Unit-I

Regular and Irregular verbs

An English verb can be regular or irregular. Regular verbs form their past and past participle
forms by adding –ed. Examples are given below.
Walk – walked – walked
Dance – danced – danced
Paint – painted – painted
Work – worked – worked
Irregular verbs form their past and past participle forms in different ways.
There are mainly three types of irregular verbs.
Verbs in which all the three forms are the same (e.g. put – put – put)
Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same (e.g. sit – sat – sat)
Verbs in which all three forms are different (e.g. drink – drank – drunk)
Some verbs can be both regular and irregular. Examples are:
Burn – burnt – burnt (irregular)
Burn – burned – burned (regular)
Dream – dreamt – dreamt (irregular)
Dream – dreamed – dreamed (regular)
Lean – lent – lent (irregular)
Lean – leaned – leaned (regular)
Learn – learnt – learnt (irregular)
Learn – learned – learned (regular)
Leap – leapt – leapt (irregular)
Leap – leaped – leaped (regular)
Smell – smelt – smelt (irregular)
Smell – smelled – smelled (regular)
Spill – spilt – spilt (irregular)
Spill – spilled – spilled (regular)
Spoil – spoilt – spoilt (irregular)
Spoil – spoiled – spoiled (regular)
Complete the following sentences using the past or past participle form of the verb given in
the brackets.
1. It has been ages since I last ……………… him. (see)
2. The old man has ……………….. better days (see)
3. The cat ………………. all the milk. (drink)
4. The child has ………………… all the milk. (drink)
Answers
1. It has been ages since I last saw him.
2. The old man has seen better days
3. The cat drank all the milk.
4. The child has drunk all the milk.

TENSE

Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that
have already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The

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present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are
continuous. The future tense describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow,
next week, next year, three years from now).

The following table illustrates the proper use of verb tenses:

Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future

I will read as much as I can this
I read nearly every day. Last night, I read an entire novel.
year.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous
I am reading
I was reading Edgar Allan Poe I will be reading Nathaniel
Shakespeare at the
last night. Hawthorne soon.
moment.
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
I have read so many I had read at least 100 books by I will have read at least 500
books I can’t keep count. the time I was twelve. books by the end of the year.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous
Continuous
I had been reading for at least a I will have been reading for at
I have been reading since
year before my sister learned to least two hours before dinner
I was four years old.
read. tonight.

VOICE

The passive of an active tense is formed by puting the verb to be into the same tense as the
active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. The subject of the active verb
becomes the ‘agent’ of the passive verb. The agent is very often not mentioned. When it is
mentioned it is preceded by by and placed at the end of the clause.

Active: My grandfather planted this tree.

Passive: This tree was planted by my grandfather.

PASSIVE VERB TENSES

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

Present Simple He delivers the letters. The letters are delivered

Past Simple He delivered the letters. The letters were delivered.
Future Simple He will deliver the letters. The letters will be delivered.
Present Continuous He is delivering the letters. The letters are being delivered.
Past Continuous He was delivering the letters. The letters were being delivered.
Going to He is going to deliver the letters. The letters are going to be delivered.
Present Perfect He has delivered the letters. The letters have been delivered.
Past Perfect He had delivered the letters. The letters had been delivered.
Infinitive He has to deliver the letters. The letters have to be delivered.
Modals He must deliver the letters. The letters must be delivered.
1
REPORTED SPEECH
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Tense Changes When Using Reported Speech. Normally, the tense in reported speech is one
tense back in time from the tense in direct speech: She said, "I am tired." = She said that she
was tired.

Phrase in Direct Speech Equivalent in Reported Speech

Simple present Simple past
"I always drink coffee", she said She said that she always drank coffee.
Present continuous Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained. He explained that he was reading a book
Simple past Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said. He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday.
Present perfect Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me. He told me that he had been to Spain.
Past perfect Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he He explained that he had just turned out the
explained. light.
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have been waiting for They complained that they had been waiting
hours". for hours.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
They told me that they had been living in
"We were living in Paris", they told me.
Paris.
Future Present conditional
He said that he would be in Geneva on
"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said.
Monday.
Future continuous Conditional continuous
She said that she would be using the car next
She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday".
Friday.

