so bright colored that they look
like flowers. Worms of this kind are found only in the sea.
 Snails, clams, and squids are mollusks. The
name of the phylum comes from mollis, a Latin
word meaning “soft.” Mollusks all have soft bodies, al-
though most of them have hard shells. Many of their shells
are beautifully colored and shaped.
Mollusks are usually ranked below the segmented worms;
their bodies are not segmented. In general, a mollusk’s body
consists of a head region, a foot, and a mass of organs sur-
rounded by a body wall called a mcmtle. If a mollusk has a shell,
it is its mantle which forms it. Between the mantle and the

mass of organs there is a space called the mantle cavity. Many

mollusks have gills in this cavity.
The three main classes of mollusks are the gastropods (gas'
tro-pods), the pelecypods (pe-les'i-pods), and the cephalopods
(sef'a-lo-pods). Snails are gastropods. Clams are pelecypods.
Squids are cephalopods.
“Gastropod” means “stomach-footed.” A gastropod crawls
about on its foot and carries its shell, if it has one, on its back.

The shell of a gastropod is all in one piece. In many cases it

is coiled. Slugs are gastropods which have no shells that show.

They may have a thin plate of shell buried in their mantle.

Gastropods are found in fresh water, in salt water, and on
land. Those found on land have a kind of lung for breathing
air. So do some fresh-water forms. Marine gastropods and

some fresh-water forms have gills.

All gastropods have a peculiar tongue called a radula. On it

there are many rows of tiny teeth. With them a gastropod can
scrape little plants off stones, tear larger plants to pieces, and
even drill through a hard shell and eat the animal inside.
“Pelecypod” means “hatchet-footed.” Another name for the
pelecypods is “bivalves.” “Bivalve” means “two doors”; a bi-

16
valve’s shell is made of two pieces hinged together. In most
cases a bivalve does not crawl about on its foot. Instead, it uses
the foot as a burrowing tool. A bivalve has no head. Water
enters the mantle cavity through a tube called a siphon. It
moves past the gills. They take in oxygen and strain out tiny
plants and animals for food. The water leaves through a second
siphon tube, carrying wastes with it.

Scallops and oysters as well as clams are bivalves. There are

many other kinds, too. Most bivalves are marine, but some live
in fresh water. There are no land forms. Some bivalves swim
about freely when young but later attach themselves to some-
thing solid and remain there. Oysters are among them.
“Cephalopod” means “head-footed.” A cephalopod’s foot is
divided into a number of “arms” which surround its head.
Besides the squids, the group includes the octopuses and the
nautiluses. The nautiluses have beautiful coiled shells. The
octopuses have no shells at all. The squids have only a bit of

horny shell buried in the mantle.

Like the gastropods the cephalopods have a radula, but at
least some members of the group use it very little. The fast-
moving squids, for example, catch their prey with their arms,
which bear suckers, and tear them to pieces with their strong
jaws. The cephalopods rank far ahead of other mollusks in the
matter of eyes. In fact, they have the best eyes to be found
among animals without backbones.
All mollusks come from fertilized eggs. In some cases the
sexes are separate. In others each adult produces both eggs
and sperms. Some species lay eggs. Others keep the eggs within
the mother’s body until they develop into young mollusks.
Mollusks furnish people with large amounts of food. Mollusk
shellssupply materials for pearl buttons. Besides, all true
pearls come from oysters or clams.
 The arthropods make up by far the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom. The name means
“jointed feet.” All arthropods have jointed appendages.
Another important way which they are all alike is that
in
segmented worms, consist of
their bodies, like those of the
a series of segments. All arthropods, moreover, have an outer
covering made up at least in part of a remarkable material
called chitin (ki'tin). This outer covering is often spoken of
as an exoskeleton. You can guess that “exo” means “outside.”
The crustaceans are one of the classes into which the arthro-
pods are divided. The group is a highly successful one. Among
its members are the lobsters, crabs, crayfishes, shrimps, bar-
nacles, water and sow bugs. Although lobsters and some
fleas,

