xACHARYA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
Soladevanahalli, Bengaluru – 560107

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

Electronics Principles and Circuits

(BEC303)

KIRAN KUMAR T
Assistant Professor, Department of ECE
Acharya Institute of Technology
Soladevanahalli, Bengaluru – 560107

2024-25
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MODULE-1

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Voltage Divider Bias:

Figure 1.1 shows the most widely used biasing circuit. The base circuit contains a voltage
divider (R1 and R2). Because of this, the circuit is called voltage-divider bias (VDB).

Simplified Analysis

Here are the steps in the analysis:

1. Calculate the base voltage VBB out of the voltage divider.

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2. Subtract 0.7 V to get the emitter voltage (use 0.3 V for germanium).
3. Divide by the emitter resistance to get the emitter current.
4. Assume that the collector current is approximately equal to the emitter current.
5. Calculate the collector-to-ground voltage by subtracting the voltage across the collector resistor from
the collector supply voltage.
6. Calculate the collector-emitter voltage by subtracting the emitter voltage from the collector voltage.

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Accurate VDB Analysis

In a stiff voltage source, we can ignore the source resistance when it is at least 100 times smaller than the
load resistance: Stiff voltage source: RS < 0.01RL
In voltage divider biasing circuit the parallel combination of R1 and R2 acts as RS and the resistance
looking from base input (RIN) acts as RL.

A more accurate value for the emitter current is given by

From base loop

VBB = ( IB * R1||R2 ) + VBE + IE RE

With relations, IC = IE and IC = βdc IB, The base

current IB given by

IB = IE / βdc

Substituting IB to above equation

𝐼𝐸
∗ R1||R2 + 𝐼𝐸 ∗ RE = VBB − VBE
𝛽𝑑𝑐

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VDB Design Guideline

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Two-Supply Emitter Bias

Fig. 1.5 shows a transistor circuit with two power supplies: VCC and VEE. The VCC is positive supply and
VEE is negative supply. The negative supply VEE forward-biases the emitter diode. The positive supply
reverse-biases the collector diode. This circuit is derived from emitter bias. For this reason, we refer to it
as two-supply emitter bias (TSEB).

When this type of circuit is correctly designed, the base current will be small enough to ignore. This is
equivalent to saying that the base voltage is approximately 0 V, as shown in Fig 1.5.

There is a VBE drop of 0.7 V going from the base to the emitter. If the base voltage is 0 V, the emitter
voltage must be -0.7 V.

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Other Types of Bias

i. Emitter-Feedback Bias
ii. Collector-Feedback Bias
iii. Collector- and Emitter-Feedback Bias

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Coupling Capacitor:

Figure 1.6 shows an ac voltage source connected to a capacitor and a resistor. Since the impedance
of the capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency, the capacitor effectively blocks dc voltage
and transmits ac voltage. When the frequency is high enough, the capacitive reactance is much
smaller than the resistance. In this case, almost all the ac source voltage appears across the resistor.
When used in this way, the capacitor is called a “coupling capacitor”, because it couples or
transmits the ac signal to the resistor. Coupling capacitors are important because they allow us to
couple an ac signal into an amplifier without disturbing its Q point.

Good coupling: XC < 0.1R

In words: The reactance should be at least 10 times smaller than the resistance at the lowest
frequency of operation.
Since dc voltage has a frequency of zero, the reactance of a coupling capacitor is infinite at zero
frequency. Therefore, we will use these two approximations for a capacitor:
1. For dc analysis, the capacitor is open.
2. For ac analysis, the capacitor is shorted.

Bypass Capacitor:
A bypass capacitor is similar to a coupling capacitor because
it appears open to direct current and shorted to alternating
current. But it is not used to couple a signal between two points.
Instead, it is used to create an ac ground. the capacitor is called
a bypass capacitor because it bypasses or shorts point E to
ground. A bypass capacitor is important because it allows us to
create an ac ground in an amplifier without disturbing its Q point.

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Voltage Gain :

Base Bias Amplifier with voltage waveforms:

Figure 1.8 Shows the example circuit of Base Bias amplifier. It has two coupling capacitors, one
couples the input signal to base of the transistor and other one couples the collector voltage to load
resistor RL of 100 KΩ.

To draw the waveforms of at different points of the circuit, we need to calculate the Q point values from
DC analysis. The DC equivalent circuit is drawn by removing ac source and considering the coupling
capacitor as DC open. The following figure 1.9 shows the DC equivalent circuit of fig 1.8.