You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original
statement was about something that is still true, e.g.

 He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
 We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.

These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought to:

 We explained, "It could be difficult to find our house." = We explained that it could
be difficult to find our house.
 She said, "I might bring a friend to the party." = She said that she might bring a
friend to the party.

Auxiliaries and Modals

1. Auxiliaries, Modals and Main verbs

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be, have and do can be auxiliaries and main verbs. They have grammatical functions and
are used for forming tenses, questions, the passive, etc.
Modals are can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would and need (need
can also be a main verb).
Examples:
We can play football.
We could play football.
We may play football.
We might play football.
We must play football.
We mustn't play football.
We needn't play football.
We ought to play football.
We shall play football.
We should play football.
We will play football.
We would play football.
2. What to keep in mind when using modals
Explanation Sample sentences
Do not use modals for things which happen The sun rises in the east. - A modal
definitely. can't be used in this sentence.
They have no -s in the 3rd person singular. He can play football.
Questions are formed without do/does/did. Can he speak Spanish?
It follows a main verb in its infinitive. They must read the book.
There are no past forms (except could and would). He was allowed to watch the film.
When you use the past participle you tell about things
You should have told me.
which did not happen in the past.
3. Long and contracted forms of modals
Affirmative Negative
Long forms Contracted forms Long forms Contracted forms
can -- cannot can't
could -- could not couldn't
may -- may not --
might -- might not --
ought to -- ought not to oughtn't to
need -- need not needn't
shall 'll shall not shan't
should 'd should not shouldn't
will 'll will not won't
would 'd would not wouldn't

If CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are three types of If conditions. They are:

I. Probable Condition (or) Open Condition

II. Improbable Condition (or) Imaginary Condition

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 III. Impossible Condition (or) Unfulfilled Condition
I. Probable Condition (or) Open Condition

Structure Sub clause / If-clause Main clause

Subject+V1 (Simple Present) Subject+shall/will/can/may+V1
Examples:

1. a). Work hard. You will succeed in life.

b). If you work hard, you will succeed in life. (or)
If you do not work hard, you will not succeed in life.
2. a). Play well. You can win the match.
b). If you play well, you can win the match. (or)
If you do not play well, you cannot win the match.
3. a). Study well. You may pass the exam.
b). If you study well, you may pass the exam. (or)
If you do not study well, you may not pass the exam.
4. a). Unless you be quiet, I will not be able to finish the task.
b). If you be quiet, I will be able to finish the task. (or)
If you do not be quiet, I will not be able to finish the task.
5. a). Prepare food at home. We will not have to go out.
b). If you prepare food at home, we will not have to go out. (or)
If you do not prepare food at home, we will have to go out.

II. Improbable Condition (or) Imaginary Condition

Structure Sub clause / If-clause Main clause
Subject+V2 (Simple Past) Subject+should/would/could/might+V1
1. a). I am not a bird. I cannot fly high in the sky.
b). If I were a bird, I could fly high in the sky.
2. a). She is not the PM of India to help the poor.
b). If she were the PM of India, she would help the poor.
3. a). He does not have a bike. He cannot give you a ride.
b). If he had a bike, he could give you a ride.
4. a). They do not have money. They may not visit the Taj.
b). If they had money, they might visit the Taj.
5. a). I do not have time. I cannot wait anymore.
b). If I had time, I could wait.
6. a). I am not the head to grant leave to you.
b). If I were the head, I could grant leave to you.

