FENCES, GATES

BRIDGES.
A PRACTICAL MANUAL.

EDITED BY
GEORGE A. MARTIN.

XZiX/0-STXB^.TXOaTS.

NEW YORK:
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
1892.
 EMS
LIB
fft

PREFATORY.

It is authoritatively stated that the building and main-

tenance of the farm fences in the United States have

cost more than the construction of the farm buildings.

Be. this as it may, while large numbers of works have .

been written upon rural architecture we believe this is

the first publication specially devoted to Fences, Gates

and Bridges. It aims to be a practical work, showing
the "evolution" of the fence from the road barrier
of logs, brush or sods to the latest improved forms of
barbed wire. The numerous illustrations are mainly
representations of fences, gates, etc., in actual use.

The chapter on fence law is necessarily condensed.

The various judicial decisions upon the subject alone
would fill a large volume.

This little work, the first and only one of its char-

acter, is given to the public in the confident hope that

it will prove specially useful to farmers and village
residents.

(3)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Rail and other Primitive Fences 7- 17

Virginia Eail Fence Laying a Rail Fence Staking

; ;

and Wiring A Fence of Stakes aud Riders A Pole

; ;

Fence Fences for Soil Liable to Heave Other Primi-

; ;

tive Fences.

CHAPTER II.
Stone and Sod Fences - 18-23
How a Stone Wall Should be Built Building a Stone ;

Fence Truck for Moving Stones Re-inforcing a Stone

; ;

WaU ; A Composite Fence A Prairie Sod Fence. ;

CHAPTER III.
BoardFences - --- 24- 30

Building Board Fences Fences for Land Subject to;

Overflow A Fence-Board Holder Re-inforcing a Board

; ;

Fence.

CHAPTER IV.
Picket Fences -... 31- 42
A Good Garden Fence
Southern Picket Fence ;
A ;

Fences of Split Pickets Ornamental Picket Fences

; ;

Rustic Picket Fences Light Picket Fences

; Hand- ;

made Wire and Picket Fences ; Fence of Wire and

Pickets.

CHAPTER V.
Barb-Wire Fence - 43- 61
Statistics and Forms of Barb Wire How to Set Barb ;

Wire Fence Unreeling and Stretching Barb Wire

;
;

Wire Stretchers Building Wire Fence on Uneven

;

Ground.
CHAPTER VI.
Fences of Barb Wire and Boards 62- 67
Combined Wire and Board Fence ;
A Bracketed
Fence ; Dog-Proof Fence.

CHAPTER VII.
Hedges 67- 75
The Best Hedge Plants Planting and Care of Osage ;

Hedges Hedges for the South Ornamental Hedges

; ;

and Screens.
VI TABLi; OF i
:(.) MENTis.

CHAPTER VIII.
Portable Fences and Hurdles

Portable Board Fences Portable Fences of Poles ;

and Wire Portable Fences for Windbreaks, Portable

:

Poultry Fences Portable Folding Fence Temporary

: ;

Wire and Iron Fences.

CHAPTEB IX.
Fences for Streams and Gullies 85- 95

Flood Fences ;
Portable Wire Fence ; Watering Place
in a Creek.

CHAPTER X.
Making and Setting Posts.. - 95-117

Making Fence Posts A Post Holder Driving Fence ; ;

Posts by Hand To Drive Posts Without Splitting A

; ;

Powerful Post Driver Setting a Gate Post Live Posts;

; ;

Mending a Hook for Wiring Posts Draw-

Split Post ; :

ing Fence Posts; Lifting Posts bv Hand; Splicing

Fence Posts ; Application of Wood Preservatives ; Iron,
Fence Posts.
CHAPTER XL
Gates and Fastenings 117-164

Wooden Gates ;
A Very Substantial Farm Gate ; A
Strong and Neat Gate Light Iron Gates Self-closing ; ;

Gates Gate for a Village Lot A Chinese Door or Gate

; ;

Spring Lifting Gates Rustic Gates Balance Gates

; :
; ;

Gate for Snowy Weather West India Farm Gates ; ;

Gate Hinges of Wood Double Gates Double Latched ;

:

Gates; Improved Slide Gate; A Combined Hinge and

Sliding Gate Gates of Wood and Wire A Good and
:
;

Cheap' Farm Gate; An Improved Wire Gate; Taking

up the Sag in Gates Good Gate Latches Top Hinge
; ;

of Farm Gate Gateways in Wire Fence.

;

CHAPTER XII.
Wickets and Stiles 164-170

Iron Wickets; Wooden Wickets; Stiles for Wire

Fences.

CHAPTER XTQ.
Fence Law __ 169-176

Fencing Out or Fencing In Division Fences High- : ;

way Fences What is a Legal Fence ? Railroad Fences.

;

CHAPTER XIV.
Country Bridges and Culverts.. 176-188

Strength of Bridges Braces and Trusses ; Abut- ;

ments, Piers and Railings ; Bridges for Gullies ; Road

Culverts.
 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

CHAPTER I.

RAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES.

VIRGINIA KAIL FENCE.

The zigzag rail fence was almost universally adopted

by the settlers in the heavily timbered portions of the
country, and countless thousands of miles of it still ex-
ist, though the increasing scarcity of timber has brought

other styles of fencing largely into use. Properly built,

of good material, on a clear, solid bed, kept free from
bushes and other growth to shade it and cause it to rot,
the rail fence is as cheap as any, and as effective and dur-
able as can reasonably be desired. Good chestnut, oak,
cedar, or juniper rails, or original growth heart pine,
will last from fifty to a hundred years, so that material
of this sort, once in hand, will serve one or two genera-
tions. This fence, ten high, and propped with two
rails
rails at each corner, requires twelve rails to the panel.
If the fence bed is five feet wide, and the rails are eleven
feet long, and are lapped about a foot at the locks, one
panel will extend about eight feet in direct line. This
takes seven thousand nine hundred and twenty rails, or
about eight thousand rails to the mile. For a tempo-
rary fence, one that can be put up and taken down in a
8 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

short time, for making stock pens and division fences,

not intended to remain long in place, nothing is cheaper,
or better. The bed for a fence of this kind should not
be less than five feet across, to enable it to stand before
the wind. The best cut eleven feet long, as
rails are
this makes a lock neither too long nor too short ; and
the forward end of each rail should come under the next
one that is laid. The corners, or locks, as they are
called, should also be well propped with strong, whole
rails, not with pieces of rails, as is often done. The
props should be set firmly on the ground about two feet
from the panel, and crossed at the lock so as to hold each
other, and the top course of tbe fence firmly in place.

They thus act as braces to the fence, supporting it

Fig. 1. VIRGINIA ZIGZAG FENCE COMPLETE.

against the wind. Both sides of the fence should be

propped. The top
course of rails should be the strong-
est and heaviest of any, for the double
purpose of weight-
ing the fence down, and to prevent breaking of rails by
persons getting upon it. The four courses of rails near-
est the ground should be of the smallest
pieces, to pre-
vent making the cracks, or spaces between the rails, too
large. They should also be straight, and of nearly even
both ends. This last precaution is only necessary
sizes at
where small pigs have to be fenced out or in, as the case
may be. The fence, after it is finished, will have the ap-
pearance of figure 1, will be six rails high, two props at
each lock, and the worm will be crooked enough to
stand any wind, that will not prostrate crops, fruit trees,
etc. A straighter worm than this will be easy to blow
down or push over. The stability of this sortof fence
 RAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES. 9

depends very largely on the manner of placing the props,

both as to the distance of the foot of the prop rail from
the fence panel, and the way it is locked at the corner.

LAYING A RAIL FENCE.

It is much better, both for good looks and economy, to

have the corners of a rail fence on each side in line with
each other. This may be accomplished by means of a
very simple implement, shown in figure
2. It consists of- a small pole, eight
feet long, sharpened at the lower end.
A horizontal arm .of a length equal to
half the width of the fence from ex-
treme outside of corners, is fastened to
the long pole at right angles, near the
lower end. Sometimes a sapling may
be found with a limb growing nearly at
right angles, which will serve the pur-
pose. Before beginning the i'ence, stakes
are set at intervals along the middle
of the line it is to occupy. To begin,
the gauge, as shown in figure 2, is set in line with the

stakes, and the horizontal arm is swung outwardly at

Fig. 3. THE FENCE BEGUN.

right angles to the line of fence. A stone or block to

support the first corner is laid directly under the end of
the horizontal arm, and the first rail laid with one end
10 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

resting on the support. In the same way the next corner

and all others are laid, the gauge being moved from

corner to corner, set in the line of fence, and the arm

swung alternately to the right and left.

STAKING AND WIRING.

A neater and more substantial method of securing the

corners of a worm
by vertical stakes and wires, as
fence is

shown in the accompanying illustrations. When the

lower three rails are laid, the stakes are driven in the

Fig. 4. STAKES IN " LOCK." Fig. 5. STAKES IN ANGLES.

angles close to the rails, and secured by a band of an-

nealed wire. The work
of laying the rails proceeds, and
when within one rail of the top, a second wire band is
put in place. Or the upper wire may be put on above,
the top rail. Annealed wire is plentiful and cheap.
 KAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FEX<?ES. 11

A FENCE OF " STAKES AKD EIDERS."

A very common method with the " worm" or " Vir-
ginia*' rail
fence is to drive slanting stakes over the corner
in saw-horse style, and lay the top rail into the angle

Fig. 6. A STAKE AND RLDEB FENCE.

thus formed. The stakes, resting on the rails and stand-

ing at angle, brace the fence firmly. But the feet of the
stakes extending beyond the jagged corners formed by the
ends of the rail are objectionable. This is remedied in
part by putting the stakes over the middle of the panel
at considerable distance apart and laying in them long
poles horizontally. In this case the stakes should be set
at such an angle as to prevent their moving sidewise
along the top rail, which should be a strong one. These
stakes and long riders are frequently used to raise the
bight of low stone walls. Figure 6 shows a fence nearly
all composed of stakes and riders, which is straight and
requires fewer rails than a worm fence. First, crotched
stakes, formed by the forks of a branching tree limb, a
foot or more long, are driven a foot or so into the ground
at a distance apart corresponding to the length of poles
used. The bottom poles are laid into these, and two
12 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

stakes, split or round poles, are driven over these and

the next poles laid in. Then two more stakes and an-
other pole, and so on as high as the fence is required.
This will answer for larger animals, and be strong and

Fig. 7. A POLE FENCE.

not expensive. For swine, and other small live-stock,

the crotch stakes may be replaced by blocks or stones, and
the lower poles be small and begin close to the ground.

A POLE FENCE.

A fence which is cheaply constructed in a timbered

region, and calls for no outlay whatever, besides labor, is

8. WITHE. Fig. 9. WITHE IN PLACE.

illustrated at figure 7. The posts are set in a straight

line, having previously been bored with an inch augur to
 BAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FEXCES. 13

receive the pins. AVhen they are set, the pins are driven
diagonally into the posts, and the poles laid in place. It
would add much to its strength, if the poles were laid so
as to "break joints." A modification of this fence is

sometimes made by using withes instead of pins to hold

the poles in place. The withe is made of a young sap-
ling or slender limb of beech, iron-wood, or similar tough
fibrous wood, with the twigs left on. This is twisted
upon itself, a strong loop made at the top, through which
the butt is slipped. When in place, the butt end is
tucked under the body of the withe.

FENCES FOE SOIL LIABLE TO HEAVE.

The main point in such a fence is either to

WMt% *''
''

Fig. 10. END VIEW OF FENCE.

and place a pin through them near the bottom, so that

the frost may not throw them out, or to so attach the
14 GATES AND BRIDGES.

boards that the posts may be re-driven, without splitting

them, or removing the rails from the fence. The latter
is, perhaps, the best plan, and may be accomplished in

Fig. 11. SIDE VIEW OF FENCE.

several ways, the most desirable of which is shown in fig-

ures 10 and 11. The post, h, is driven in the usual
manner, when a strip of board, g, is fastened to it by
three or four spikes, depending upon the liight of the

\\'

Fig. 12. FENCE WITH IRON HOOKS.

fence. A space just sufficient to insert the ends of boards

a, e, figure 11, is left between the post and outside strip,
the ends of the boards resting upon the spikes. Many
 RAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES. 15

miles of this fence are in use. It looks neat ;

besides

any portion is easily removed, making a passage to and

from the field. A new post is easily put in when required,
and any may be re-driven when heaved by the frost.
Where iron is cheap, a rod about three-eighths of an
incli in diameter is cut in lengths of about seven and a
half inches one end is sharpened, while the opposite
;

end, for three inches, is bent at right angles. After the

boards are placed in position, the hooks should be driven
in so that they will firmly grasp the boards and hold
them in place. The general appearance of the finished
fence is shown in figure 12, and is one adapted to al-

most any locality.

A much better method is to fasten the boards tempo-
rarily in place, and then bore a half inch hole through

Fig. 13. HOBIZONTAL SECTION.

both boards and the post, into which a common screw

bolt is then inserted and the nut screwed on firmly. The
two ends should, however, be put on opposite sides of the
post. One bolt thus holds the ends of both boards firm-
,

ly to the post, as shown in figure 13. With this style of

fence, old rails or round poles may be used instead of
boards.

OTHER PRIMITIVE FENCES.

In the heavily timbered parts of the country, where

the settlers a' few years ago were making farms by felling
and burning the huge pine trees, a fence was constructed
16 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

like the one shown in figure 14. Sections of trees, about

four and a half feet long and often as thick, were placed
in line and morticed to receive from three to five rails.

Fig. 14. LOG POSTS.

This style of fence could be used by the landscape gar-

dener with fine effect for enclosing a park or shrubbery.
In the same regions, when a farmer has pulled all the
stumps from a pasture that slopes toward the highway,

Fig. 15. STUMP FENCE.

the stumps may be placed in line along the road with

the top ends inside of the field. The gaps between
where the stumps can not be rolled close together, are

Fig. 16. WICKER FENCE.

filled with brushwood. A portion of this fence is shown

in figure 15.
Where other material is costly, or not to be obtained,
 RAIL AXD OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES. 17

the wicker fence, constructed of stakes and willows, is

much used. In the far West it is to be seen in every
town, generally built on a small embankment of earth
from one to two feet deep. In this climate, with occa-
sional repairs, it lasts from ten to fifteen years. Fig-
ure 16 shows the style of construction.
Throughout the forest regions is found the staked and
ridered brush growing on the line where the fence is

Fig. 17. BRUSH FENCE.

constructed. Figure 17 illustrates a few

r.ods of brush
fence such fencing being met with in our Southern
States.
 CHAPTER II.

STONE AND SOD FENCES.

HOW A STONE WALL SHOULD BE BUILT.

To build a stone wall, some skill is required. The

foundation should be dug out a foot deep, and the earth

Fig. 18. WELL LAID WALL.

thrown upon each side, which serves to turn water from

the wall. Large stones are bedded in the trench, and
long stones placed crosswise upon them. As many whole
stones as possible should be used in this place. The
stones are then arranged as shown in the engraving,
breaking joints, and distributing the weight equally.
Any small spaces should be filled with chips broken off
in dressing the larger stones, so as to make them fit

snugly. As it is a work that will last a century, it is

worth doing well.