crabs are fairly large animals, many members of the group

never grow to be more than half an inch long. Some are almost
too small to be seen without a microscope. Most crustaceans
are marine, but there are both fresh-water and land forms.
In the main crustaceans have gills and two pairs of feelers,
or antennas. This combination sets them apart from other
arthropods.
From the lobster pictured above it is easy to see something
of the general crustacean plan. A lobster has ten legs. They
serve not only for moving about but also for protection and
They help some in breathing, too. The first pair
food-getting.
of legs are pinching [Link] both have stout claws, one of
which grows to be larger than the other. The claws are helpful
in catching and crushing small animals and in protecting the
lobster from its enemies. The other four pairs of legs are
chieflywalking legs. Gills like little plumes are attached to the
base of each walking leg. As the legs move, the gills are fanned
back and forth in the water around them.
18
 In addition to the legs, a lobster’s body has many other
appendages. In fact, almost every one of the twenty-one seg-
ments in it has a pair of appendages. The legs are attached
to the part of the lobster’s body known as the thorax. In front
of the thorax is the head. To
its segments are attached the

antennas, eyes, and mouth parts. The head and thorax together
form the cephalothorax (sef-a-lo-tho'raks) Behind the cepha-
.

lothorax is the abdomen. To its segments swimmerets and

parts of the tail fan are attached. The swimmerets and tail fan
are a help in swimming. The female also attaches her eggs to
her swimmerets and carries her young about on them.
Lobsters are able to grow again some body parts that are
lost or injured. If, for example, a claw is lost, a new one grows
in its place.
The lobster’s hard exoskeleton cannot get much larger. As
the animal grows it has to shed its exoskeleton from time to

time and form a new one. This process is called molting.

Just a glance at most of the other crustaceans would show
you that they are much like the lobster. But barnacles at first

glance look more like mollusks than like crustaceans. When

first hatched barnacles are able to swim about. But soon they
attach themselves to something solid and stay in one place the
rest of their lives. A thick shell forms about them. Barnacles
cause trouble by attaching themselves to boats.
People value lobsters, shrimps, and many kinds of crabs
highly as food. These crustaceans and many others that we do
not eat furnish food for other animals. Tiny crustaceans make
up a very important part of the “sea soup” about which you
have been told. Moreover, crustaceans eat decaying plants and
animals and help keep the places where they live fit for other
living things.

19 Crayfish, Crab, and Barnacles

 Myriapods
This class of jointed-legged animals is made up of
the centipedes, or “hundred-legs,” and the millipedes,
or “thousand-legs.” The name “myriapod” (mir'i-a-pod)
means “many-footed.” Even though the centipedes and milli-
pedes are alike in having many legs and in a number of other
ways, some scientists put them in separate classes.
Centipedes do not all have an even hundred legs. Some
species have more than three hundred, while others have less
than half a hundred. The number varies because the number
of body segments varies. A centipede has poison claws on the
—
segment just back of its head the first body segment; it has
a pair of legs on all other body segments except the last two.
The separate segments of the house centipede, pictured above
at the left, do not show clearly. It has more segments than it
appears to have.
On their heads centipedes have one pair of antennas. As a
rule they have several simple eyes; the house centipede, how-
ever, has compound eyes. All breathe through branched tubes.
Centipedes live under stones and in similar dark, damp
places. They eat soft-bodied insects and other small animals.
Young centipedes hatch from eggs, usually laid in moist earth.
No millipedes have as many as a thousand legs, but they
have about twice as many as centipedes of the same length.
An adult millipede has two pairs of legs on most of its body
segments. Millipedes, like centipedes, live in dark, damp places.
They get oxygen, digest food, get rid of waste, and lay eggs
much as centipedes do. But they eat plant rather than animal
food. Moreover, although they have more legs, they move
about more slowly than centipedes.
The myriapods as a group are not very important to us.
, They do little that either helps or harms us.