III. Impossible Condition or Unfulfilled Condition

Structure Sub clause / If-clause Main clause

Subject+had+V3 (Past Perfect) Subject+should/would/could/might+have+V3

1. a). He did not study hard. He did not pass.

b). If he had studied hard, he would have passed. (or)
Had he studied hard, he would have passed.
2. a). We were poor. We could not bribe officials for job.
b). If we had been rich, we could have bribed officials for job. (or)
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 Had we been rich, we could have bribed officials for job.
3. a). She did not reach the station in time. She missed the train.
b). If she had reached the station in time, she would not have missed the train. (or)
Had she reached the train in time, she would not have missed the train.
4. a). Her parents were not rich. They could not afford her education.
b). If her parents had been rich, they could have afforded her education. (or)
Had her parents been rich, they could have afforded her education.
5. a). Doctor arrived late. Patient died.
b). If doctor had arrived early, patient might not have died. (or)
If doctor had not arrived late, patient might not have died. (or)
Had doctor arrived early, patient would not have died.

DEGREES OF COMPARISION

We can express the same idea using different degrees of comparison. Study the sentences
given below.
John is as tall as Mike.
Tall is an adjective in the positive degree. Here we are comparing the height of two people
with a positive adjective. If John and Mike are of the same height, Mike is not taller than
John.
See how the same idea is expressed using both positive and comparative adjectives.
John is as tall as Mike. = Mike is not taller than John.
Another example is given below
Very few countries in the world are as large as China. (Positive)
China is larger than most other countries in the world. (Comparative)
China is one of the largest countries in the world. (Superlative)
No other man was as strong as Hercules. (Positive)
Hercules was stronger than any other man. (Comparative)
Hercules was the strongest man in the world. (Superlative)
No other boy in the class is as intelligent as James. (Positive)
James is more intelligent than any other boy in the class. (Comparative)
James is the most intelligent boy in the class. (Superlative)
Very few Indian saints were as popular as Vivekananda. (Positive)
Vivekananda was more popular than most other Indian saints. (Comparative)
Vivekananda was one of the most popular Indian saints. (Superlative)
Maria is not as intelligent as Sonia. (Positive)
Sonia is more intelligent than Maria. (Comparative)
When a comparison is made between two individuals we do not normally use the superlative.
Alice is the prettier of the two sisters. (More natural than ‘Alice is the prettiest of the two
sisters.’)

Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences

Clause: A clause is a group of words having Subject and Predicate.

If you study well, you will pass
Subordinate Clause Main Clause

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Though he is poor, he is generous.
Subordinate Clause Main Clause
Main Clause
A Main Clause is a clause that stands alone and gives a complete meaning.
Subordinate Clause
A Subordinate Clause must have any one of the following Subordinating Conjunctions :

Subordinating Conjuctions :
before, after, till, untill, when, where, which, who, whom, why, what, that, since, as, because,
if, unless, as if, as though, although, even though, as well as, as soon as, so that, on condition
that, provided that etc.

Co-coordinating Conjunctions :
and, or, but, so, yet, either...or, neither...nor, ner, not only...but also, both...and, still, else.

Phrase
A phrase is a group of words which has some meaning. But it does not make complete sense
by itself. It contains no finite verb. But it may contain an infinitive or a participle.

Kinds of Sentences :
There are three kinds of sentences : simple, complex and compound.

A Simple Sentence contains one finite verb (i.e. a verb showing tense, person and number as:
he goes; she went). That is to say, a simple sentence has one main clause, e.g.
Seeing the wolf, the boy ran away.
I’ve met him before.

A Compound Sentence has two or more clauses. It may also have one or more subordinate
clauses. e.g.
The boy saw the wolf and ran away.
I ran to the window and looked down into the street.

A Complex Sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. e.g.
When the boy saw the wolf, he ran away.
Before we went very far, we found that we had lost our way.

18 Rules :

SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND

After After and afterward
Before Before and before that
About That and about it
Till, untill Till, untill And till then
On When And then
During the period (time) of While and during that period (time)
If provided / provided that / And such a case / And in such
Incase of / In the event of
should / were / supposing and event
In case of ... not Unless Must / else / or / otherwise
The manner of / The way of / How And I know the method