BUILDING A STONE FENCE.

A permanent stone fence should be built from four to

five feet high, two feet wide at the base and one foot at the
top, if the kind of stones available allow this construe-

(18)
 STOXE A^D SOD FENCES. 19

tion. If a higher fence is desired, the width should be

correspondingly increased. The surface of the soil along

the line of the fence should be made smooth and as
nearly level as possible. The hight will depend upon the
situation, the animals, smoothness of the wall
the
(whether sheep can get foot-holds to climb over), and
the character of the ground along each side. If the earth
foundation be rounded up previously, sloping off to an
open depression or gully, less hight will be needed. Such

Fig. 19. LATINO UP A STONE FENCE.

an elevation will furnish a dry base not heaved by frost

like a wet one. Without this, or a drain alongside or
under the wall, to keep the soil always dry, the base must
be sunk deeply enough to be proof against heavy frosts,
which will tilt and loosen the best laid wall on wet soil.
The foundation stones should be the largest smaller ;

stones packed between them are necessary to firmness.

The mistake is sometimes made of placing all the larger
stones on the outside of the wall, filling the center with
small ones. Long bind-stones placed at frequent inter-
vals through the wall add greatly to its strength. The
top of the fence is most secure when covered with larger
20 FENCES. OAT ES AXD BRIDGES.

close-fitting, flat stones. The engraving sljows a wooden

frame and cords used as a guide in building a substantial
stone fence. Two men can work together with mutual
advantage on opposite sides of the stone wall.

TRUCK FOE MOVING STOKES.

The small truck (figure 20) is not expensive, and may

be made to save a great amount of hard lifting in build-
ing a stone wall. It is a low barrow, the side bars forming

Fig. 20. TRUCK FOR

the handles like a wheelbarrow. It rests upon four low-

iron wheels. A broad plank, or two narrow ones, are
laid with one end against the wall and the other resting
on the ground. A groove is cot at the upper end for the
wheels to rest in. The stone is loaded on the truck,
moved to the place, and pushed up the plank until the
wheels fall into the groove, when, by lifting on the han-
dles, the stone is unloaded.

REIKFORCIXG A STOKE WALL.

A stone wall which affords ample protection against

sheep and hogs, may be quite insufficient for horses and
cattle. The deficiency is cheaply supplied in the manner
 STONE AND SOD FENCES. 21

indicated by the illustration, figure 21. Round poles or

Fig. 21. STONE WALL REEfFOBCED.

rails are used, and if the work is

properly performed, the
fence is very effective.

A COMPOSITE FENCE.

The fence illustrated at figure 22 is quite common in

some parts of Xew England. A ridge is thrown up by

Fig. 22. COMPOSITE FENOB.

back-furrowing with a plow, and both that and the

ditches finished by hand with a shovel. Light posts are
22 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

easily driven through the soft earth, and a board fence,

only three boards high, made in the usual manner. Then
the stones, as they are picked up in the field, are hauled
to the fence and thrown upon the ridge. This clears the

field, strengthens the" ridge, prevents the growth of

weeds, and assists in packing the earth firmly around the
bottom of the posts.

A PEAIRIE SOD FENCE.

A sod fence, beside its other value, is a double barrier

against the prairie fires which are so sweeping and destruc-
tive to new settlers, if unobstructed, for a wide strip is

Fig. 23. SOD CUTTER.

cleared of sods, the fence standing in the middle of it. A

very convenient implement for cutting the sod is shown
at figure 23. It is made of planks and scantling, the
method of construction being clearly shown. The cut-
ting disks are four wheel-coulters from common break-
ing plows, all attached to an iron shaft sixteen 'inches
apart. They are set to cut three or four inches deep.
This is run three times along the line of the fence, mak-
ing nine cuts, the cutters being held down by a man rid-
ing on the rear of the apparatus. Then with a breaking
 STONE AND SOD FENCES. 23

plow one furrow is turned directly in the line of the fence,

completely inverting the sod, the team turned to the

right, and a second or back furrow is inverted on top of
the first. Additional furrows are cut, diminishing in
width to inches on the outer side, as shown in
five or six
the diagram, figure 24. After the two inner sods are
turned, the rest are carried by hand, wheelbarrow or a
truck, (figure 20), and laid on the sod wall, care being
used to " break joints " and to taper gradually to the

Fig. 104. THE SOD CUT.

top. If a more substantial fence is wanted, a strip

thirty-two inches wide may be left as a part for the
fence, the first two furrows inverted upon the uncut por-
tion, so that their edges just touch. The sod fence is
then continued to the summit just twice as thick as it
would be by the process just described. After the fence
is laid, a deep furrow should be run on each side, throw-

ing the earth against the base of the fence. A very ef-
fective and cheap fence is made by laying up a sod
"
"dyke, as above described, three feet high, then driving
light stakes along the summit, and stringing two strands
of barbed wire to them.
 CHAPTEE III.

BOAED FENCES.

BUILDIXG BOARD FENCES.

In building a board fence, always start right, and it

will be little trouble to continue in the same way. Much

of the board fencing erected is put together very care-

lessly,and the result is a very insecure protection to the

field or crops. A
fence-post should be set two and a
half or three feet in the ground, and the earth should be
packed around it as firmly as possible. For packing the

Fig. 25. PROPEBLT CONSTRUCTED BOABD FEKCE.

soil there nothing better' than a piece of oak, about

is

three inches square on the lower end, and about six feet
long, rounded off on the upper part to fit the hands eas-
ily. Properly used, this instrument will pack the soil
around a post as it was before the hole was dug. In put-
ting on fence boards, most builders use two nails on the
ends of each board, and one in the middle. Each board
should have at least three nails at the ends, and two in
the middle, and these nails should never be less than ten-
pennys. Smaller nails will hold the boards in place for
awhile, but when they begin to warp, the nails are
drawn out or loosened, and the boards drop off. This
will rarely be the case where large nails are used, and a
much stiffer fence is secured. Many fence builders do
not cut off' the tops of the posts evenly, but this should
 BOARD FENCES. 25

always be done, not only for the improvement that it

makes in the looks of the fence but also for the reason
;

that there should always be a cap put on, and to do this,

the posts must be evened. The joints should always be
"
broken," as is shown in the engraving, figure 25, so
that in a four-board fence but two joints should come on
each post. By this means more firmness and durability is
secured, there being always two unbroken boards on
each post to hold it in place, preventing sagging. On
the face of the post immediately over where the rails
have been nailed on, nail a flat piece of board the width
of the post and extending from the upper part of the top
rail tothe ground.
Figure 26 shows a slight modification, which consists in
setting the posts on alternate sides of the boards, securing
additional stability. The posts are seven feet long, of

Fig. 26. A DURABLE BOARD FENCE.

well seasoned red cedar, white oak, chestnut, or black lo-

cust, preference being accorded to order named. The
boards are sixteen feet long, fastened with ten-penny
steel fence nails.The posts for a space of two and a
half feet from the lower end are given a good coat of
boiled linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, mixed to the

consistency of ordinary paint, which is allowed to dry be-

fore they are set. When the materials are all ready,
stretch a line eighteen inches above the ground, where it
is proposed to build the fence. Dig the post holes, eight
feet apart from centers,on alternate sides of the line.
The posts are set with the faces inward, each half an
inch from the line, to allow space for the boards. Hav-
2G FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

ing set the posts, the boards of the lower course are nailed
on. Then, for the first length, the second board from
the bottom and the top board are only eight feet long,
reaching to the first post. For all the rest the boards
are- of the full length, sixteen feet. By this means they
" break After the boards are nailed on, the top
joints."
of the posts are sawed off slanting, capped, if desired,

Fig. 27. A NEAT FARM PENCE.

and the whole thing painted. A good coat of crude pe-

troleum, applied before painting, will help preserve the
fence, and save more than its cost in the paint needed.
We see another style of board fence now and then that
is rather preferable to the ordinary one ; it looks better
than the old straight fence. It saves one board to each
length and by nailing on the two upper boards, as
;

shown in the illustration, figure 27, great extra strength

is given. These boards not only act as braces, but ties
also, and a fence built on well set posts, and thoroughly
nailed, will never sag or get out of line until the posts
rot off.

FENCES FOE LAND SUBJECT TO OVERFLOW.

The fence illustrated in figures 28, 29 and 30 has posts

the usual distance apart, which are hewed on the front
side, and on this are nailed three blocks, three by four
inches thick and six inches long ;
the first one, with its
 BOARD FENCES.

top just level with the ground, the second one, ten inches
in the clear above, and the third one, four inches less
than the desired height of the fence, measuring from

Fig. 28. PANEL.

the top of the first block. After the panel is put in place,
the rounded ends resting on the bottom blocks, nail a
piece of board one and one-half by six inches on the
blocks, as shown in the illustrations. This board must
project four inches above the upper block, forming with
it the rest and catch for the top framing piece of the pan-

el. The panel is made of a top and bottom piece of three

Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Fig. 31.

by four scantling, on which are nailed palings. The top

piece is left square, and projects three inches on each
side, but on the bottom piece the projections are cut
round, so as to turn in the slot. The water will raise the
panel up out of the upper catch, allowing it to fall down,
 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES.

as seen at figure 30, so as to offer no obstruction to the

water, nor will it catch drift, as fences hung from the top

I
Fig. 32. Fig. 33.

do. Figures 31 to 35 represent a fence made somewhat

like the trestle used for drying clothes. The posts are

Fig. 34.

the usual distance apart, but only extend a few inches

out of the ground, just sufficient to nail a hinge upon.

Fig' 35.

They must, however, be wide enough to admit of nailing

two hinges on each post. The fence consists of two
parts E in figure 31 represents a cross-section of the
 BOARD FENCES. 29

fence proper, two panels of which are seen in figure 34;

D represents the back part of the fence, a section of
which is shown in figure 35
; a
in figure 31 is the post
and bb the hinges. The
panel, E, should always slope
with the current of the stream, that the water rushing
against it will place it in the position shown by figure 33,

lying flat on the ground, and out of the way of both wa-
ter and drift. The hinges may be ordinary strap kind,
which can be bought very cheap by the dozen, or they
may be made of heavy iron hoop doubled, as shown at
figure 32, which can be made in any blacksmith shop.

A FEXCE BOARD HOLDER.

Figure 36 shows a contrivance for holding fence boards

against the posts, at the right distances apart when nail-

ing. Atwo and a half by two and a half inch piece of

the desired length is taken for the upright, a. About its
center is hinged the brace, c. A
strap hinge, b, or a
stout piece of leather for a hinge, will answer. Blocks
or stops, d, d, d, d, are nailed on the upright a, at the
required distances, according to the space between the
30 FENCES, GATES AHD BRIDGES.

boards on the fence. The bottom boards of the fence

are nailed on first. The bottom block of the board
holder rests upon the bottom board, and is held in posi-
tion by the bracec. The boards can be
placed in the holder
like putting up bars, and are guided to their places on
the post by the blocks, d, d. The boards can now be
nailed on the posts, and the holding devices moved for
another length. When the boards are too long, they can
be pulled forward a little, and the end sawed, and pushed
back to place. One man using the contrivance, can nail
on nearly as many boards in a day, as two persons with
one to hold the boards in the old way. Figure 37 shows
the manner of using the fence board holders.

KELNFOECING A BOAKD FENCE.

The old method of topping out a low board fence is

shown at figure 38. Since barbed wire has become

Fig. 38. STRENGTHENING A BOAKD FENCE.

plenty, it is more usual to increase the height of the

fence by stringing one or two strands of that on vertical

slats nailed to the tops of the posts. Yet, in cases where
there are plenty of sound rails left from some old fence,
or plenty of straight saplings, the old method is still a
very cheap and convenient one.
 CHAPTER IV.
PICKET FENCES.

A GOOD GAKDEN FENCE.

The engraving, figure 39, represents a good, substan-

tialgarden fence, that, while somewhat more serviceable
than the ordinary kind, may be constructed at less cost.
It does not materially differ from the common picket

I. A LATH AND PICKET FENCE.

fence, further than that the pickets are put five inches

apart, with strips of lath nailed between. The

pickets
give the necessary strength, while the lath, as a shield
against poultry, or rabbits and other vermin, is equally as
good at one-sixth the cost. An old picket fence sur-
rounding a garden or yard, may be "lathed" in the
manner here indicated at little expense.

A SOUTHERN PICKET FENCE.

The picket fence in very general use in the Southern

States, is shown in figure 40. It will be observed that
the pickets, instead of terminating in an equal-sided
(31)
3-3 FENCES, GATES AXD BRIDGES.

point, have but one slanting side, while the other is

straight. Such a fence looks quite as well as one with

the other style of points, and is exceedingly neat and

Fig. 40. SOTITHEBN PICKET FENCE.

serviceable along the line of the street, or to mark the

boundary between two estates. To facilitate the sawing
of the pickets, the bench or horse represented in figure

Fig. 41. BEXCH FOB SAWING PICKETS.

41 is employed. This has a stop at one end, while near

the other end are two upright pieces to serve as guides
in sawing. The edge of one of these is far enough in
the rear of the other to give the desired slope. In saw-
 PICKET FENCES. 33

ing, the saw rests against these guides, as shown by the

dotted lines. In a picket fence, the point where decay
commences, is where the pickets cross the string pieces.
Water enters between the two, and decay takes place
which is unsuspected until the breaking of a picket re-
veals the state of affairs. The string pieces and the
pickets, at least upon one side, should be painted before
putting them together, and nailed while the paint is

fresh.

FENCES OF SPLIT PICKETS.

In localities where sawed timber is expensive, and

split
timber is readily obtained, a very neat picket fence may

Fig. 42. A FENCE OP SPLIT STUFF.

be made with very little outlay, by using round posts,

split stringers, and rived pickets, asshown in the engrav-
ing, figure 42. The stringers are eight to twelve feet
in length, and usually one of the flat sides is sufficiently
smooth for receiving the pickets. Let the stringers pro-
few inches beyond each post, adding strength to
ject a
the fence, and should the posts decay, new ones may be
driven in on either side, and the stringers readily at-
tached by heavy nails or spikes. With timber that splits
freely, a man can rive out five or six hundred pickets in a
day. The construction of the fence is plainly shown in

the above engraving.

34 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

Figure 43 represents a f ence-made entirely of split tim-

ber, the only cash outlay being for nails. This may be
made so as to turn, not only all kinds of stock, but
rabbits, etc. The pickets are sharpened, and driven six

Fig. 43. CHEAP FENCE OF SPLIT

or eight inches into the ground, and firmly nailed to a

strong string-piece at top.
Another good substantial fence is represented by figure
44, which, though somewhat expensive, is especially

v
r
^VsV^f^^^^
Fig. 44. COMMON PICKET FENCE.

adapted for yard, orchard and vineyard enclosure. This

needs no explanation. The posts should not be set fur-
ther than eight feet apart ; two by four inch scantlings
should be used to nail to, and split palings should be
nailed on with annealed steel nails.

OBNAMENTAL PICKET FENCES.

The fence shown in figure 45 may be constructed

with flat pickets, three inches wide and three feet five
inches long. The notches in the pickets are easily
 PICKET FEHCES. 35

made with a compass saw, or a foot-power scroll-saw.