20
 ;

Some thirty thousand species of animals are

included in the arachnids. The spiders make up by
far the largest and most widespread group in this large
[Link] in the class are the scorpions, mites, ticks, and
daddy longlegs. Almost all arachnids are land animals.
Arachnids have four pairs of legs. Their eight legs serve as
an easy means of telling them from insects, with which they
are often confused. Insects have only six legs. The segments
of an arachnid are grouped into two body regions: the cepha-
lothorax and the abdomen. No arachnids have compound eyes
they have from two to twelve simple eyes. They have no
antepnas. Near their mouths they do have, however, two dis-
tinctive pairs of appendages, one pair of which look like legs.
Spiders are all meat-eaters. Most of them spin webs which
—
serve as insect traps. With their poison fangs one of the pairs
of appendages near their mouths —
they paralyze the insects
they catch. Then they suck out the soft parts of the insects’
[Link] silk of a spider’s web comes from spinnerets on the
under side of its abdomen.
Scorpions and daddy longlegs are also meat-eaters, although
they spin no webs to catch their prey. Some mites and ticks
eat animals; others eat plants. Many live on other animals.
—
Some arachnids breathe with “book lungs” air sacs filled
with thin flaps of skin arranged like the pages of a book.
Some have air tubes instead. A large number have both.
Many people think of spiders and their relatives as enemies
to be killed on sight. Scorpions do have a poisonous sting, and
a few spiders are poisonous. Moreover, mites and ticks spread
certain diseases among people and domestic animals. But for
the most part arachnids are harmless, and some help us by
destroying harmful insects.

21
 Insects
More than half of all the species of animals
we know about are Over 600,000 species
insects.
have been named, and there are doubtless, thousands
more to be discovered. Individual protozoa outnumber indi-
dividual insects, but even so there are probably at least half
a million insects to every person on the earth.
These small animals are distributed far and wide. There are
very few in the oceans, but they are found practically every-
where in fresh water and on land. Some have been found even
in the almost lifeless wastes near the South Pole.
The body of an insect is incised, or divided, into three dis-
tinct parts: the head (six segments), the thorax (three seg-
ments), and the abdomen (twelve or less segments). The word
“insect” means “incised.” Insects are also known as hexapods.
“Hexapod” means “six-footed.” All insects have six legs.
In addition to having three distinct body regions and three
pairs of legs, all insects are alike in having a pair of antennas.
Most of them have a pair of —
compound eyes eyes made up of
many tiny eyes. Moreover, most of them have wings. Winged
insects, as a rule, have two pairs of wings. In some cases,
however, they have only one pair.
Insects can be told rather easily from animals of other
groups. But thinking of some common moth, a
insects —a
—
and an ant, let us say will help you see
cricket, a dragonfly,
that within the group there is great variation. Because of this
variation there are many orders of insects. Scientists do not
agree as to the exact number, just as they do not agree as to
the exact number of phyla in the whole animal kingdom. The
chart on the opposite page lists eighteen orders. They include
a large part of all the insects. In some lists you would find

some of these orders combined. Many scientists, for example,

22
THYSANURA (Silverfish, Firebrat)

PLECTOPTERA (Mayflies)

ODONATA (Dragonflies, Damselflies)

ORTHOPTERA^ Grasshoppers, Locusts,

i Katydids, Crickets

PHASMATODEA (Walking Sticks)

MANTODEA (Praying Mantids)

BLATTARIAE (Roaches)

ISOPTERA (Termites)

MALLOPHAGA (Bird Lice)

ANOPLURA (True Lice)

Aphids, Tree Hoppers,

HOMOPTERA )
i Scale Insects, Cicadas

HETEROPTERA (True Bugs)

NEUROPTERA (Doodlebugs, Aphid-lions)

SIPHONAPTERA (Fleas)

DIPTERA (Flies, Gnats, Mosquitoes)

COLEOPTERA (Beetles)

HYMENOPTERA (Ants, Bees, Wasps)

LEPIDOPTERA (Moths, Butterflies)