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The method of
Soon after / Immedicately And immediately / and
As soon as / no sooner than
after / Instantaneously after afterwards / and at once
For fear of lest And for that fear
The place of where And its place
The reason of / The cause why And + cause
Though, Although /
Inspite of / Despite / on account But / yet / still / how ever / all
Eventhough / not
of / not withstanding to the same / never the less
withstanding that
owing to / on account of / due
As, because since / for And so / And therefore
to / because of
During the whole length of /
As long as / so long as And / during the length of time
time of
Ever since Ever since And since then
Besides As well as Not only then... but also

Examples :
SIMPLE COMPLEX COMPOUND
Being tired, he went to bed. As he was tired, he went to bed. He was tired. He went to bed.
Having finished his work, he After he had finished his work, He had finished his work. He
returned home. he returned home. returned home.
I saw a girl wiht blue eyes. I saw a girl who had blue eyes. I saw a girl. She had blue eyes.

Model-1 :
In spite of, despite, notwithstanding. - Simple
Though, although - Complex.
Although it rained a lot, they enjoyed themselves. (Complex)
In spite of or Despite the rain, they enjoyed themselves. (Simple)
Thomas was a richman yet he led a simple life. (Compound)
In spite of his being a richman. Thomas led a simple life. (Simple)
Though Thomas was a richman, he led a simple life. (Complex)

Model-2 :
on account of, because of, in consequence of, owing to. - Simple.
As, Since, Because - Complex.
It rained heavily. The school was closed. (Compound)
On account of heavy rain, the school was closed. (Simple)
As it rained heavily, the school was closed. (Complex)

Model-3 :
In case of, in the event of. - Simple.
If, Unless. - Complex
He works hard and he will succeed. (Compound)
In the event of his hard work, he will succeed. (Simple)
If he works hard, he will succeed. (Complex)

Model-4 :
too...to. - Simple.
So...that...not. - Complex
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The food was very hot. We could not eat it. (Compound)
The food was so hot that we could not eat it. (Simple)
The food was too hot to eat. (Complex)

Question Tags
‘ Question tags ‘are the small questions that often come at the ends of sentences in speech,
and sometimes in informal writing. It is common practice in conversation to make a
statement and ask for conformation.

Note: if the statement is positive, the structure is ‘auxiliary + n’t + subject.’

If the statement is negative, ‘the structure is auxiliary + subject.’
The subject of the question tag is always a pronoun, never a noun.

Examples:
1. The film wasn’t very good, was it?
2. Mohan doesn’t work hard, does he?
3. They haven’t com yet , have they?

1. Rekha gave you a cheque, didn’t she?

2. Sally can speak French, cant he?
3. I am late , aren’t I?

Advanced points:
After imperatives , wont can be used to invite people politely to do things.
Come in , wont you?
*will/ would/ can/ could you? Can also be used to tell or ask people to things.
Give me a book, will you?
Open the window, would you?

‘Can’t you ‘express impatience?

Shut up, can’t you?

After a negative imperative, we use will you?

Don’t forget, will you?

After let’s we use shall we?
Let’s have a party, shall we?

Correction of Sentences

Each sentence given below contains one or more mistakes. Rewrite the sentences
correcting the mistakes.

1. I wouldn’t mind your coming late if you do not wake me on.

2. He is independent from his parents.
3. Sonia is taller of the two girls.
4. Could you please move the bit?
5. There I saw his Mom whom he said was away.

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6. This chair is quite cheap at $20.
7. We do not sell things at credit.
8. As we labour, so shall we reward.
9. I’m too tired that I cannot attend the class.
10. She has been absent since three days.

Answers

1. I wouldn’t mind your coming late if you do not wake me up.

2. He is independent of his parents.
3. Sonia is the taller of the two girls. (When a group has just two members, we use the b
comparative with the.)
4. Could you please move a bit?
5. There I saw his Mom who he said was away. (Who and whom are often confused. Whom
replaces the object pronouns him, her, them etc. Avoid using whom if you do not know how
to use it correctly. Instead, use who. It is possible in most situations.)
6. This chair is quite cheap for $20.
7. We do not sell things on credit.
8. As we labour, so shall we be rewarded.
9. I’m too tired to attend the class. OR I’m so tired that I cannot attend the class.
10. She has been absent for three days.

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