The top and bottom pieces between the pickets may be

w
*

A
Fig. 45. ORNAMENTAL PICKET FENCE. Fig. 46.

painted some other color than the fence, if so desired.

Any carpenter should be able to construct it at a small

advance over a fence made from plain pickets, making
the pattern as in figure 46.
A plainer, but still very neat form of picket fence is

Fig. 47. A PLAINER PICKET FENCE.

illustrated at figure 47. The intermediate pieces are

notched at one end and square at the other.
36 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

KUSTIC PICKET FENCES.

"When the farmers on the prairies prevent the spread-

ing of the prairie young oak and hickory saplings
fires,

spring up as if by magic near all the wooded streams.

These saplings come from huge roots whose tops have

Fi. 48. BUSTIC SAPLING FENCE.

yearly been destroyed by fire,, In that section farmers

often construct a very neat rustic fence from two or
three year old saplings, having the appearance of figure
48. The rustic pickets are trimmed so as to leave the
branches projecting about two inches, and are nailed
on with four-penny nails. A fence of this kind would
not last long, unless the pickets, posts, and rails were
free of bark, or saturated with crude petroleum.
A very neat and picturesque fence for a garden or

Fig. 49. RUSTIC PICKET FENCE.

a lawn is shown at figure 49. It is made of round

poles, with the bark on, the posts being of similar mate-
 PICKET FENCES. 3?

rial. Three horizontal bars are nailed to the posts at

equal intervals, the slats or pickets woven into them and
then nailed in place. One or two coats of crude petro-
leum, applied to this and other rustic work at first, and
renewed every year, adds to its appearance and greatly
increases its durability.

LIGHT PICKET FENCES.

For enclosing poultry yards, garden and grounds, a

cheap fence with pickets of lath often serves a good pur-
pose. If not very durable, the cost of repair or renewal
is light. Figure 50 shows one of this kind, which is
sufficiently high for the Asiatic and other heavy and
quiet fowls. The panels are sixteen feet long, aad are

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin

Fig. 50. PANEL OF PICKET FEXCE.

composed two pieces of ordinary six-inch fencing, for

of
top and bottom rails, with lath nailed across two and a
half inches apart ;
the top ends of the lath extending
ten inches above the upper edge of the top rail. Posts,
three or four inches through at the top end, are large
enough, and, after sharpening well, can be driven into
the ground by first thrusting a crow-bar down and wrench-
ing it back and forth. A post is necessary at the middle
of each panel. Both rails of the panel should, be well
nailed to the posts. These panels may be neatly and
rapidly made in a frame, constructed for that purpose.
This frame, shown in figure 51, consists simply of
three cross-pieces of six by six, four feet long, upon
38 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

which are spiked two planks one foot wide and three feet
apart, from outside to outside. Four inches from the
inner edge of each plank is nailed a straight strip of inch
stuff, tokeep the rails of the panel in place while the

Fig. 51. FBAME FOB MAKING FENCE.

lath are being nailed on. Against the projecting ends of

the cross-pieces, spike two by six posts twelve inches
long ; on the inside of these posts.nail a piece of six-inch
fencing, to serve as a stop, for the top ends of the laths to
touch, when nailing them to the rails. These panels can
be made in the shop or on the barn floor at odd times,
and piled away for future use. Nail a wide bottom board
around on the inside of the enclosure after the fence is
in position.
Figures 52 and 53 show lath fences high enough for
all kinds of poultry. The posts in figure 52 are eight
feet apart. A
horizontal bar is nailed to the posts six

Fig. 52. Fig. 53.

inches above the ground, a second one eighteen inches,

and a third four and a half feet. To two lower strips
nail laths that have been cut to half length, first driving
the lower part of the laths two inches into the ground.
 PICKET FENCES. 3P

One advantage of this fence is, that the two strips near
the bottom, being so close together, sustain pressure from
dogs or outside intruders better than any other fence con-
structed of lath, and dispenses with a foot- wide board, so
generally used.
The cheapest lath fence is made with the posts four
feet apart, firstsawing them in two lengthwise at a saw-
mill, and nailing the lath directly to the posts without
the use of strips. The two upper laths have short verti-
cal pieces fastened to them with cleat nails, and present

points to prevent fowls alighting on the fence. Such a

fence (figure 53) will cost, for four feet, one-half post,
three cents ; twenty laths, eight cents ; and the nails,
three cents, per running foot, six feet high, or one-half
cent per square foot.

HAND-MADE WIRE AND PICKET FENCES.

A very desirable and popular fence is made of pickets or

slats woven into horizontal strands .of plain wire. Sev-

Fig. 54. SIDE VIEW OF BENCH.

eral machines have been invented and patented for doing

this work, but it can be done by hand with the aid of the
bench illustrated herewith. The wire should be a little
larger than that used on harvesting machines, and an-
nealed like it. The bench, of which figure 54 is a side
view, and figure 55 a top view, should be about sixteen
feet long and have a screw at each corner for raising and

lowering the holding bars. For the screws at the ends

40 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES.

of the frame one-half to three-fourth-inch iron rod will

answer. Tfte wire is twisted close and tight to the slats,
and given two or three twists between them. If the

ttr
Fig. 55. TOP VIEW OF BENCH.

elats are of green stuff, fasten the wire tothem with small
staples, to prevent their slipping
when they shrink. The
fence is fastened to the post with common fence staples.

Fig. 56. PORTION OF THE FENCE.

When this style of fence is used on one side of a pasture

or highway, its effectiveness
may be increased by a single
 PICKET FENCES. 41

strand of barbed wire stapled to the posts above the

pickets, and a strand of plain wire strung along the bot-
tom to stiffen it. The fence will then be as in figure 56.
Such a fence will last many years, and for most sections
of the country is the best and cheapest combined cattle
and hog fence that can be made. For a garden fence it
is equal to the best picket, and at one third of the cost.
By having the slats sawed about one-half-inch thick, two
inches wide, and five to six feet long, it makes an excel-
lent fence for a chicken yard, as can be readily taken
it

down, moved, and put up again without injuring it in

the least. For situations where appearances are second-
ary importance, round slats are equally as good as pickets.
A farmer in Wisconsin planted a few white willow trees
the year that he made some fences of this kind. When
the fence began to need repairs, the willows had attained
such a growth that their trimmings furnished all the
material needed then and each year thereafter.

FENCE OF WIRE AND PICKETS.

The fence shown in figure 57 has been introduced

in some sections, and is becoming more popular every

FJg. 57. FENCE OF WIRE AND PICKETS.

year. The posts are set ten feet apart, and are so placed
that they will come on the right and left side of the
fence, alternately. The pickets are split from oak, or
any other hard wood, and are four or five feet long,
and an inch and a half or two inches wide. When the
posts are set, brace the one at the end of the line, and
42 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

fasten the ends of two number nine, unannealed wires

to it.Stretch the wires along to the other end of the
line, and a few feet beyond the last post. One pair is
to be stretched near the top of the posts and one near the

ground. When the wires are stretched taut, fasten them

to some posts or other weight that will drag on the
ground the upper and lower wires should be fastened to
;

separate weights, and these should be heavy enough to

keep the wires at a great tension. Having done this, you
are ready to commence building the fence. One man
spreads the strands, while another places the picket be-
tween them; the other end of the picket is then raised
up and placed between the upper wires, and then driven
up with an axe or mallet. In inserting the pickets, the
wires are to be crossed alternately, as shown in the en-
graving. The pickets should be dry and should b~> about
three inches apart. It takes two persons to build this
fence successfully, but it can be built more rapidly by
three; one to spread the wires, one to place the picket in
position, and one to drive it home. This is especially
adapted for a line or other fence which is not required
to be often moved. It is fastened to the post by nailing
one of the pickets to it with common fencing nails.
Fences of this kind are also made with straight, round
limbs of willow or other trees in place of the split pickets.
Several different machines have been patented for mak-
ing this style of fence.
 CHAPTER V.

BARB-WIRE FENCE,
The invention of barb wire was the mo*it important
event in the solution of the fence problem. The question
of providing fencing material had become serious, even
in the timbered portions of the country, while the great

prairie region was almost wholly without resou^e, save

the slow and expensive process of hedging. At this
juncture came barb wire, which was at once seen to make
a cheap, effective, and durable fence, rapidly built and
easily moved. The original patent for barb wire was
taken out in 1868, but it was not until six years J <iter
that an attempt was made to introduce it into general nse,
and more than ten years elapsed before the industry at-
tained any considerable magnitude. The rapidity and
extent of itssubsequent growth will be seen by the fol-
lowing table, showing the estimated amount of barb wire
manufactured and in use during the years named, the
estimated length being in miles of single strand:
TEAK. TONS. MILES. TEAK. TONS. MILES.
1874 5 10 1881 60,000 120,000
1875 300 600 1882 80,000 160,000
1876 1,500 _
3,000 1883 100,000 200,000
1877 7,000 14,000 1884 125,000 .250,000
1878 .13,000 26,000 1885 130,000 260,000
1879 .25,000 50,000 1886 135,000 270,000
1880 40,000.-.
TOTALS.. 716,805... .1,433,610

There are now fifty establishments engaged in the

manufacture, and the output for 1887 is estimated at
140,000 tons.
Barb wire is not without its drawbacks as a fencing

material, the most common one being the liability of seri-

(43)
41 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

cms injury to valuable domestic animals coming in con-

tact with the sharp barbs. Many means have been de-
vised for overcoming this evil. Some of them are
illustrated in the next chapter. The direct advantages

Fig. 58. THE KELLY BABB TVIHE.

of barb wire are: First economy, not only in the com-

first cost, but also in the small
parative cheapness of its
amount of land covered by it. Second effectiveness as
a barrier against all kinds of stock, and a protection
Third rapidity of con-
against dogs and wild
beasts.
struction and ease of moving. Fourth freedom from
harboring weeds, and creating snow drifts. Fifth dura-
bility.
Barb wire, like the harvester, the sowing machine, and

Fig. 59. HORSE-NAIL BABB.

most other valuable inventions, has attained its present

form from very crude beginnings. The original barb
wire consisted of double-pointed metallic discs, strung
 BARB-WIRE FENCE. 45

looselyupon plain wire. The next step was to twist this

with another wire, as shown in figure 58.
Another crude beginning was the " horse-nail barb, "

Fig. 61. STEELING BABB WISE.

which consisted of a common horse-shoe nail bent around

a plain wire, and the whole wrapped spirally with a
smaller wire, as shown in figure 59. Various forms of
two-pointed and four-pointed barb wire are manufactured,
the principal difference being the shape of the barbs and

Fig. 63. IOWA FOTJB-POINTBD BABB WIBB.

the manner of coiling them around one or both of the

strands. A few of the leading styles are illustrated here-
with. Figures 60 and 61 show two varieties of two-
pointed barb wire.
46 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

Of the numerous styles of four-pointed wire, three typ-

ical forms are illustrated in figures 62, 63, and 64.,
The Glidden patent steel barb wire is made in three

Fig. 64. LYMAN BARB WIRE.

styles, as shown in figures 65, 66, and 67. Figure

65 shows the two-point wire, in which, like the others,
the barb is twisted around only one of the wires. Figure

Fig. 65. GLIDDEN PATENT STEEL TWO-POINT.

66 shows the "thick-set" which has barbs like the other,

but set closer together for such purposes as sheep folds,
gardens, or other places, which require extra protection.

"
Fig. 66. GLIDDEN PATENT STEEL THICK SET."
The has barbs of the
four-point barb wire, figure 67,
same form as the two other styles, that is a sharply prick-
of the wires of the fence strand,
ing barb attached to one
upon which the other wire is twisted, holding the barb
 BARB-WIRE

firmly in place. The barb is at right angles to the wire,

and does not form a hook, but a straight short steel thorn.
A sharp point which inflict an instantaneous prick repels
an animal more safely than a longer and duller barb.
Barb wire of nearly, if not quite all the popular kinds,
is shipped from the factory on strong spools, each
holding

. GLIDDEN PATENT FOUR-POINT.

one hundred pounds in weight, or eighty rods in length.

These spools are bored through the center to admit a
stick or bar, which can be used as an axle in unreeling
the wire. The following table shows the weight of wire
required for fencing the respective areas named :

AREA
48 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

sixty posts, and three and three quarter pounds of staples,

for every sixty rods. To ascertain the weight of wire re-
quired for any desired number of strands, multiply the

Fig. 68. BBINKEBHOFF STEEL STRAP AND BABB.

" "
figures of the first column of weight of wire by the
number of strands proposed to be used.
There is a kind of barb fencing in which flat steel

straps are employed instead of wire. In the form shown

in figure 68, the barbs are bent around a plain strap and
the whole is then galvanized, which firmly fixes the barb.

Fig. 69. ALLIS PATENT BABB.

Another form shown figure 69 consists of a solid

at

piece of steel, ribbed through the middle, and with barbs

cut on both edges. These and similar forms are more ex-
pensive than wire, and are employed only in limited quan-

Fig. 70. BBINKEBHOFF FENCING TWISTED.

tities for enclosing lawns, paddocks, etc. Still another

form is like that shown in figure 70, without barbs,
and twisted. This is much used to enclose lawns and
ornamental grounds. It is light,neat and strong, does
 BAHB-WlftE FENCE. 49

not harbor weeds or make snow drifts, but is compara-

tively expensive, as five or six strands are required to
make an effective fence.
Still another form of unarmed fencing is shown in
figure 71. It is simply the ordinary wire without barbs,

Fig. 71. TWO STBAND TWISTED WIKfi FENCING.

and is used in limited quantities for fencing ornamental

grounds, barnyards, etc.

STEEL FENCE STAPLES.

For fastening barb wires to the post nothing has been

found so satisfactory as staples made for the purpose
from No. 9 steel wire. They are cut with sharp points

Fig. 74. SQUARE TOP STAPLE FOB BRINKERHOFF FENCING.

to drive easily into the posts, and are of different lengths,

from one inch and a quarter to one and three-quarters.
Figures 72 and 73 show the usual staples for wire, and
figure 74 a staple made specially for strap fencing.
50 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

HOW TO SET BARB WIRE FENCE.

The timber for posts should be cut when the sap is

dormant. Midwinter or August is a good time to cut
post timber. They should be split and the bark taken
off as soon as possible after cutting the timber. For end
posts, select some of the best trees, about sixteen inches
in diameter, from which take cuts eight and a half feet
in length, splitting them in quarters for brace posts.
They should be set three feet in the ground, which is eas-
ily done with a post-hole digger. When setting the
brace posts, take a stone eighteen inches to two feet
long, twelve inches wide, and six inches thick, which
is put down against the post edgewise, on the opposite

Fig. 75. WELL-BRACED BARB-WIRE FENCE.

t'Ae to the brace, seen in figure 75, putting it

as
down about even with the surface of the ground. This
holds the post solid against the brace. A
heart-rail, ten
feet in length makes a good brace. Put one of the long
posts every sixteen or twenty rods along the line of fence,
as they help to strengthen it, and set lighter and shorter

posts along the line about sixteen feet apart. After the
posts are set, two or three furrows should be turned
against them on each side, as it helps to keep stock from
the wire. Such a fence should be built of a good height.
It is better to buy an extra wire than have stock injured
There is no pulling over end posts or sagging wire.
 BARB-WIRE FENCE. 51

To make an extra solid wire fence, brace the posts,

as shown infigure 76, on both sides, in order to
resist the tension in eitner direction. Every eighth post
should be thus braced, and it makes a mark for measur-
ing the length of the fence, for eight posts set one rod
apart, make eight rods, or a fortieth of a mile for each
braced post. The braces are notched into the top of

Fig. 76. A WIRE FENCE WELL BBACED.

the posts, just below the top wire, and a spike is driven
through both the brace and the post. The braces abut
upon large stones which give them great firmness.