 —

put both the praying mantids and the walking sticks in the
order with the grasshoppers. Notice that the names of more
than half of the orders listed end with “ptera.” This ending
means “wings.” The flies, gnats, and mosquitoes are “two-
wings,” the moths and butterflies are “scaly-wings,” and so on.
The food of the many thousands of kinds of insects includes
almost every variety of plant and animal material. Their
mouth parts fit different insects for eating different kinds of
food. The grasshopper, which eats leaves, has biting mouth
parts. Its jaws grind up the plant material bitten off. In con-
trast, the mosquito has sucking mouth parts. It sucks blood
from animals or sap from plants.
Most insects have a system of tubes which carry air to all
parts of their bodies. The air enters the tubes through open-
ings called spiracles. Some insects have special breathing de-
vices which fit their particular way of living. When young,
for example, mosquitoes live in water and breathe through
tubes which extend above the water.
All insects come from eggs. Some —
the grasshoppers, for
—
example are much like adults when they first hatch. They
simply go through a series of molts in reaching their full size.
Other insects do not look at all like adults when they hatch.
In growing up they go through a series of marked changes
through what is called a complete metamorphosis. The egg
hatches into a larva. The larva grows, molts, and after a time
goes into a resting, or pupa, stage. The insect comes out of the
pupa stage as an adult. The butterflies are among the insects
which go through this series of changes. Thejarva of a butter-
fly is .often called a caterpillar. The pupa is called a^ch rysali s.

Among the insects we find societies much like those people

have worked out. Different individuals in the societies do dif-
ferent kinds of work. Some wasps, some bees, all ants, and all

termites live in such societies.

Insects as a group are man’s greatest rivals. They harm us
inmany ways and annoy us in even more. But they also do
much that helps us. A world without insects would be a very
different world from the one in which we live.

24
 Fishes rank lowest of the five groups of ver-

tebrates. Supposedly theywere the first of the five

groups to appear on the earth. All fishes are water ani-
mals. Some live in fresh water, some live in salt water,
and some spend part of their lives in each.
Fishes are cold blooded. The temperature of their bodies,
that is, changes with the temperature of their surroundings.
In this way they are like the invertebrates. Sea Horse
With its streamlined body, its covering of scales, and its

several fins, the herring pictured above at the left is a typical

fish. Its tailand tail fin, by moving from side to side, push it
forward. Its two pairs of fins, which correspond to our arms
and legs, and the unpaired fins on its back and under its body
help the fish steer itself and keep its balance. Just back of the
herring’s head are its gill covers. They protect the gills with
which the fish breathes.
All fishes have fins, but the number varies. All fishes have
gills, although a few have additional ways of getting oxygen.

Most fishes, but not all, have scales. The majority of fishes are
shaped much like the herring, but some, like the little sea
horse shown above, do not have this typical fish shape. Many
fishes have swim bladders —
sacs filled with air. Changing the
amount of air in its swim bladder helps a fish rise or sink.
Practically all have eyes, but none have eyelids. Al-
fishes
though they have no ears that show, fishes have ears buried
deep in their heads. Like all vertebrates, fishes have systems
much like ours for digesting their food and getting rid of
waste. They have a heart and blood vessels, just as we have.
A fish’s heart, however, has only two chambers.
Some fishes eat almost nothing but plant food. Some eat
only other animals. Some eat both plants and animals.

25
 Many early fishes had armor. Some fishes of today — the
swordfish, for example —have weapons with which they can
protect themselves. But most fishes are protected chiefly by
their color and their ability to swim fast.
A few species of fish guard their eggs and protect their
young, but most do not. Some fishes do not lay eggs. Many of
the tiny tropical fishes now popular for aquariums are live-
bearing. The female carries the fertilized eggs in her body
until they develop into tiny fish.
There are four main groups of fishes. Ranking lowest are the
hagfishes and lampreys, often called the round-mouthed fishes.
The fishes of this group have skeletons made of cartilage.
They do not have scales, jaws, or paired fins.
The sharks and rays also have skeletons of cartilage. But
they have jaws and paired fins. In this group are found our
largest fishes, the whale sharks.
Lungfishes have an air bladder which acts as a lung. Because
they can take oxygen from air as well as from water, they can
live through a dry season by burying themselves in mud.
Their skeletons are made chiefly of bone.
The bony fishes make up by far the largest group of fishes.
As you can guess, their skeletons are made of bone. To this
group belong all the fishes we know best.
Fish furnish vast quantities of food. Hundreds of thousands
of people earn their living by fishing.