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In Fig 1.8, the ac source voltage is 100 mV. Since the coupling capacitor is an ac short, all the ac
source voltage appears between the base and the ground. This ac voltage produces an ac base
current that is added to the existing dc base current. In other words, the total base current will have
a dc component and an ac component as shown fig 1.9 a. An ac component is superimposed on
the dc component. On the positive half-cycle, the ac base current adds to the 30 mA of the dc base
current, and on the negative half-cycle, it subtracts from it.

Fig 1.9a Fig 1.9b Fig 1.9c

The ac base current produces an amplified variation in collector current because of the current
gain. In Fig. 1.9b, the collector current has a dc component of 3 mA. Superimposed on this is an
ac collector current. Since this amplified collector current flows through the collector resistor, it
produces a varying voltage across the collector resistor. When this voltage is subtracted from the
supply voltage, we get the collector voltage shown in Fig. 1.9c.

Fig 1.10

Figure 1.10 shows the waveforms for a base-biased amplifier. The ac source voltage is a small
sinusoidal voltage. This is coupled into the base, where it is superimposed on the dc component
of 0.7 V. The variation in base voltage produces sinusoidal variations in base current, collector
current, and collector voltage. The total collector voltage is an inverted sine wave superimposed
on the dc collector voltage of 15 V.

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Voltage Divider Bias amplifier with waveforms:

Figure 1.11 show the voltage divider bias amplifier. It has two coupling capacitors, one couples
the input signal to base of the transistor and other one couples the collector voltage to load resistor
RL of 100 KΩ.

Fig 1.11

To draw the waveforms of at different points of the circuit, we need to calculate the Q point values from
DC analysis. The DC equivalent circuit is drawn by removing ac source and considering the coupling
capacitor as DC open. The following figure 1.12 shows the DC equivalent circuit of fig 1.11.

Fig 1.12

Figure 1.13 shows the waveforms for a VDB amplifier. The ac source voltage is a small sinusoidal
voltage. This is coupled into the base, where it is superimposed on the dc component of 1.8 V.
The variation in base voltage produces sinusoidal variations in base current, collector current, and
collector voltage. The total collector voltage is an inverted sine wave superimposed on the dc
collector voltage of 6.04 V.

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TSEB amplifier with waveforms :

Figure 1.14 show the TSEB amplifier. It has two coupling capacitors, one couples the input signal to base
of the transistor and other one couples the collector voltage to load resistor RL of 100 KΩ.

Fig 1.14

To draw the waveforms of at different points of the circuit, we need to calculate the Q point values from
DC analysis. The DC equivalent circuit is drawn by removing ac source and considering the coupling
capacitor as DC open. The following figure 1.15 shows the DC equivalent circuit of fig 1.14.

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Fig 1.15

Figure 1.16 shows the waveforms for a TSEB amplifier. The ac input voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage.
The base voltage has a small ac component riding on a dc component of approximately 0 V. The variation
in base voltage produces sinusoidal variations in base current, collector current, and collector voltage. The
total collector voltage is an inverted sine wave superimposed on the dc collector voltage of 5.32 V.

Fig 1.16

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Small-Signal Operation:

The amplifier circuit which satisfies the 10:1 rule, that is “the peak to peak ac emitter current
is 10 times less than the DC emitter current” is called small signal amplifier.

AC Beta ( β ):
The ac current gain (β) is defined as the ac collector current divided by the ac base current.

AC Resistance of the Emitter Diode ( r’e )

ac resistance of the emitter diode equals 25 mV divided by the dc emitter current.

Transistor T Model or Ebers-Moll model :

This is one of the AC model to represent the transistor in amplifier ac equivalent circuits. The
transistor is represented by r’e and ac current source ic. By using this model we can calculate the
voltage gain of the amplifier. Following figure shows the T model of transistor.

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Defining the input impedance of the base Zin(base):

Looking into the base of the transistor, the ac voltage source sees an input impedance zin(base).
At low frequencies, this impedance is purely resistive and defined as:

Applying Ohm’s law to the emitter diode we can write:

Substitute this equation into the preceding one to get:

Transistor π Model :
Following figure shows the Transistor π model. It is visual representation of Zin(base) equation. The π
model is easier to use than the T model because it clearly shows that an input impedance Zin(base) of will
load the ac voltage source driving the base.