UNREELING AND STRETCHING BARB WIRE.

The general introduction of barb wire fencing has

brought out a great variety of devices for handling the
wire. One of these is shown in the illustrations. Two
pieces of scantling are attached to the rearend of a wag-
on from which the box has been removed, as shown in
figure 77. A slot near the end of each admits the round
stick thrust through the reel of barb wire, to serve as an
axle. The end of the barb wire is fastened to the fence
post, the team in front of the wagon started up, and
52 I'E-N'CES, GATES AKD BRIDGES.

some three yards of wire unreeled. Then the hind axle

of the wagon is made fast by a chain or rope to the near-
est fence post, the hind wheel nearest the fence lifted
from the ground and held there by a wagon-jack or piece

Fig. 77. DEVICE FOB UN-ROLLING WIRE.

of board. One turn is then made in the barb wire, as

shown atA, figure 78, to which is attached one end of a
piece of smooth wire, some ten feet long. Tbe other
end is placed between two screws, b b, in the end of the

Fig. 78. FASTENING THE WTBE.

hub, as shown in the illustration. The wire thus fas-

tened is coiled around the hub, and the operator can
tighten it and the barb wire to which it is attached, by
employing the leverage of the spokes and felloes.
A lighter form of reel holder is shown at figure 79. It

Fig. 79. A SULKY WIRE-HOLDEB.

is made of two pieces of two by four scantlings fastened

to the axle of a sulky corn plow. They must be placed
 BARB- WIRE FENCE. 53

far enough apart to allow the reel or spool to run between

them. Make a square axle, figure 80, of some hard
tough wood, rounding it where it runs in the slots of the

Fig. 80. THE AXLE.

"scantling ;
drive it through the hole in the spool, and at-
tach the crank. In moving fence, place the spool on the
frame ;
remove one end of the wire from the post, fasten
it to the spool, and while one man holds the pole and
steers and steadies the sulky he will have to pull back
a little another turns the spool and winds up the wire.
When a corner is reached, the wire is loosened, the sul-
ky turned, and the winding continued. "When the end
of the wire is reached, it is carefully loosened from the
post, and firmly fastened to the spool.
It is best to have a separate spool for each wire, espec-

ially if they are of great length. The same contrivance

may be used for unreeling the wire. Attach a gentle
horse to the sulky, fasten the pole securely to the hames,

Fig. 81. A SLED WIBE-HOLDEB.

and have a boy lead him slowly along the fence line,
once in fifty yards stop the horse, grasp the handle, move
forward very slowly, and draw the wire straight and
no sulky plow " double-
taut. If is at hand, a light
ended" sled, shown in figure 81, may be used. A man
holds the short pole extending from one end, steadying
54 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGEJ

and pushing a little, while the other winds the reel. The
sled is drawn forward by the wire as it is wound on
the reel. To unreel, attach a slow horse to a chain or

Fig. 82. ANOTHER SLED FOB WIRE.

rope fastened to the opposite end of the sled. A man

must walk behind the horse and hold the pole to steady
the sled. Managed in this way, the removal of a barbed
wire fence is not at all the formidable operation that has
been supposed it can be taken down and set up again,
;

easily, safely, and quite rapidly. Figure 82 shows an-

Fig. 83. TIGHTENING THE WIRE.

other form of home-made

sled, which is very useful for

carrying rolls of wire for making a fence. The roll is

supported on a rod, which has round ends to fit into the
uprights, and which turns in the slots. When the wire
is run out, the end is fastened to the clevis on the centre

beam, and a notched stake, figure 83, being put under

the wire, the sled is drawn up to tighten the wire, which
 3ARB-WIRE FENCE. 55

is then stapled. This sled is useful for many other pur-

poses, and is large enough to carry five rolls of the wire,
so .that by going hack and forth, the whole of the fence
can be put up very quickly. It is drawn by one horse,
the draft chain being fastened to the front beam.

WIRE STRETCHERS.

For stretching barb wire there are various implements

in the market, arid other quite simple and effective de-
vices can be made on the farm. Figure 84 shows the

Fig. 84. THE CLABK STBETCHEK.

Clark stretcher and the manner of using it. Another

" Come
stretcher, called the Along" stretcher, figure 85,
is used not only for tightening the wires, but also for

handling it, in building or moving fences.

56 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

The useful wire stretcher, figure 86, consists of a

mowing machine knife-guard, bolted to a stout stick ;

Fig. 85, COME ALONG" STRETCHER.

one curved, as shown in the lower engraving, is prefera-

ble to a straight one, as it will not turn in the hand.
When using it, the wire is held firmly in the slot, and
may be easily stretched by applying the stick as a lever.

Fig. 86. HOME-MADE WIRE STRETCHERS.

Another kind of a wire-stretcher may be made of hard

wood or of iron or steel bars. It consists of three pieces,
two arms and a splicer, fastened together in the manner
shown in figure 87, leaving a slot near one end to
hold the wire. The longer arm is made immovable upon
the splice by means of two or more heavy bolts, while the
 BARB-WIKE FENCE. 57

shorter arm is pivoted by one bolt. This allows the slot

to be opened to receive the wire. The short arm is sharp-
ened so that it may be stuck into a post, or the side of
a building, if convenient. By placing this lever behind
a post, one man can stretch thoroughly a long string of
wire. When one man is doing the work alone, he can
stretch the wire, fasten the lever back by means of a stick

Fig. 87.

driven into the ground before it, and then go back and
drive the staples. The short end of the lever should be
about twelve inches long, and the long arm three or four
feet,or even longer.
The stretcher shown in figure 88 is made of hard tough
wood or iron. The wire is passed through the slot, the
barbs preventing it from slipping. The arm at right an-
gles to the lever is used to measure the distance of the
strands. When the lever is set against the pst, the arm

Fig. 88. STRETCHER AND GAUGE.

rests on the strand below. By sliding it up or down,

the distance between the strands is regulated.
Figure 89 shows another stretcher, that can be made
by any blacksmith. The toothed cam holds the wire so
that it will not slip. A block and tackle are often found
useful to draw the wires with. The rolls of wire are paid
out of a wagon body, and" when the wire is to be drawn
up, the grip is put on at any point, the tackle is at-
tached, and one horse draws it as tight as it needs be.
A wire fence needs frequent drawing up or it sags and
58 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

becomes useless. The alternate contraction and expan-

sion caused by change of temperature soon stretch the
wire, to say nothing of other causes. The cheap and ef-

Fig. 89. GRIP FOB FENCE WIBE.

fective method employed by telegraph companies is illus-

trated in figure 90. It consistsof a pair of grip tongs
and a set of small tackle-blocks. The tongs may be
made by any blacksmith, and the blocks are sold at all

hardware and tool stores. An iron hook is used to cou-

Fig. 90.

pie the tongs to the block, and as the wire is drawn up,
the free end of the rope may be given a turn around the
same post, to hold it while the staple is tightened to
hold the wire.

SPLICING BAEB WIRES.

The accompanying engravings show an iron implement

for splicing wire and the manner of using it. To make
this splicer take a bar of half inch round iron, nine
inches long. Heat about three inches of one end and
 BARB-WIRE FENCE. 59

hammer it flat until it is one inch wide. With a cold

chisel cut a one-fourth inch slot a quarter of an inch
from the right side and an inch deep, as seen in figure

Figs. 91 and 93. THE SPLICER.

91. Bend the part marked d, so that it will be a quar-

ter inch from the flat part, as shown in figure 92. The
lower part of the slot c should be about a half inch from
the bend at d. Smooth with a file. To use it let e and

Fig. 93. MAKING THE SPLICE.

/, figure 93 represent two wires to be joined. Bend the

ends so they are nearly at right angles. Hold them
with pincers at g ; place the hook of the splicer on the
wire/, while the wire e falls into the slot. Twist the
pieces around the wire/, when one half of the splice is
60 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

made. Repeat the operation for the other end. Use

about four or five inches of each wire to twist around
the other. Another form of splicer, shown in figure 94,
is made of cast iron, and is us 3d in the same manner as

Fig. 94. .
Fig. 95.

the Figure 95 shows the manner of holding the

first.

wire with nippers made for the purpose, and the fin-
ished splice.

BUILDING WIRE FENCES ON UNEVEN GROUND.

One of the great perplexities about building wire

fences on rolling ground, is how to make the posts in
the hollows remain firm, for the pull of the wire in wet

Fig. 96. FENCE ON UNEVEN GBOU>T>.

weather, or when the frost is coming out, lifts them and

causes the Avire to sag, and they cease to be an effective
parrier. Posts should not be used in the lowest depres-
 FENCES OF BARB WIRE AND BOARDS. 61

eions,but in their place at the lowest spots a heavy stone

should be partially sunk into the ground, about which a
smooth fence wire has been wrapped, as seen in figure 96.
When the fence is built, the fence wires are brought down
and the wire about the stone is twisted first
to their place
about the lower wire, then the next, and so on to the
top. This prevents the wire from raising, and does away
with all trouble of the posts being pulled out by the
wires. In fencing across small streams the same plan
is successful.

CHAPTER VI.

FENCES OF BARB WIRE AND BOARDS.

COMBINED WIRE AND BOARD FENCE.

A very cheap fence is made of two boards below

and three strands of barb wire. To make the fence pig-
proof without the boards, five strands of wire, three inches

Fig. 97. MANNEB OP BKACrNG ENJ>-POST.

apart, would be required at the bottom. Two common

fencing boards will occupy the same space, when placed
three inches apart, and cost less. But for the upper part
of the fence, wire is much cheaper than boards. The
most considerable item in this greater economy the is

saving of posts. The wire requires a post every sixteen

feet ; hence half the posts are saved. A stout stake,
62 FEXCES, GATES AJ^D BRIDGES.

driven midway between the posts, holds the center of the

1

boards in place. These stakes need extend only eighteen

inches above ground. Posts that have rotted off in the
ground will be long enough for these stakes. Some say
that the posts can be set thirty faet apart, but sixteen
feet is better. The posts should be at least thirty inches
in the ground and well tamped. It is easy to stretch the
wire. Its durability depends upon the quality of the
wire and posts, and the proper setting of them. K"ail
on the two boards, three inches apart the first strand is
;

six inches above the top board, the second strand is

twelve inches above the first, and the third sixteen in-
ches above the second. When banked up, as hereafter
described, this fence will turn all farm stock. An im-

Fig. 98. SECTION OF FENCE COMPLETED.

portant point is the bracing of the end-posts. If this be

neglected or improperly done, the fence will be a failure.

Figure 97 shows how the end-post should be braced. It
should be a large post and set at least three feet in the
ground. The short post which holds the lower end of
the brace, should also be well set. "Wrap the wire
around the end-post several times, and drive staples
to hold it on all sides. If the line of fence is more
than forty rods long, at least two posts at each end
should be braced. After the posts are set, and before at-
taching the boards or wire, plow a deep furrow along
each side, throwing the earth inward. This makes a
bank along the line, allowing the fence to be several
inches higher and the furrow drains the water away
;
 FENCES OF BAKB WIRE AND BOARDS. 63

from theposts, and also restrains an

animal that may be
tempted to jump the fence. A section of the completed
fence is shown in figure 98. Do not hang pieces of tin,
etc.,upon the top strands of wire, as often recommended,
that the animals may see the fence, and be able to avoid
it, because it is never necessary.
A modification of this combined fence is shown in fig-
ure 99. It is made of one along the top, and
rail

three wires below. After setting the posts plow a fur-

Fig. 99. A CHEAP AND GOOD FENCE.

row two from the posts on each side, throwing the

feet
furrow slice towards the fence, and forming up the ridge
neatly with a spade then stretch the three wires, and
;

nail a two by four scantling edgewise. To prevent an

unpleasant sagging of the rails, the posts should be eight
feet apart, and the rails sixteen feet long. For common
fencing, good straight poles will answer well.

A BRACKETED FENCE.

The features shown in figure 100 are first, in having :

two six-inch boards at the bottom. Second, in placing

the wires very close together. It being necessary to have
barbs only on one side of each space between the wires,
plain galvanised 'wire may be used for every alternate
strand, thus greatly lessening the expense. Third,* by
the use of strips and short stakes, the posts may be placed
sixteen feet apart, and the fence remain as perfect as if
there were posts every eight feet. Fourth, to make the
64 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES.

fence man-proof, make use of a bracket of three-eighth-

inch iron, or of one by two-inch wooden strips. The
form of the brackets is shown in figures 101, 102 and 103.
A barb-wire is attached to the short arm of the brackets,
which are fastened to the posts in such a manner as to

Fig. 100. ONE PANEL OF IMPROVED WIRE FENCE.

stretch two wires on the same horizontal plane, and fif-

teen inches apart. The material required for each panel

of the fence shown in figure 100, are: Two posts, three
barb-wires, two plain wires of No. 12 galvanized iron,
two six-inch boards, sixteen feet long, three stakes about
three feet long, and sharpened at one end, four strips,
four feet long and one and one-half-inch square. To
build the fence: Lay off the ground by setting small pegs
eight feet apart, then dig the holes, and set the posts at

Fig. 101. IRON BRACKET.

every fourth peg. Drive the sharpened stakes into the

ground at the three pegs between the posts, so that the
top of the stakes will be nineteen inches above the
pronnd. Nail the boards on the first stake near the
 FEKCES OF BARB WIRE AND BOARDS. 65

ground, and the second one three inches above the first.
Then mark off the place for each wire on the first post,
fasten the bottom wire, and put up as far as the first
stretching post; then add the other wires, using first a
barb-wire, and then a smooth one. The wires should be
fastened to the posts with long staples. The strips are
to go in the middle of the eight foot spaces; they should
not quite touch the ground; fasten them to the boards

Fig. 103. ATTACHED BRACKET. Fig. 103. WOODEH BBACKET.

with nails and to the wire with short staples. These

strips can be made of poles or saplings, and the stakes of
short or crooked pieces from the posts. To attach the
man-proof part: If the brackets are of wood, nail them
to the posts, sawing off the horizontal arm to fifteen
inches from the top wire, as in figure 103 ; stretch the
wire and fasten to the end. If the brackets are of iron

figure 102, spike the horizontal arm to the top of the

post, then put up the barb-wire loose under the oblique

arm, and stretch it. Then spike the foot of the oblique
66 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES.

arm and
slip the wire into the angle, and
to the post,
close by closing the arms on the wire.
the bracket
Figure 102 shows the method of attaching the iron
bracket to the post.

DOG-PROOF FENCES.

Figure 104 shows a sheep-yard fence, built of wire and

boards, as a safeguard against vicious dogs. It consists of

Kg. KM. A FENCE AGAINST BOOS.

ordinary posts, and three lengths of boards, with an

equal number of barb-wires for the upper portion, and a

single strand placed near the ground. The sheep are in
no danger of injuring themselves with such a fence, and
it is an effective barrier to blood-thirsty dogs.