HAGFISHES AND LAMPREYS

SHARKS AND RAYS

FISHES

LUNGFISHES

BONY FISHES
 Amphibians
The name “amphibian” means “double life.”
Most amphibians when young look much like little
fish. They live in water, take oxygen from the water by

means of gills, and eat water plants. But when grown most
of them spend some or all of their time on land, breathe
through their skin or by means of lungs, and eat small animals.
The name for the group is, you see, a good one.
The earliest known four-footed animals were amphibians.
Doubtless an amphibian was the very first vertebrate ever to
be able to live on land. An amphibian, scientists think, was
also the first animal with a voice and an eardrum.
Most modern amphibians differ in one easily seen way from
most of the fishes below them and the reptiles above them:
they have no scales. Their skins are bare and, as a rule, moist.
The amphibians of today are divided into three groups, as
the chart on page 28 shows. Toads and frogs are well known
to almost everyone. They have legs when they are full grown,
but no tail. Newts and salamanders are fairly common. They
have both legs and a tail when full grown. Caecilians (se-sil'i-
ans) are not well known. They are found chiefly in warm
regions^ They have no legs and practically no tail. In fact, they
look much like big earthworms.
The mudpuppy, which belongs to the group of newts and
salamanders, is one of the exceptions to the general amphibian
plan of life. This amphibian never loses its gills and spends
its whole life in water. It really never grows up.

Although most amphibians are able to live on land for part

of their lives, they cannot stand extreme dryness. They must
stay close to water or to moist places. The part of their lives
they spend in water is spent in fresh water. There are no
marine amphibians.
27
 Like amphibians are cold blooded. Those that live
fishes, all
in regions of cold winters, as many of them do, protect them-
selves from the cold by hibernating. They bury themselves in
damp ground or in the mud under a pond. While hibernating,
their body activities go on very slowly. They take in oxygen
through the skin and live on food stored in their bodies.
The leopard frog is a typical amphibian. A female leopard
frog lays thousands of eggs in a pond or stream. As the eggs
are laid, they are fertilized. Within a few days they hatch into
tadpoles. The tadpoles breathe with gills, swim by means of
their tails, and eat water plants. As they grow, they gradually
change. In time they lose their gills, develop lungs and legs,
and lose their tails. They are at last land animals.
A very few species of amphibians lay their eggs on land.
In that case the tadpole, or larva, stage is passed in the egg.
At least one species is live-bearing.
Amphibians are not a very conspicuous part of the animal
world today. The giant salamander of Japan sometimes grows
to be two feet long, but most amphibians are much smaller.
They protect themselves chiefly by remaining hidden. As a
rule their color matches the color of their surroundings rather
well. In addition, frogs are able to make long jumps, and the
skins of some toads and salamanders give out a liquid that
is unpleasant or even poisonous to other animals.
As a group, the amphibians are far less important to us than
the Ashes. But they do help us in certain ways. A few species
furnish us with food, and many eat insect pests.

TOADS AND FROGS

NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS

LEGLESS CAECILIANS
 Reptiles
A hundred million years ago reptiles were
the most conspicuous animals on earth. They were
common on the ground, in the air, and in the sea.
Among the reptiles of that time were the dinosaurs, the
largest of which were the largest land animals that have
ever lived. Today the reptiles are rather inconspicuous.
The word reptile comes from a Latin word meaning “to
creep.” Reptiles have short legs, if any. For the most part they
are land animals. Some spend most of their time in the water,
but even these come on land to lay their eggs.
Like fishes and amphibians, reptiles are cold blooded. Those
that live in regions with cold winters hibernate. Reptiles are
built much like adult amphibians. But they differ from am-
phibians in two chief ways: they breathe with lungs all their
lives, and their bodies, with few exceptions, are covered with
scales. Contrary to the common idea, the scales are dry.
The eggs of reptiles show a decided advance over the eggs
of fishes and amphibians. The eggs of fishes and amphibians
have no covering to protect them from loss of moisture and
must therefore be laid in water or in a very moist place. Rep-
tile eggs have a firm covering around them. Because their eggs