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Analyze the following voltage divider amplifier circuit by the DC equivalent circuit and the AC
equivalent circuit.

To draw DC equivalent circuit.

Step 1 : Open all coupling and bypass capacitors.

Step 2 : Redraw the circuit.
Step 3 : Find Q point values (for calculation Refer Page number 14).

To draw AC equivalent circuit.

Step 1: Short all coupling and bypass capacitors, Make all DC supply voltages as 0v (ac ground).

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Step 2 : Replace the transistor by its π or T model and redraw the circuit with resistors and ac input
source.

Fig 1.17 (a) : AC equivalent circuit using π model

Fig 1.17 (b) : AC equivalent circuit using T model

Step 3: Find r’e and Zin(base)

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Derivation for Voltage Gain.

Consider the AC equivalent circuit using π model of VDB amplifier circuit as shown in figure 1.18 a.

Fig 1.18 a

The ac base current ib flows through the input impedance of the base Zin(base) = β r’e. With Ohm’s law,
we can write:

In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current ic through the parallel connection of RC
and RL. Therefore, the ac output voltage equals:

Now, we can divide vout by vin to get

which simplifies to:

The parallel combination of RC and RL can be defined as ac collector resistance rc

So above Av equation can be written as

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Voltage gain equation can also be derived from T model. Consider the VDB amplifier ac
equivalent circuit using T model shown in figure 1.18 b.

Figure 1.18 b

The input voltage vin appears across r’e. With Ohm’s law, we can write

In the collector circuit, the current source pumps an ac current ic through the parallel connection of RC
and RL. Therefore, the ac output voltage equals:

Now, we can divide vout by vin to get

Since ,

we can simplify the equation to get:

(same as π model)

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Example Problems

1. What is the voltage gain in Fig. and the output voltage across the load resistor?

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2. What is the voltage gain in Fig. The output voltage across the load resistor?

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The loading effect of input impedance.

If the input ac source is not ideal and not stiff then, the loading effect will be there at amplifier input stage.
Consider the following figure 1.20a. where the input ac generator Vg is having internal resistance RG. If
the generator is not stiff then some ac source voltage dropped across on RG. As a result the ac voltage
between the base of the transistor and ground is less than the ideal.

Because of RG the ac generator has to drive the input impedance of the stage Zin(stage). From Ac
equivalent circuit(fig 1.20b) we can write Zin(Stage) is parallel combination of R1, R2 and Zin(base).

Figure 1.20 a

Figure 1.20 b

Because of loading effect (RG and Zin(stage) ) the input voltage Vin for the input of amplifier circuit can
be calculated as (using voltage divider rule)

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Example problem.

1. In Fig. the ac generator has an internal resistance of 600 V. What is the output voltage in if β
= 300?

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2. In Fig. the ac generator has an internal resistance of 600 V. What is the output voltage in if β
= 50?

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Common Collector (CC) Amplifier :

Figure (1.21 a) shows the common collector amplifier. It is also called emitter follower or voltage
follower. The input applied at base of the transistor and output is taken at emitter.

If ac equivalent circuit is drawn, then the collector is at ac ground so it is common collector

amplifier.

Fig 1.21 a

Following figure 1.21 b show the voltage at different points of the amplifier circuit. The reason the circuit
is called an emitter follower is because the output voltage follows the input voltage.

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Following figure 1.21 c shows the ac equivalent circuit of CC amplifier using T model. The parallel
combination of RE and RL defines the ac emitter resistance re. Using this resistance, the circuit is
rewritten which is shown in figure 1.21 d.

Figure 1.21c Figure 1.21d

Ac emitter resistance:

Since the output voltage follows the input voltage, the voltage gain of the amplifier is approximately
equal to 1.

From figure 1.21 d, the input voltage Vin is given by

The output voltage is Vout is given by

So the voltage gain

Usually, re much greater than r’e so the voltage gain equals 1 (approximately).

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Following figure shows the π model of CC amplifier. Using this model it is to write the input impedances.

From figure the input impedance Zin(base) of CC amplifier is given by

Form figure input impedance Zin(stage) of CC amplifier is given by

Example Problems

1. What is the voltage gain of the emitter follower in Fig. If β = 150, what is the ac load voltage?

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2. What is the voltage gain of the emitter follower in Fig and also find the ac load voltage

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