Figure 105 shows a cheaper fence for the same pur-

pose. It has one strand of barb wire below the boards,

Fig. 105. A CHEAPER FENCE.

which prevents attempts of dogs to dig under it.

" thick-set " barb
For fencing sheep against dogs, the
wire is the most effective of any.
 CHAPTEE VIL
HEDGES.

THE BEST HEDGE PLANTS.

The first emigrants from England to the American

shores brought .with them memories of green hedge-rows,
like those which still adorn the motherland. But they
found the country whither they had come covered with
a dense growth of timber, which furnished abundant
material "for fences. Hedges were almost unknown in
this country until after civilization had reached the tree-
less prairies. Then, the want of fencing material turned
attention to hedges, and they became so popular that
many miles of them were planted, not only in the prairie
more eastern States, where cheaper
region, but also in the
fencing material was plenty. Now the invention of
barbed wire supplies a material so cheap an'd easily put
in place," that hedges have ceased to be regarded as
economical for general farm purposes. But they have
by no means gone wholly out of use. As a boundary
fence, especially upon the roadside, there is much to be
said in favor of the hedge. Nothing gives a neighbor-
hood such a finished rural aspect, as to have the roads
bordered by hedges. The grounds around the summer
cottages on the New Jersey coast, and other popular sum-
mer resorts, are lai'gely enclosed with hedges. For in-
terior divisions, as they cannot be removed, they are not
to be commended. An orchard, the most permanenb of
all the plantations upon the farm, may be appropriately

enclosed by a live fence. Hedges are either protective

barriers, really live fences, or merely ornamental. In
properly regulated communities, where cattle are not al-
(67)
68 JE3TCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

lowed to run at large, the roadside hedge may be orna-

mental, while one around an orchard should be able to
keep out animals and other intruders. After many ex-
periments and failures, the Osage Orange (Madura
aurantiaca), has been found to make the best hedges.
Being a native of Arkansas, it has been found to be hardy
much farther Xorth, and may be regarded as the most
useful hedge plant in all localities where the winter is

not severe. "Where the Osage Orange is not hardy,

Buckthorn, Japan Quince and Honey Locust are the best
substitutes. Honey Locust is a most useful hedge-plant,
as it is readily raised from seed, grows rapidly, bears
cutting well, and in a few years will make a barrier that
will turn the most violent animal.

PLANTING AND CARE OF OSAGE HEDGES.

The first requisite for a hedge of any kind is to secure

thrifty plants of uniform size. Osage Orange plants are
raised from seeds by nurserymen, and when of the right

Fig. 106. BADLY PLOWED GROUND.

size,should be taken up in autumn and "heeled in."

The ground, which it is proposed to occupy by the

hedge, should be broken up in autumn and then re-

plowed in spring, unless it is a raw prairie sod, which
should be broken a year before the hedge is planted. It
is a very usual, but very bad practice, to plow a ridge

with a back-furrow, as shown in figure 106. This leaves

an unplowed strip of hard soil directly under the line
upon which the hedge is to stand. "When harrowed, it
appears very fair on the surface, but it is useless to ex-
 HEDGES. 09

pect young plants to thrive on such a bed of hard soil,

and its result will be as seen in figure 107. The first
growth is feeble, irregular, and many vacant spots ap-

Fig. 107. HEDGE PLANT ON HARD RIDGE.

pear. The land should be plowed as in figure 108. When

the sod is rotted, the land should be
harrowed lengthwise
of the furrows, and the dead furrow left in the first

Fig. 108. PROPERLY PLOWED GROUND.

plowing closed by twice turning back the ridge. There

is then a deep, mellow, well-drained bed for the
plants
in which the roots have room to grow and gather ample
nutrition. Figure 109 shows the effect of this kind of

Fig. 109. HEDGE PLANT IN MELLOW SOIL.

cultivation. As a barrier against stock, or a windbreak, it

is best to plant in double rows, each row being set oppo-

site the spaces in the other, thus :
* * * * *
* # * * *

It is highly desirable that the hedge should be in true,

uniform rows, either straight or in regular curves.
This can be done only by setting closely to a line. Osage
Orange plants may be raised from seed, but as this is a
70 FENCES, GATES AND BUI DOES.

difficult operation, it is usually best to buy young plants

from a reliable nurseryman. They are best cut down to
about six inches high, and the roots partially trimmed.
It is an advantage to "puddle" the roots, which is done
by dipping them in a mixture composed of one-half
earth and half fresh manure from the cow stable, wet
to the consistency of a thin paste. There are various
methods of setting the plants. Some use a trowel with
a blade about ten inches long others a dibble, and a
;

larger number than either of the others, a spade. For

setting long lines, in situations where appearances are of

Fig. 110. EFFECT OF CULTIVATION.

secondary importance, young Osage plants are set very

rapidly by running a furrow where the rows are to stand,
laying the plants with their roots spread on the mellow
soil, one side of the furrow. A
furrow is next turned
upon the roots, and the plants which may have been dis-

arranged are restored by hand. A tread of the foot will

consolidate the earth around each plant. Unless the
subsoil is naturally very porous, the ground must be
thoroughly underd rained. A line of tiles should be laid
six or eight feet from the line of the hedge. The ground
for four or five feet on either side of the hedge, should
be kept thoroughly cultivated the first three or four

years after planting. This cultivation is to be done

early each season and cease the first of July, to give the
 HEDGES. 71

new wood a chance to ripen. The plants should be per-

mitted to grow the first year undisturbed. The following
spring, the hedge should be cut off close to the ground
with a scythe or mowing machine, and all vacancies
where plants have died out or been thrown out by frost,
should be filled. The ground on both sides of the ridge
is to be kept well cultivated. Figure 110 shows the dif-
ference in root growth in cultivated and uncultivated
ground.
A thick growth of young shoots will appear, and
these are to be cut back to four inches high, the middle
of summer and again in September. The object is to
obtain a dense growth close to the ground. The third
year the pruning is to be repeated, only the shoots must
be left four to six inches above the last previous cutting.
The lateral shoots which are near the ground, are to be
left undisturbed. The trimming should be such as to
leave the hedge broad at the base, with a regular slope to
the summit like a double-span roof.
Another method is to permit the hedge to grow un-
trimmed for four or five years. It is then plashed, or

Fig. 111. HEDGE " PLASHED."

laid over sidewise. This is done by cutting the plants

about half through on one side with a sharp axe, and
bending them over as shown in figure 111. The hedge
is first headed back and trimmed up to reduce the top.

In a short time new shoots will spring from the stubs and
stems, making a dense growth of interlacing stems and
72 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

branches. Another method of laying a hedge, is to dig

away a few inches of earth on one side of each plant to
loosen the roots, then lay the plant over to the desired
angle and fasten it there. The earth is then replaced
around the roots, and tread down firmly. We believe
that a patent is claimed for this process, but its validity

is seriously questioned.
It is essential that hedges,whether planted for orna-
ment or utility, shall be
kept in shape by trimming
every year. It is less labor to trim a hedge three times

during the year, when the branches are small and soft,
than once when the branches have made a full season's
growth. If the hedge is trimmed once in June and
again in August, it will be kept in good shape, and the
labor will be less than if the trimming was put off until
spring. In August the branches can be cut with shears
or a sharp corn knife. The foliage on them will aid in
their burning, when they have dried a few days in the
sun. The thorns are not so hard as in the spring. The
brush will be less, and on account of their pliability and
greater weight, will pack into the heap much better. If
trimmed in August, the hedge will not make any con-
siderable growth during the fall. August trimming does
not injure the hedge, rather helps it, as it tends to ripen
the wood, preventing a late Autumn growth to be injured
by the winter. The loss of sap is less than when the
trimming is done in the early spring, as then the wounds
are larger, and do not heal before the sap flows. Do not
neglect to burn the brush as soon as it has dried suffi-
ciently. If allowed to remain on the ground, it will har-
bor mice and other vermin. Trim the hedge in August
and burn the brush. The trimming should be done in
such a manner as to expose the greater amount of foliage
to the direct action of the light, air, rain and dew. This
isattained by keeping the sides at every trimming in the
form of sloping walls from the broad base to the summit
 HEDGES. 73

like a double-span roof. They are sometimes trimmed

with vertical sides and broad, flat top, but this is not a
favorable plan for permanency. The lower leaves and
stems die outj leaving an unsightly open bottom of naked
stems, with a broad roof of foliage above. Such trim-
ming and its results have done much to bring hedges
into disrepute.

HEDGES FOR THE SOUTH.

The Osage Orange is a native of the Southwestern

States, and on good soil anywhere in the South.

flourishes
Yet there are certain succulent plants which grow so
rapidly in the South, and require so little care, that
they are very successfully employed for hedges in the
Gulf States. One of these if the Yucca yloriosa, or

Fig. 112. CACTUS HEDGE.

Spanish Bayonet. Its natural habit of

growth is to pro-
duce a dense mass of leaves on a long stem. But by cut-
ting back the growth of the stiff, armed leaves is pro-
duced low down, and a hedge of this soon becomes an
impassable barrier. Large panicles of beautiful white
blossoms are produced at the summit, making such a
hedge very ornamental during the flowering season.
Various species of cactus are also employed in the South-
west for hedges. In some of the Middle- Western States
may be seen a hedge like figure 112. At some distance
from the highway, a field had been enclosed with the
tree cactus, which there grows only from four to ten feet
74 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

high. The plants that were in the line of the fence were
left growing, and those cleared from the field were woven
into a formidable barrier to anything larger than a rab-
bit. While no two rods in this fence are alike, its
general appearance is like that shown in the engraving.

ORNAMENTAL HEDGES AND SCREENS.

Hedges and screens for ornamental purposes alone, do

not come strictly within the scope of this work, but we
will briefly mention a few desirable plants for the pur-

Fig. 113. BRANCH OF JAPAN QUINCE. Fig. 114. FRUIT AND FLOWER.

pose. The Japan Quince, Cydonia Japonica, of which

figures 113 and 114 show a branch, flower and fruit, is
one of the deciduous plants for an ornamental
best
hedge. It will in almost any soil; if left to itself
grow
it forms a dense, strong bush, but it may be clipped or

trained into any desired form. Its leaves are of dark

glossy green, they come early in spring and remain until

late in Autumn, This is one of the earliest shrubs to
 PORTABLE FENCES AND HUEDLES. 75

bloom in spring ;
its flowers are generally intense scarlet,

though there are with white, rose-colored, or

varieties
salmon-colored flowers. A
hedge of this plant is not
only highly ornamental, but its abundant thorns make
a good barrier. Privet, Ligustrum vulgare, makes a
very neat screen, but will not bear severe cutting back,
and is therefore suitable only for grounds of sufficient
extent to admit of its being allowed to make unre-

strained growth. The common Barberry, Berleris vul-

garis, also makes an exceedingly pretty screen in time,

but it is of slow growth. The Buffalo Berry, Sheperdid
argentea, has been tried for hedges, but for some reason
it has never attained any popularity. In the Southern
States, the Cherokee Rose has been found quite success-
ful for the purpose, and nothing in the shape of a hedge
can exceed, in striking effect, one of these in full bloom.
For evergreen screens nothing is better than the Hemlock,
Tsuga Canadensis. The Norway Spruce is of rapid
growth and bears cutting well. The Arbor Vitae, Thuja
occidentalis, is also very successfully employed for the
purpose.

CHAPTER VIII.

PORTABLE FENCES AND HURDLES.

PORTABLE BOARD FENCES.

Figure 118 shows a very strong and secure board fence,

composed entirely of ordinary fence boards. The trian-
gular frames, which serve as posts, are each of two pieces
of inch boards, crossed and braced as shown in figure 115.
The panels, figure 117, are sixteen feet long, each com-
posed of four boards, six inches wide. The space between
,G FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

the lower two boards is two and a half inches, second

space three and a half inches. A
convenient way of
making the panels is to use three horses, like that shown
in figure 116, the length of each being equal to the total

Fig. 115.-THE POSTS.

width of the panel, and the three short upright strips

marking the respective spaces between the boards. The
top is covered with iron to clinch the nails used in put-
ting the panel together. The boards are laid on these
horses, and the upright cross-pieces nailed on. The second
board from the top of each panel is notched at both ends,
as shown in figure 117. A good way to make the trian-

Flg. 116." HORSES " FOR MAKETO THE FENCE.

gular frames by a uniform pat-

alike, is to cut the pieces
tern. Then make one frame and form de-
of the size

sired, and at each of the three places where they are

nailed together, fasten a plate of iron, thick enough to
prevent the penetration of a common wrought nail driven
against it. Now lay this pattern frame on the floor with
 PORTABLE FEHCES AtfD HURDLES. 7?

the iron bolts uppermost. Then lay three pieces on this

in exactly the right position, drive wrought nails through
the two pieces and against the iron plates, which will
clinch the nails firmly as fast as they are driven. This
will enable the man to nail the frames together quite

Fig. 117. A SINGLE PANEL.

rapidly. In setting up the fence, each triangular frame

supports the ends of two panels. The upper and lower
boards of each panel interlock with the frame, as shown
in figure 118, making a very strong fence. On open
prairie or other wind-swept situations, it may be neces-
sary to stake down some of the frames, to prevent their
blowing over. This is quickly done by sharpening pieces

Fig. 118. THE FENCE IN POSITION.

of inch boards, twelve inches long, and one inch wide,

and driving one beside the foot of the triangle, where it
rests on the ground, and putting an
eight-penny nail
through both.

PORTABLE FENCES OF POLES OR WIBE.

Figures 119 and 120 show styles of portable fences,

which are used to some extent m
the territories. The
70 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

base of each is the half of a small log, split

through
the center. For the fence shown in figure 119, two
augur holes are bored a few inches apart, and small poles
driven to serve as posts. Rails or round poles of the
usual length are laid to the desired height, and the top

Fig. 119. PORTABLE POLE FENCE.

of the posts tied together with wire. In situations

where timber is less plentiful, a single stake is set into
the base, as in figure 120, braced, and barbed or plain wire
attached by staples. Besides the advantage of being

Fig. 130. PORTABLE WIRE FENCE.

easily moved, these fences can be prepared in winter,

whn there is little else to do, and rapidly set in place at
any time when the ground is clear of snow.
Figure 121 is a fence made of either sawed stuff, or of
rails or poles, having their ends flattened and bored. An
iron rod, or piece of gas-pipe, any where from half an
inch to an inch in diameter, is run through the holes,
and through a base block into the ground as far as nee-
 PORTABLE FEKCES AND HURDLES. 79

essary. A round stick of tough durable wood, an inch

or more in diameter, will answer. The size of this rod
and its strength will depend upon the amount of zigzag

Fig. 121. PORTABLE FENCE OF POLES OK BAILS.

that given to the lengths.

is If the corners are one foot
on each side of a central line, the fence firmly held to-
gether by the rods, will in effect stand on a two feet wide
base. Less than this would perhaps sometimes answer,
and there are no sharp corners, or deep recesses for
weeds and rubbish.

PORTABLE FEKCES FOR WINDBREAKS.