did not have to be laid in water, the reptiles were the first
true land vertebrates. Not all reptiles lay eggs. Some, the com-
mon garter snake among them, are live-bearing.
The chart on the next page shows the four orders of present-
—
day reptiles. In one order there is only one species the tua-
tara. The largest order is divided into two suborders the —
lizards and the snakes.
Turtles are easily recognized by their shells. The group con-
sists of the land turtles (tortoises), the pond turtles (terra-
pins), and the sea turtles. Turtles eat both plants and animals.

29
 Alligators and crocodiles lay their eggs on land, but spend
most of their time in the water. They are the largest reptiles
of today. Now these reptiles are found only in warm regions,
but once they were widespread. They are all meat-eaters.
Lizards look much like alligators and crocodiles except that
they are smaller. They are strictly land animals. On the whole
they are meat-eaters although some eat plants, too.
With snakes you are sure to be familiar. These reptiles have
no legs and no eyelids. They eat only live animals. A snake’s
jaws are built so that they can open very wide and allow the
snake to eat an animal bigger around than the snake itself.
Probably more people are afraid of snakes than of any other
group of animals. Some snakes are very poisonous, but only a
few of the poisonous species are found in our country.
There have been tuataras on the earth for more than two
hundred million years. They are found now only on some small
islands near New Zealand.
Some turtles are used as food. Lizards, snakes, and alligators
furnish us with leather. Some reptiles help us by eating harm-
ful insects. But the reptiles as a whole rank, in importance to
us, far below the fishes, birds, and mammals.

TURTLES

ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES

REPTILES SNAKES

LIZARDS

TUATARA
 Birds can be told easily from all other animals
by their feathers. Feathers make a good protective
covering. They not only protect from injury but also
prevent loss of heat. Wing and tail feathers are a great help
in flying.
Birds are like reptiles in a great many ways — in so many
ways, in were rep-
fact, that scientists believe their ancestors
tiles. But there are two marked differences between the two

groups in addition to the fact that birds have feathers instead

of scales: birds have wings, and they are warm blooded. The
flying dragon, which is a lizard, has “wings” that let it glide
through the air, but they are not true wings. Birds and mam-
mals are the only warm-blooded animals. They are the only
animals, that is, which have body temperatures which do not
change when the surroundings become warmer or cooler. The
body temperature of some species of birds is as high as 112° F.
At such a high temperature body activities go on rapidly.
Birds, therefore, need a great deal of food.
The first birds had teeth. The birds of today do not instead
;

they have a gizzard in which their food is ground up. Many of

them have a crop for storing food. They all have a heart with
four chambers, just as we have. They have lungs and, in
addition, small air sacs scattered through their bodies.

31
 —

All birds come from eggs. In contrast with the eggs of lower
animals, birds’ eggs must be kept very warm above 99° F. —
in order to hatch. The young of robins and many other kinds
of birds have no feathers or down when first hatched and are
quite helpless. They ‘must be kept warm and be fed a great
deal. On the other hand, the young of some birds ducks and —
—
chickens, for example are covered with down when hatched
and can run about and get food for themselves.
The typical bird’s body is well adapted for flight. It is
streamlined. Since many of the bones are hollow, it is also
very light. On the breastbone there is a projection called a
keel, to which strong wing muscles are attached. The tail

feathers serve as a rudder in flight. Some birds cannot fly.