A fence that can be easily moved and quickly set up is
shown in figure 122. It consists of panelsmade of strips

Fig. 122. PORTABLE FENCE.

80 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

eight or ten feet long, nailed to two by four posts, which

are beveled to a sharp corner at the lower end. These
panels are supported by posts, placed as shown in the en-
graving, and pinned to the fence posts by wooden pins,
driven in by a light mallet. The panels are light and
can be loaded upon a wagon from which the sides and
ends of the box are removed. A box of pins and the
mallet are all the tools required to set up the fence. This
fence not easily overthrown by the wind, which holds
is

it down firmly when blowing on the face of it. For this

reason in windy localities, the fence should be set facing
the windy quarter.
Another good form of movable fence is seen in fig-
ure 123. It is made of common fence-boards, securely

Fig. 123. KAIUtOAD

nailed on very light posts or on the edge of narrow boards

and braced as shown in the engraving. This style of
panel is largely employed by railroads as windbreaks i i

winter to keep the tracks from becoming covered with

drifted snow. It is equally convenient on the farm, when
a temporary inclosure is needed.

PORTABLE POULTRY FENCES.

It is often very convenient when poultry are inclosed

during the growing season, to have a fence for the hen-

yard which can be readily moved from place to place.
The illustration, Figure 124, shows one of these. Cut
the posts the same length as the pickets, and to the inner
 POKTABLE FEXCES AXD HURDLES. 81

side of each attach two strong iron hoops bent into a

bottom and the other half way
semi-circle, one near the
up. Through these hoops drive stakes fitted to fill them

n n n n n nnn

Fig. 124. PORTABLE POULTRY FENCE.

closely, with sharpened points for 'easily entering the

ground. When removing the fence the posts can be
slipped off.

Turkeys, even when they have attained a considerable

size, should be shut up until after the dew is off the

grass, and other fowls must be confined in limited runs,

Fig. 125. MOVABLE FENCE FOE TUBKETS.

while the young are small. It is quite an advantage if

these runs can be changed easily, and this can be accom-
plished only when they are enclosed in a light movable
82 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

fence. Such a fence is shown in figure 125, on

preceding
page. It is made in twelve or sixteen feet sections by

nailing laths to light pieces of the proper length. The

upper end of the laths is sharpened ; the end ones are of

Fig. 126. CROSS-SECTION OF MOVABLE 'FENCE.

double thickness. The sections are placed with the end-

laths intercrossing at the top, and about six inches apart
at the bottom, as in cross-section, figure 126. They are
held apart by blocks, figure 127, which rest on the upper
edges of the cross-pieces and against the laths. They
are held together, and to the ground, by stakes driven

against the outer side of the end laths. As these stakes

have the same angle as the laths, they hold the sections
together, and also the fence in its place and down to the

ground. The triangular space where the sections join is

Fig. 127. CROSS-BLOCK FOR FENCE.

closed by a lath driven in the ground or tacked to the

block between the cross-pieces. Corners must be formed
of two sections inclined inward, and in the same way
that sections are joined. The stakes are readily with-
 PORTABLE FENCES AND HURDLES. 83

drawn, and the sections are so light that they are easily
handled.

PORTABLE FOLDING FENCE.

A very convenient form of portable fence or hurdle is
illustrated in figures 128, 129 and 180, which was

Fig. 130. AS A SIDE HILL FENCE.

brought out some tive or six years ago. It may be

constructed with two or three -upright pieces of two-
 4 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

by-four-inch scantling, and four bars, figure 128, held

together by carriage bolts in such a manner, that each
panel can be closed when desired, as a parallel ruler
is folded together. As the bars are on alternate sides,
the panel, when closed, takes up the space of two
bars only, figure 129. The fence may easily be re-
moved, and fits itself to rolling ground or side -hill, as

shown in figure 130. When in position it may be sup-

ported by stakes of the same thickness as the upright
bars, and driven close beside them.

TEMPORARY WIRE AND IRON FENCES.

Several Kinds of wire and iron fences are used in

France to make temporary enclosures for exhibition pur-
poses. Two forms are illustrated herewith. Figure 131

Fig. 131. TEMPORARY WIRE FENCE.

ismade of plain iron wire with cast or wrought iron posts.

Each post has a plate on its lower end, which is set

eighteen inches below the surface of the ground, and the

earth filled in compactly about it. The front of the en-
graving shows the holes in section, with the plates. The
top strand is a wire rope made by twisting several strands
together. The fence seejiat figure 132 is made of narrow
 FENCES FOR STREAMS AND GULLIES. 85

strips of sheet iron attached to iron posts driven into the

ground. The gate, like that of the other form, is pro-
vided with small wheels, which run on a track. The two
fences may be modified by using wooden posts
sharpened

Fig. 132, TEMPOBABY IEON FENCE.

at the lower end, and driven into the ground, then fas-

tening to them with suitable staples strips of rather

broad hoop iron at the top, with plain wire below.

CHAPTER IX.

FENCES FOR STREAMS AND GULLIES.

FLOOD FENCES.

In a situation where a line of fence crosses a stream or

a gully liable to be flooded, it is necessary to make special
provision for it. A fence extending down near the sur-
face and sufficiently rigid to withstand the current,
would arrest the drift wood and other objects floated
down on the flood, and soon become a dam. The right
kind of a fence must therefore yield to the force
of the flood, and renew its position, or be easily re-
86 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

placed after it has subsided. Figure 133 is a very ef-

fectual flood-gate for a running stream. The posts, B, B,
are firmly set on the bank, and a stick of timber, A, mor-

Fig. 133. STBONG FLOOD-GATE.

tised on the top of them. The three uprights, 0, C, C,

are hinged to the cross-timber, and the boards, F, fas-
tened in place by tenpenny steel fence nails. The gate
easily swings with the current, D. Figure 134 shows a
form which operates in a similar manner like the other.

Fig. 134. A CHEAPER FLOOD-GATE.

two stout posts, five feet high, bearing a

It consists of

heavy cross-bar, rounded at each end, and fitted into

 FENCES FOR STREAMS A^D GULLIES. 87

sockets, in -which the bar with gate attached can swing.

The construction of the gate is easily seen from the
engraving.
The above forms are .self-acting, and swing back to
their places as the water subsides. For larger streams,
it is
necessary to construct fences that give way before
the flood, and can be brought into position again when it
is over. One of these, for a stream which is liable to
bring down much drift wood, is shown in figure 135.

Fig. 135. FENCE FOB A FOREST STREAM.

The logs are the tranks of straight trees, about eighteen

inches in diameter, which are hewed on two sides ; posts
are mortised in each of these logs, and on them planks
are firmly nailed. The logs are then linked together
with inch iron rods, and the first one connected by means
of a long link to a tree or 'post firmly set in the ground

upon the banks of the stream. The links must all work
freely. When high water occurs, the fence is washed
around and lefton the bank ; after the water has sub-
sided sufficiently, the logs may be dragged back to their
places, as shown in the engraving, by means of a horse,
88 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

hitched to a staple in the end of the log. Figure 136

shows a lighter fence made of poles or rails, held by in-
terlinking staples to the posts on the side of the stream.
As the floods come down, the rails are washed from the

Fig. 136. FENCE OF MOVABLE BAILS.

center, and float freely at either side of the stream. They

can be laid up in place again when the water subsides.
The fence shown in figure 137, though rather rude and
primitive, has the advantage of being cheaply con-
structed and permanent. Two strong posts are driven into
the banks on the margin of the stream, to which a log,
a foot or more in diameter, is fastened by pins, spikes or
withes, about twenty inches above low water mark. Then

. 137. AN EXTEMPORISED FLOOD-FENCE.

fence rails are sharpened at one end, driven into the

stream above the log, upon which the other ends rest,
projecting about a foot. They are then securely spiked
or pinned to the log, and the work is done. The pointed
 PEACES FOB STREAMS AXD GULLIES. 89

ends of the rails are up the stream, and in case of flood,

the water pours over the obstruction, .carrying with it
brush, driftwood, etc.
The flood-gate, figure 138, is designed to prevent small
stock from passing from one field to another through a
water-course under a fence where there islow water,
while in time of high water the gate will ris^tufficiently

Fig. 138. AUTOMATIC FLOOD-GATE.

to allow the floating trash to pass through, but not

higher, as it is
self-fastening. The invention con-
sists of a gate constructed of perpendicular slats hinged

above, and moving. This hangs across a stream or ditch.

On the down-stream side of the gate a swing paddle is
fixed, which hangs in the water. This, marked a in the
illustration, is attached to an angular bar, 5, which is

moved when the flow of water presses with force against

the paddle. Two notched pieces, c c, attached to the
gate, rest upon the angular bar, b, at low water; when
both the paddle and the gate hang at rest, perpendicu-
larly, these notched pieces, c, hold the gate firmly shut;
c,

when, however, the water rises and the paddle is moved

90 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

sufficiently to disengage the notches, the gate will be

moved by the force of the water, and if sticks or rubbish
of any kind float down against it they will be swept
under it by the water. When the water subsides, the
paddle swings back, the pieces, c c, catch and keep the
gate closed at any height it may fall to. Let the cross-
piece, d, tl&t is halved into the posts, be about one foot
above the banks of the ditch. The pieces, ////, repre-
sent the fence above the ditch, the small posts, g g, with
the pieces nailed to them, are to prevent the stock from
passing when the gate is partly closed, at the same time
bracing the posts, e e; the holes at h are to raise and
lower the paddle a; if small, a cleat on one of the arms
upon which the piece B
is hung, prevents the paddle

from swinging towards the gate.

Figure 139 shows a kind of fence used in Missouri
to put across sloughs. It is in effect two panels of

Fig. 139. A MIS8OUBI FLOOD-FENCE.

portable fence. posts are .set three to four feet

The
deep, with the tops about one foot above ground ; the
other posts, to which the planks are nailed, are bolted
 FENCES FOR STBEAMS AND GULLIES. 91

to the top of the inserted posts. The ends of the panel

that connect with the post on the bank are slightly nailed
with cross-strips near the top, so as to be easily broken
loose when the flood comes. There are also temporary
braces bearing upstream, put in to prevent the fence
from falling, but are easily washed out, when the fence
falls downstream, and logs and other obstructions pass
by readily. As soon as. the flood goes down, the fence is
easily raised, a panel at a time, to a proper place.
Figure 140 shows a cheap and effective form of flood
fence. The material used are square-hewn timbers, seven

Fig. 140. FBESHBT FENCE.

or eight inches for sills, stone pillars, split rails about ten
feet long. The rails are driven in the ground about two
feet deep ;
the upper ends project above the sill two or
three feet, and are spiked down to the sill with large
spikes ; when the freshet comes, logs and drift-wood are
carried over, and the fence will be left in as good order
as before the high water.

Figure 141 represents a gulch fence or gate which is

in common use in some parts of the Pacific Slope. It

Fig. 141. CALIFORNIA GULCH FENCE.

is particularly adapted to the gulches of the foot hills

and the irrigating ditches of the plains. The whole
92 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

gate swings freely by the upper pole, tlie ends of which

rest in large holes in posts on either bank, or in the cross
of stakes. The upright pieces may be of split pickets
or sawed lumber, as may be the most convenient. If
the stream is likely to carry floating brush, logs, etc., the
slats should be of heavier material than is necessary \vhen
this is not the case. "When constructed properly the gate
will give, allowing rubbish and freshets to pass, and then
resume its proper position. The principal advantage
claimed for this gate is that it is not apt to gather the
passing debris.
A gully is sometimes difficult to fence properly, but
by hanging a frame over it, as is seen in figure 142,

Fig. 143. FENCE FOB A DBT GULLY.

the object may be quickly accomplished. The frame can

be spiked together in a short time, or framed together if
a more elaborate one is desired. To make it serve its
purpose completely, the rails must be closer together
near the bottom than at the top of the frame, in order to
prevent small animals from going through it.
A modification of this last named device, seen at fig-
ure 143, gives greater space for the passage of brush wood
or other large objects, which may be swept down on the
flood. The width, strength and size of the bases sup-
porting the side posts, and of the braces, will depend
upon the width and depth of the channel. The base
 FEHCES FOR STREAMS AND GULLIES. 93

pieces can te firmly anchored by stakes driven slanting

over the ends and outsides, or by stones piled on. For
wide, shallow streams, three or even more braced up-
rights can be anchored eight or ten feet apart in the bed
with heavy stones, with two or more swinging sections.

Fig. 143. A FRESHET FENCE.

If small trees or long timbers are likely to float down,

the swinging gate may be twelve or fifteen feet wide.
For smaller streams, with strong high banks, five or six
feet will suffice.

PORTABLE TIDE FENCE.

Figure 144 represents a fence for tide-creeks. It is

made usually of pine, the larger pieces, those which lie

Fig. 144. SECTION OF A TIDE FENCE.

94 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES.

on the ground and parallel with the run of the fence,

are threeby four-inch pieces, hemlock or pine, and con-
nected by three cross-bars, of three by four-inch pieces,
mortised in three feet apart. Into the middle of these
three cross-pieces, the upright or posts are securely
mortised, while two common boards are nailed under-
neath the long pieces, to afford a better rest for the struc-
when floating on the water or resting on the ground.
ture,
Barbed or plain wires are stretched along the posts,
which are four feet high.

WATEBTNG PLACE IN A CEEEK.

Cattle naturally select a certain place in a water-course

to drink at, where the bank is not precipitous. During
a good part of the year this bank is muddy, on account

Fig. 145. A CLEAN WATERING PLACE.

of its moisture and tramplingof the animals. As a re-

sult,the horses get the scratches, the cows come to the
milking pen with muddy udders, and frequently animals
are injured by the crowding in the mud. Hogs are often
seriously injured, because the mud becomes so deep and
tough, that they are well nigh helpless in it. Another
objectionis that the animals wade to the middle of the

creek,and soon make its bottom as muddy as the bank,

and the water becomes unfit for drinking. The arrange-
ment shown in our illustration, which may be built of
heavy plank, brick, or flat stones, prevents all this. It
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 5

is constructed by first making an incline to a level plat-

form for the animals to stand on while drinking. This

plane terminates in an abrupt descent, forming a trough
for the water to flow through. The trough should not
be more than two feet wide, that the animals may easily
get across it. The level floor permits the animals to
drink at their ease, often a matter of importance. Such
a drinking place should be made at the upper end, of the
creek, where it passes through a field to prevent the ani-
mals from soiling the water by standing in it above where
they drink.

CHAPTER X.

MAKING AND SETTING POSTS.

MAKING FENCE POSTS.

There is quite an art in splitting logs into posts.

Every post should have some heart wood, which lasts the
longer, for two reasons That there may be durable
:

wood into which to drive the nails, and without it some

of the posts, composed entirely of sap-wood, will rot
off long before others, making the most annoying of
all repairing necessary. If the log is of a size to make
twelve posts, split along the lines of figure 146, which will
give each post a share of heart wood. This will make a
cross section .of the posts triangular, the curved base be-

ing somewhat more than half of either side. This is a

fairly well shaped post, and much better than a square one
having little or no heart wood. Although the log may
be large enough to make sixteen or eighteen posts, it is
better to split it the same way. It should first be cut
into halves, then quarters, then twelfths. If it is at-
96 fEXCES, GATES AKD BRIDGES.

tempted to split one post off the side of a half, the wood
will "draw out," making the post larger at one end than
the other not a good shape, for there will be little heart
wood at the small end. When the log is too large to ad-
mit of being split in that way, each post may never-
it

theless be given enough heart wood by splitting along the

Fig. 146. Fig. 147.

lines, shown First cut the logs into halves,

in figure 147.
then quarters, then eighths. Then split off the edge of
each eighth, enough for a post about one-fourth only
of the wood, as it is all heart wood, and then halve the
balance. A
good post can be taken off the edge, and yet
enough heart wood for the remaining two posts remain.

A POST HOLDEE.
A
simple arrangement for holding a post while it is
being bored or mortised, is shown in figure 148. It con-

Fig. 148. A POST HOLDEB.

sists oftwo long pieces of round or square timber, lying

parallel upon the ground, and two shorter sticks resting
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 97

upon them at right angles. The upper pieces have sad-

dles cut out for the posts to fit into. A
staple with a
large iron hook or "dog," is fastened into one end of
each cross-piece, as shown in the engraving. When the
post is laid in position, the hooks are driven into it
holding it firmly.

DRIVING FENCE POSTS BY HAND.

Where the soil is soft, loose, and free from stone, posts
may be driven more easily and firmly than if set in holes

Fig. 149. DRIVING PENCE POSTS.

dug for the purpose. An easy method of driving is shown

in figure 149. A
wagon is loaded with posts and fur-
nished with a stage in the rear end of the box, upon
which a person can stand to give the posts the first start.
Another man holds the posts upright while they are
98 FENCES, GATES AKD BRIDGES.

driven. When one post is driven to its place, the wagon

is moved to the next place, and this operation repeated.
To drive posts, a wooden maul should be used. This
is made of a section of an elm trunk or branch, eight or
nine inches in diameter, figure 150. An iron ring is driven
on each end, and wedged all around, the wood at the
edge being beaten down over the rings with a hammer or
the poll of an axe. To prevent
the posts from splitting
or being battered much, the ends of the maul
too
should be hollowed a little, and never rounded out, and

Fig. 150. MAUL FOB DRIVING POSTS.

the ends of the posts should be beveled all around. The

hole in the maul for the handle should be made larger
on one side, and lengthwise of the maul, and the han-
dle spread by two wedges driven in such a way as not
to split the maul.

TO DEIVE POSTS WITHOUT SPLITTING.

Posts are very liable to split in driving, unless some

precaution is used. This damage and loss can be avoided
in a great measure by proper preparation of the posts be-
fore they are driven. The tops of sawed posts should
have the sides cut off, as in figure 151, or simply cut off
each corner, as in figure 153, while a round post should
be shaped as in figure 152. The part of the post re-
moved need not be more than half an inch in thickness,
but when the corners only are cut away, the chip should
be thicker. In driving, it is very important to strike the
post squarely on the top, and not at one corner or
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 99

side. In most
soils at the North, the frosts heave posts
mere or each season, and they need to be driven
less
down to the usual depth. To do this with little in-
jury to the post, the device shown in figure 154 may

Fig. 151. 152. Fig. 153.

be used. It is a piece oftough hard wood scantling, e,

eighteen inches in length, with tapering ends. It is
provided with a handle, h, three feet in length, of quite
small size, and if possible, of green timber. In using it,
let one person (a boy will do) lay the bit of scantling on

top of the post to be re-driven, when, with the beetle or

Fig. 154. SCANTLING WITH HANDLE IN POSITION.

sledge, the scantling, instead of the post is struck, thus

preventing the splitting of the post. When the top of a
fence is surmounted by a stringer, as in the engraving,
the effect of the blow is distributed over a large space,
100 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

and both stringer and post escape injury. The attend-

ant should keep hold of the handle, h, while the posts
are being driven, and move the scantling from post to

post as required.

A POWERFUL POST DRIVER.

For a farmer who has a large number of posts to set, a
special apparatus for driving them will be found useful.

Fig. 155. THE POST-DRIVER.

The accompanying illustrations show a machine of this

kind. An axle, figure 155, of hard wood, eight and
,

one-half feet long ; a hickory sapling will do. It has

spindles shaved to fit the hind wheels of a wagon, which

are fastened by linch-pins, leaving about six feet space be-
tween the hubs. A coupling-pole, b, thirteen feet long,
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 101

isframed in and strongly braced at right angles with the

axle,and connects in front with the forward axle of a
common wagon. The main sill, d, figure 156, is one
stick of timber, sixby eight inches, by fourteen feet long
and has a cross-piece, e, framed in the end. Two
side-pieces, f, two by four inches by five feet long, are
pinned or bolted to the main sill at g, and cross-pieces
framed into them, as shown in figure 156, so framed that
the lower edges of the side-pieces will be two inches from
the axle, when the main sill rests on the axle. The side-
pieces, /, should be twenty-two inches apart at the ends.
The front end of the main sill rests on the front axle, in
place of a bolster, and the "king-bolt" passes through it
at li the upright guides, i, are two by four inches by
fourteen feet long, bolted to the side-pieces, /, with a
space of fourteen inches between ; a cap, /, two by three
by twenty-six inches long, is framed on top. Two braces,
&, two by four inches by sixteen feet long, are bolted to
the upright guides, two feet below the cap, and connect at
the bottom with a cross-piece, I, two by eight by twenty-
two inches long, between the braces. It has rounded
ends passing through two-inch holes in the braces, and
fastened by a pin outside, to form a loose joint. This
cross-piece, I, is held down on the main sill by a strip, m,
and steadied by cleats; it is free to slide back or forward,
and is held in place by a short pin. By moving this
cross-piece, the upright guides, i, are kept perpendicular
when going up or down hill. A small windlass, o, figure
155, is placed under the axle, a, between hangers framed
into the axle, close to the hubs. Two brace-ropes, or
wires, p, are fastened to this windlass at the extreme
ends, and wound around it a turn or two in opposite di-
rections, drawn tight and fastened to the main braces near
the top. By turning the windlass, o, slightly, by means
of a short bar, the machine may lean to either side, to con-
form to sliding ground, thus being adjustable in all di-
102 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

rections. The maul, r, figure 157, of tough oak, fourteen

by eighteen inches, by two feet long, weighs about two
hundred pounds, is grooved to fit smoothly between the
guides ;
the follower, s, is more plainly shown in the en-
graving, also the simple latch, by which the follower and
maul are connected and disconnected. The square clev-
is, t, is of three-quarter inch iron, suspended from the

Fig. 156. BOTTOM OF DRIVES. Fig. 157. TOP OF UPRIGHT.

same iron pin, u, on which the pulley, v, is placed. It

is partly imbedded in the wooden casing, w, which is

eight by eighteen inches ; this casing serves to inclose

the pulley, v, and also to trip the latch when brought to-
gether ; the clevis, t, is caught under the hook fastened
in the maul, is pressed into place by a small
hickory
spring, y, acting on a small iron pin, z ; when it reaches
the top, the crotch, 1, suspended from the top, comes
in contact with the pin, 2, and the clevis, t, is pressed
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 103

back, and releases the hook, x, when the maul

drops.
The windlass, 3, figure 155, has two
cranks, and a
ratchet for convenience. The rope passes from the wind-
lass over the pulley at the top, down and under the pul-

ley, v, then up, and is fastened at 7 , on the cap, j,

wire braces at 8. By releasing the cranks and ratchet,
the follower will run down the guides, and, striking the
" click" the latch into
maul, will place, ready for an-
other hoist. For two men it is easy work, and can be
handled quite rapidly. Drive astride the proposed line
of fence ; lay a measuring-pole on the ground to mark
the spot for the next post ; drive forward with the post-
driver, having the maul partly raised, set up a post, and
proceed to drive it.

SETTING A GATE POST.

No matter how strong or how well braced a gate may

be, it will soon begin to sag and catch on the ground, if

Fig. 158. A GATE POST SET IN CEMENT.

the gate post is not firmly planted. Sometimes, owing

to the soft nature of the
ground, it is almost impossible
104 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES.

to plant the post firmly, but in such cases the work can
generally be done satisfactorily by packing medium-sized
stones around the post, in the hole, as shown in figure
158. If it is thought that this will not insure suffi-
cient firmness, add good cement. Place in a layer of
stones, then cement enough to imbed the next layer of
stones, and so on, until the hole is full and the post

planted. Do not cover up the stones with earth or dis-

turb the post for a few days, until the cement has "set."
Eemember that the post must be set plumb while the
work is going on, as it can never be straightened after
the cement has "set." Only durable posts should be
used, and this method of setting should only be followed
with gate posts which are supposed to be permanent, and
not with posts liable to be changed.
A still better method is shown in figure 159. Before
the post is set into the hole, a flat stone is laid edgewise

Fig. 159. GATE POST BEACED WITH STONES.

in the bottom, on the side which is to receive the great-

est pressure from the foot of the post. When the post is
set, and the hole half filled with earth, a second stone is

placed against the post on the side to which it will be

drawn by the weight of the gate. The stones receive
the pressure and hold the post firmly in position.
 MA.KIXG AX1) SETTING POSTS. 105

FENCE POSTS FOR WET LANDS.

Low meadow and other marsh land is subject to
heaving by the frost, and much difficulty is
experienced
in securing firm fences upon such ground, as the posts
are drawn up by the freezing of the surface. To avoid
this, much may be done in the way of selecting posts that

Fig. 160. DIFFERENT METHODS OF TREATING POSTS.

are larger at one end than the other. It will help very
much to put a strong, durable pin through the bottom
end of the post, or to notch it at each side, as in figure 160,
and to brace the bottom with a flat stone, driven well
into the side of the hole with the When the
rammer.
very soft and mucky, it is best to drive the posts
soil is

and to make them hold well in the ground, to spike

wedge-shaped pieces to them on either side, by which
they are held firmly in their places.

LIVE POSTS.
A which stands in the right
living tree place, makes a
very durable and substantial fence-post. In the great
106 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

treeless regions of the Mississippi Valley, where it is dif-

ficult to obtain not an unusual prac-

timber for posts, it is

tice to plant trees for the purpose on street boundaries,

and other places where the fence is to be permanent.
White willow is well adapted for the purpose on suitable
soils, as it grows rapidly and bears close pruning. In
situations where the soil is even moderately damp, white
willow posts, four inches in diameter, cut green and set

Fig. 161. Fig. 162.

in spring, will take root and grow. The new branches

soon form a bushy head, which may be cut back from
time to time. It is not advisable to nail boards or drive
staples directly into the tree. With a board fence, the
swaying of the tree loosens the nails, and if barbed wire
is stapled to the tree, the bark and wood will in time

grow over them as in figure 161. To obviate this, a

stick is nailed to the tree as in figure 162, and to this the
fence is attached. A
still better method is to secure the
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 107

strip of wood to the tree by two or three pairs of inter-

locking staples.

MENDING A SPLIT POST.

Fence posts split from a variety of causes, and when

they are in this condition they make a very insecure

Fig. 163. MENDIXG A SPLIT POST.

fence. The usual way is to merely nail an old horseshoe

or two across the split part, just below the holes in the
posts. This answers fairly well, but does not draw the
cleft together, and horseshoes are not always on hand.
A better method of doing this is shown in figure
163. A short, stout chain is put around the top of the

post, just tight enough to admit of a strong lever. The

parts of the posts are then brought together by a heavy
downward pressure of the lever and held there, while a
strip of good tin, such as can be cut from the bodies of
tin cans, is put around and securely nailed. If the post
108 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

is a heavy one and the cleft large, it is well to take the

entire body of a can and double it, to give it additional
strength before nailing it on. The dotted lines show
where the tin is nailed.

HOOK FOR WIRING POSTS.

Figure 164 shows a modified cant-hook for drawing to-

gether the upper extremeties of fence stakes that are to be

Fig. 164. A STAKE DBA WEB USED IN WIRING FENCES.

wired, as in the engraving. The half-moon shaped iron,

a, is riveted fast to the top end of the lever, and is to pre-
vent the end of the lever from slipping off the stake when
in use. The second iron from the top, b, is twenty-five
inches long, with two hooks at the end, though one will
do ;
this is to catch the stake on the opposite side of the
fence. This iron is fastened in the lever by a bolt in a
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 109

long mortise, in the same way, as the hook in an ordinary

cant-hook. The iron rod, c, has a hole in one end, and
is drawn out to a point at the other this is fastened to
the lever by a bolt in a long mortise, and serves to catch
in the stake or rail, and hold the stakes together, while
the man adjusts the iron around the stakes. When the
stakes are drawn tightly to the fence, this rod is drawn
up until it strikes^he stake or one of the rails, when the
man can let go of the "drawer," and it holds itself. The
lever is four feet and three inches long, and two inches

square, with the corners taken off part of the way down,
the lower end being rounded for a handle, as shown in
the engraving.

DRAWING FENCE POSTS.

Figure 165 shows a practicable method of drawing

out fence posts by the aid of an ox team. A stout piece

Fig. 165. DBAWING FENCE POSTS.

" foot"
is placed under the
of timber with a large flat
chain to change the direction of the draft. Two men
and a steady yoke of oxen can extract fence posts very
110 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

quickly and easily by this method. A good steady team

of horses will do quite as well as oxen.

LIFTING POSTS BY HAND.

A convenient and sensible implement, for taking up

fence posts without the aid of a team, is shown at figure
166. It consists of a stout pole of the size and shape of

Fig. 166. A CCWrVKMEXT POST LEFTEB.

a wagon tongue. The thicker part of this pole, for about

fifteen inches from the end, is shaped into a wedge.
This is sheathed with a frame made of iron, half an inch
thick and two and a half inches wide, and securely fast-
ened with screws or bolts. The end should be pointed
and slightly bent upwards. The manner of using this
convenient implement is shown in the illustration.
Frequently a farmer has occasion to lift posts, and has
not time to wait for the construction of an iron-shod lev-
er. Figure 167 shows a very simple, inexpensive con-
trivance for such cases. A spadeful of earth is taken
from each side of the post, and a short, strong chain
loosely fastened around the lower end of the post, as far
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. Ill

down as it can be placed. A strong lever a stout rail

will answer the purpose is passed through the chain, as
shown end of the rail catches
in the engraving, until the
firm soil. end of the lever the
By lifting at the other
post is raised several inches, when both chain and lever
are pushed down again for a second hold, which general -

Fig. 167. LIFTING A POST.

ly brings the post out. The chain is furnished with a

stout hook at one end, made to fit the links, so that it
can be quickly adjusted to any ordinary post.

SPLICING FENCE POSTS.

There are places, as crossing over gullies, etc., where

unusually long posts are desirable, though not always
easy to obtain. In such cases properly spliced posts
are almost as durable as entire ones. The engraving of
the front and side views, figure 168, shows how the
splice may be made to secure strength and durability.
The splices should be made with a shoulder at the lower
112 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

end, and well nailed together, after which one or two

bands of hoop-iron may be passed around the splice and

Fig. 168. SPLICING FE^CE POSTS.

securely fastened. The hoop-iron band is one of the

most important points in a splice of this kind.

APPLICATION OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES.