They lack the keel on the breastbone. Their wing muscles,

moreover, are not well developed.
Many birds fly long distances spring and fall. This habit of
migrating cannot yet be fully explained. No one knows surely
how migration came about and how birds are able to And
their way on their long journeys. We do know that by migrat-
ing some birds are able to get better conditions for themselves
than they could have if they stayed in one place.
The chart on the opposite page lists twenty-one bird orders.
Among the orders there are many differences which have to
do with differences in habitat and in food. Ducks and their
close relatives, for example, have webbed feet, which help in
swimming. All the birds order with the herons have
in the
long legs adapted for wading. Hawks and eagles have sharp
claws useful in catching prey. Swifts and hummingbirds, which
spend most of their time in the air, have poorly developed feet.
The bills of the kingfishers are well suited for spearing fish.
The perching birds make up by far the largest order. It
includes all our songbirds. As you can guess, the feet of the
birds in this order are well fitted for perching.
Birds rank high in importance to man. Aside from the
pleasure they give, many of them furnish us with food. Many
more help protect our crop plants by eating weed seeds, harm-
ful insects, and such small mammals as field mice.

32
 FLIGHTLESS BIRDS Ostriches, Cassowaries,
5
( Emus, Rheas, Kiwis

LOONS

GREBES

PETRELS AND ALBATROSSES

PENGUINS

PELICANS AND CORMORANTS

HERONS, STORKS, FLAMINGOS, AND BITTERNS

RAILS, GALLINULES, AND CRANES

GULLS, TERNS, SANDPIPERS, AUKS, AND PLOVERS

DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS

BIRDS GROUSE, QUAIL, PHEASANTS, TURKEYS, AND CHICKENS

VULTURES, HAWKS, AND EAGLES

OWLS

PIGEONS AND DOVES

PARROTS

CUCKOOS AND ROAD-RUNNERS

WHIP-POOR-WILLS AND NIGHTHAWKS

SWIFTS AND HUMMINGBIRDS

KINGFISHERS AND HORNBILLS

WOODPECKERS AND TOUCANS

/Thrushes, Warblers, Wrens, Blackbirds,
\Sparrows, Grosbeaks, Cardinals, Jays,
PERCHING BIRDS < Flycatchers, Tanagers, Swallows,
vMockingbirds, Nuthatches, Chickadees
 The mammals are so important and well
known a group that many people think of them
as the only true animals. To the group belong most
of our really large animals, many of the animals we have
tamed, and all the fur-bearing animals. Moreover, as you

have already been told, we are mammals.

Within the group there is great variation. Different mam-
mals are fitted for living in widely different kinds of places.
Thinking of the whale, the lion, the polar bear, the camel, the
mole, the bat, and the monkey will help you see how varied
mammal habitats are. Mammals eat widely different kinds of
food, as you will realize when you think of the horse, the tiger,
and the anteater. Moreover, they vary greatly in size. The
largest whales are, so far as anyone knows, the largest animals
that have ever lived. They are larger than the largest dino-
saurs, the giants of all land animals. But to the mammals also
belong the little mice and shrews.
Mammals get their name from their mammary, or milk,
glands. All mammals feed their young with milk.
As you know, mammals are warm blooded. They are like the
birds in this way. They breathe with lungs all their lives. In
this way they are like both the birds and the reptiles. They
all have some fur or hair. They may, like the whale, have only

a very little. But all mammals have some. In this way they
differ from all other animals with backbones.
Some fishes are live-bearing. So are some amphibians and
reptiles. Eggs are, however, the rule among these groups, and
all birds come from eggs. Among the mammals, giving birth

to their young is the rule, and laying eggs is the exception.

The activities of a mammal’s body are carried on by well-
developed systems of organs. The mammal heart has four

34
chambers. It pumps blood through a double circuit of blood
vessels. As an aid in breathing, mammals have a sheet of
muscle called a diaphragm. It stretches across the body cavity
and, by moving up and down, helps bring air into the lungs
and force it out. The digestive system includes a stomach,
liver, small intestine, and large intestine. There is no gizzard.

Most mammals have two sets of teeth: the '‘milk” teeth,

which fall out early in life, and the permanent teeth. The
higher mammals have different kinds of teeth suited for differ-
ent purposes. Their teeth show a marked advance over those
of fishes, amphibians, and reptiles.
Most mammals have the senses of hearing, touching, smell-
ing, tasting, and seeing well developed. They all have vocal
cords, and some — —
the lion, for example have very loud voices.
The chart on the inside back cover lists seventeen orders
of mammals. Of all the orders the monotremes are the most
primitive. They lay eggs. After the eggs hatch, the young are
nourished with milk just as they are in the higher orders.
The members of this group are found only in Australia.
The marsupials, or pouched mammals, are ranked above the
monotremes, but they are still considered primitive. They do
not lay eggs, but the young are born while still very tiny and
helpless. As soon as they are born, baby marsupials crawl into
a pouch on their mother’s body. They get milk from the
mother while there and little by little grow large and strong
enough to be able to do without the protection of the pouch.
Most members of this group are found only in Australia, but
the opossum of our country is a marsupial.
All other mammals are called placental mammals. The
young develop within the mother’s body until they are much
less tiny and helpless than baby marsupials. While in the
mother’s body they get the food they need directly from the
mother’s bloodstream. For each species there is a definite
length of time in which the mother carries the young within
her body. Although the babies when born are not so helpless
as baby marsupials, they need care for weeks, months, or
even years.
Mammals give birth to only a few young at a time. Fishes,
the lowest of the vertebrates, lay thousands or even millions
of eggs at a time. Yet mammals are able to hold their own
as well as are the fishes. Knowing how carefully young mam-
mals are protected helps us understand why.

See for Yourself

1. Ask any adult to name ten animals. Find out how many
are mammals. Do your results bear out the statement that
many people think of mammals as the only true animals?
2. Keep track of all the different kinds of animals you see
in the course of some one day. Find out where each one belongs
on the animal tree.
3. Find out by looking in reference books to what big group
each of these animals belongs titmouse, glass snake, ant-lion,
:

and beach flea. Try to find other examples of misleading names.

4. Make a list of five common animals. In reference books

find the scientific names of these animals.

5. Set up an aquarium and a terrarium. Stock them with
representatives of as many different phyla as you can.
6. Try to carry some moth through its whole life-history.
7. Experiment with some animal such as a small turtle to
see to what stimuli it will respond. (Be careful not to do any-
thing which might injure it.)
8. On a microscope slide mount some green scum from a

pond or an aquarium. Examine the slide with a microscope.

You are likely to find some tiny protozoa among the plants.
9. Choose some common species of animal. From reference

books find out its genus, family, order, class, and phylum.
10. You have been told what the names of some insect orders
mean. Find out from the dictionary what the names of the
other orders listed mean.

Illustrations by GREGORY ORLORFF

 MONOTREMES (Duckbill, Spiny Anteater)

MARSUPIALS (Opossums, Kangaroos, Wombats,

Bandicoots, Koala, Tasmanian Devil)

INSECTIVORES (Moles, Shrev/s, Hedgehogs)

CARNIVORES (Cats, Lions, Tigers, Dogs, Wolves,

Foxes, Bears, Raccoons, Otters, Skunks, Weasels,
Seals, Walruses, Hyenas, Sea Lions)

ODD-TOED UNGULATES (Horses, Asses, Zebras,

Tapirs, Rhinoceroses)

EVEN-TOED UNGULATES (Pigs, Hippopotamuses,

Deer, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Giraffes,Camels,
Llamas, Alpacas, Antelopes)

CETACEANS (Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises)

ELEPHANTS

MAMMALS SEA COWS (Manatee, Dugong)

CONEYS
RODENTS (Rats, Mice, Squirrels, Chipmunks,
Woodchucks, Rabbits, Beavers, Porcupines,
Guinea Pigs, Hamsters, Prairie Dogs, Muskrats)

EDENTATES (Sloths, Armadillos, Anteaters)

PANGOLINS, or SCALY ANTEATERS

AARDVARKS

BATS

FLYING-LEMURS

PRIMATES (Lemurs, Monkeys, Apes, Man)