To prevent decay at the center, as well as of all that

part of the post placed below ground, by use of wood
preserving solutions, the following system is both novel
and valuable : It is to have a hole in the center of the

post, from the bottom upward, to a point that shall be

above the ground when the post is in position. Then
bore another hole in the side of the post with a slight in-
clination downward, making an opening in the center
hole, as shown in figure 169. A
wooden plug, two
or three inches long, should be driven snugly into the
hole at the bottom of the post, in order to prevent the
escape of any liquid that may be used in the operation.
"When the posts are set in an upright position, a preserv-
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 113

ative solution may be introduced into the hole in' the

sideand the centre one filled with it, after which a cork
plug of some kind should be inserted in the side hole, to

prevent evaporation, as well as to keep out dust and in-

sects. The solutions thus introduced will gradually be
absorbed by the surrounding wood, until all parts along
the entire length of the central cavity must become com-
pletely saturated. When the solutions used have been
taken up by the surrounding wood, it will only be nec-

Fig. 169. SECTIONAL VIEW OF BOBED POST.

essary to withdraw the cork or plug, and apply more, if

it is thought desirable. A common watering pot with a
slender spout will be a handy vessel to use in distribut-

ing the solutions.

Petroleum, creosote, corrosive sublimate, or any other
of the well known wood preservatives may be used in
this way. Telegraph posts might be prepared in the
same way, and if the central reservoirs were
kept filled
with petroleum, they would last a hundred years or more.
Where a large number of posts or poles are to be pre-
pared, it would be cheaper to have the holes bored by
steam or horse power than by hand. With very open
114 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

and porous wood it is quite probable that a hole bored in

the side of the post and above the ground, and deep
enough to hold a half pint or more of creosote or some
other similar solution, would answer, but a central cav-
ity reaching to the bottom, would perhaps, be best.

IRON FENCE POSTS.

The advent of wire fences was followed by a call for

posts in the prairie regions, where timber is scarce. Sey-

Fig. 170. POST. Fig. 171. DISC.

eral forms of iron posts have been devised, of which the

leading ones are illustrated herewith. Figure 170 is of
iron, one quarter of an inch thick and two and a half
inches wide, rolled to a curve and pierced at the proper
intervals for the staples, which are to be clinched on the
concave side. The disc, figure 171, is swedged out of one
fourth inch iron. It is sunken a little below the ground,
and the post driven through the curved opening, into
 MAKING AND SETTING POSTS. 115

which it fits
closely. Figure 172 is a flat iron bar, with
slots cut diagonally into one side to receive the wire.
The postsupported by two tiles A\ ith holes to fit the
is

post, which
is thrust through them.

Figure 173 is made of angle iron braced at the surface

of the ground, with an angular iron plate rolled for the

purpose, and driven to its place. Figure 174 shows an

Fig. 172. POST WITH TILES. Fig. 173.

iron post, with the ground-piece and driving tube to the

left of it. The post is a round iron bar or tube, with
notches for the wires, which are held in place with short
pieces of binding-wire, wound around the post. The
ground piece, which is shown in the middle of the en-
graving, is of cast iron, eleven inches long, and five inches
across the top, with two loops for inserting the iron post.
This is driven into the ground, and the iron post driven
through it. At the left of the engraving is shown the
device for driving the post. It is a piece of common

gas-pipe, just large enough to slip easily over the top of

the post, and provided on the top with an iron cap to
receive the blow of the large hammer or maul used in

driving. Figure 175 shows a cast iron ground piece, and

at the right is the lower end of a post resting in one of
11 G FENCES, GATES AND BBIDGES.

them. The three flanges are cast in one solid piece,

with a hole through the centre of any desired form and

Fig. 174. POST WITH IBON GROTTND PIECE.

size. The wings or flanges are three inch plates, running

to sharp edges on the bottom, so that they can easily be
driven into the ground. They may be of any desired
size, larger sizes being required for a light yielding soil

Fig. 175. CAST-IKON GKOUm>-PIECE.

than for a stiff one. Figure 176 is an iron post on a

wooden base, for situations where the ground is soft and
wet. The base is preferably of cedar, three to four feet
long, four inches thick, and four to six inches wide. It
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 11?

is to be sunken in the ground cross-wise with the line of

fence. The post is of iron, set and stapled into the end-
piece, as shown in the engraving. Before being put in
place, the whole is saturated with hot coal tar, as a pre-
servative. There is less call for iron posts than was an-

Fig. 176.

ticipated when wire fences first came into general use.

It is found that wooden posts can be delivered in any lo-
cation reached by railway at less cost than iron posts.

CHAPTER XI.
GATES AND FASTENINGS.

WOODEN GATES.

As board and picket fences have gradually replaced

rail and other primitive fences, useful but inconvenient
" bars" have
begun to disappear, and tidy gates are seen.
The saving in time required to take down and put up
bars, rather than open and close gates, amounts to a
good deal. A good wooden gate will last a long time.
Gate-ways should be at least fourteen feet wide. All the
wood used in the construction of the gate should be well
seasoned. It is best to plane all the wood-work, though
this is not absolutely necessary. Cover each tenon with
118 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES.

thick paint before it is placed in its mortise. Fasten the

brace to the cross-piece with small bolts or wrought nails
well clinched. Mortise the ends of the boards into the
end posts, and secure them in place with wooden pins
wedged at both ends, or iron bolts. The best are made
1

of pine fence-boards six inches wide ; the ends should be

Fig. 177. Fig. 178.

four by twenty-four inch scantling, although the one at

the latch may be lighter. Five cross-pieces are enough.
The lighter f he gate in proportion to strength, the better
it is. There is but one right way to brace a gate, and
many wrong The object of bracing is to strengthen
ones.
the gate, and also to prevent its sagging. Gates sag in
two ways ; by the moving to the one side of the posts

Fig. 179. Fig. 180.

upon which the gates are hung, and the settling of the
gates themselves. Unless braced the only thing to hold
the gate square is the perfect rigidity of the tenons in the
mortises ;
but the weight of the gate will loosen these,
and allow the end of the gate opposite the hinges to sag.
It is plain thai a brace placed like that shown in figure 177
will not prevent this settling down. The only opposition
it can give is the resistance of the nails, and these will
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 119

draw loose in the holes as readily as the tenons in the

mortises. A
brace set as shown at figure 178 is not much
better, as the resistance must depend upon the rigidity
of the upright piece in the middle, and the bolts or nails

holding it will give way enough to allow the gate to sag.

Fig. 181. Fig. 183.

The method shown in figure 179 is fully as faulty, while

the form shown in figure 180 is even worse. It seems
strange that any one should brace a gate in these ways,
but it is quite frequently seen attempted. The
only
right way to brace agate is shown in figure 181. The gate
may be further strengthened as shown in figure 182. Be-
fore the gate can sag, the brace must be shortened ; for

Fig. 183. Fig. 184.

as the gate settles, the points a and b must come closer

together, and this the brace effectually prevents.

The posts should be set in such a way that they will
not be pulled to one side and allow the gate to sag. The
post should be put below the line of frost, or else it
will be heaved out of position three feet in the
;

ground is none too deep. Have a large post and

120 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

make a big hole for it. Be careful to set the post plumb
and stamp the earth firmly in the hole it cannot be
stamped .too hard. While stamping, keep walking
around the post, so that the earth will be firmed on all
sides. Blocks may be arranged as shown in figure 183 ;

Fig. 185. Fig. 186.

but this is not really necessary, when the posts have

been rightly set, although it may be advisable to take
this further precaution.
To remove the pulling weight of the gate when closed,
the swinging end may rest upon a block ; or a pin in-

JJi

Fig. 187. Fig. 188.

serted in the end piece of the gate may rest in a slot

sawed in the post, or on a shoulder of the post. Figure
184 shows one end of a combination of two plans the
iron rod from near the top of the high post holds the gate
while the strain upon the post is lessened by the oppo-
site end of the closed gate being supported on the other

post.
 GATES AND FASTENIXGS. 121

For hanging the gate the best hinges are doubtless

those shown in figure 185. One part passes through
the end-piece of the gate, and is secured by a nut on the
end. The other piece is heated and driven into the post,
following the path of a small augur-hole. Next to this
comes the strap hinge, which should be fastened with
bolts or screws. Three easy, cheap ways of support-
ing the gate are shown in figures 186, 187, and 188. In
figure 186, a stout band of wood, or one of iron, may
be used in place of the chain. And in place of the stool
for the reception of the lower end of the end-piece, a
block resting on the ground, or"a shoulder on the post,
may be substituted. The mode shown in figure 187 is
common in the West. Its construction needs no explan-
ation. By sliding the gate back until it almost balances
it may be carried around with ease. In figure 188, the
fastening, or latch, must be so arranged as to hold the
lower part of the gate in position. The box of stone ren-
ders it easier to move the gate. A heavy block of wood
serves the same purpose.

A VERY SUBSTANTIAL FARM GATE.

Figure 189 shows a gate which combines great dura-

bility with much rustic beauty. The cedar posts, A A,
should be four feet in the ground, and at least ten feet
out of the ground. B represents a piece of 2 by 6 hard
pine, into which the posts are mortised. C is a 4 by 4
clear pine, turned at both ends and mortised as shown in

figure 191. D EF are 1 by 4 pine strips. G is a 1 by 6 pine

strip, a sectional view being given in figure 190. It is best
to use one piece each of D and E, letting F come between
them, as it gives more stiffness to the gate. His a block
of cedar with a hole bored or dug large enough to receive
the post, C, and to make it more lasting, a small hole
122 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

should be bored through the block, so as to let whatever

water collects in it pass away; the block should not be
less than eighteen inches long four inches above ground.
/ shows wire fence connected. J is a strong wire carried

Fig. 189. A SUBSTANTIAL GATE. Fig. 190. Fig. 191.

and secured to the bottom of the first fence post. KK

are cleats attached to posts to keep them more firmly in
the ground. L
are stones for posts, A
A, to stand on.
M shows the hinge, made so as to take up the sag after
the gate settles, and as the wood wears out.

A STRONG AND NEAT GATE.

The posts, a, a, figure 192, of oak or other durable wood,

are eight inches square, and stand five and one half feet
above the ground. The posts, b, b, three and one third
inches thick, four and three quarter feet long, are mor-
tised to receive the slats, c, c, which are of inch stuff,
three inches wide and ten feet four and three-quarter-
inches long. They are let into posts, b, b, at the dis-
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 123

tance marked in the engraving. The slats, d, are three

inches wide, and one inch thick, and are placed opposite
each other on front and back of the gate as braces ; e, e,
are simply battens to make a straight surface for the

hinges, /, /; all except the upper and lower ones are

very short and carried back to the post. The hinges,
made by a blacksmith from an old wagon tire, are one
and one-half inch wide, three-sixteenth inch thick, and
are fastened by light iron bolts through the battens at e,
and to the rear post.

Fig. 192. A WELL-MADE GATE.

The above describes a cheap, light, durable gate, which

in over twenty-three years' use has never sagged, though
standing in the thoroughfare of three farms, and also, for
years past, used for access to a sawmill. It is made of
the best pine. The hinge is an important point. It is
not only cheap and easily made, but acts as a brace for
the gate at every point, and thus permits the gate to be
lightly made. With this hinge sagging is impossible. A
gate of this kind will rot down first.

LIGHT IRON GATES.

The gate shown in figure 193 may be made of wrought

iron an inch and a half wide and half an inch thick, or
124 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES.

preferably of iron gas-pipe of any diameter from half an

inch to an inch. In the vicinity of the oil-regions, pipe
can be bought very cheaply, which is in condition good

Fig. 193. A LIGHT IKON GATE.

enough for this purpose. For guarding against hogs, it

should be hung near the ground, and have one or two
more horizontal pipes near the bottom.
Figure 194 shows the construction of a gate intended
for situations much exposed to trespassers. It is made

Fig. 194. A WROUGHT IKON GATE.

of upright strips of flat iron, pointed at the top, and

fastened by rivets to a stout frame-work of iron. The
"pickets" are placed two to three inches apart, as de-
sired, for the appearance of the gate, or according to the
size of the poultry or animals to be kept from passing.
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 125

SELF-CLOSING GATES.

Every self-closing gate should be provided with a drop

or spring catch, a suitable bevel for it to strike against
and notch to hold it. Gates opening into the garden or
out upon the street, should be so hung that they will
swing either way. Figure 195 shows a hinge and slide for
such a gate. In opening the gate from either side, the
arm of the upper hinge slides upon the iron bar, raising
the gate a little as it swings around. When loosed, it

Fig. 195. HINGE AXD SLIDE FOR GATE. Fig. 196.

slides down without help, and closes by its own weight.

Figure 196 shows another form of the iron slide, suitable
for a wide gate post, and more ornamental than the plain
slide in figure 195.

Figure 1 97 shows a very good and common hanging.

The upper hinge consists of a hook in the post and a

corresponding eye in the hinge-stile of the gate. The

lower hinge is made of two semi-circular pieces of iron,
each with a shank, one of which is shown above the gate
126 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

in the engraving. They are made to play one into the

other. This style of hanging may be used on any ordi-

Fig. 197.

nary kind of gate, but is specially useful for a small

street gateopening into a door-yard.
There is a style of gate for foot-paths, which is not un-
common, that keeps itself always closed and latched, by
means of a single upper and double lower hinge, which

Fig. 198. SELF-CLOSING FAKM GATE.

are to be obtained at most hardware stores. The lower

"
hinge has two thumbs," which are embraced by two
open sockets. When the gate is opened, it swings upon
one socket and its thumb, and being thrown off the cen-
 GATES AXD FASTEXIXGS. 127

the weight of the gate draws it back, and

ter, swinging
too, it latches. A
farm gate, entirely home-made, may
be constructed, of which figures 198 a.nd 199 show the
gate and the hinge. The gate is braced and supported by
a stay-strip, extending to the top of the upright, which
forms the upper hinge, / being attached to the top of
the gate-post, by an oak board with a smooth hole in it.
The lower hinge is separately shown at figure 199. It
consists of an oak board, c, an inch and a half thick, into

Fig. 199. LOWER HINGE OF GATE.

which the upright, e, is mortised. In this, two sockets

are cut, a foot from center to center. The sockets in
this case are three inches in diameter, and when the gate
is in place and shut, they fit against two stakes of hard-
wood (locust), two and a half inches in diameter, d,
which being curved, are nailed to the gate-post, a. A
smooth stone, laid across in front of these stakes, takes
the weight of the gate, and relieves in a measure the pres-
sure on the top of the post. The hinges mast be kept
well greased, and it is well to black-lead them also, to
prevent creaking.
128 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

GATE FOR VILLAGE LOT.

Figure 200 shows a light, strong gate made of wood and

wire. The top wire is barbed to prevent stock from
pressing against it, and beaux and belles from hanging

Fig. 200. CONVENIENT GATE.

over it. The bottom

wires are also barbed to prevent
cats, dogs, and fowls from creeping under. This gate is
cheap, may be easily constructed, and is suitable for
either front or back yard.

A CHINESE DOOR OR GATE SPRING.

Figure 201 shows the manner in which the Chinese

use a bow as a spring for closing the light doors and
gates. The bow is fastened to the gate by a cord or
chain. Another cord or chain is attached to the middle
of the bow-string by one end, and the other end is made
fast to the gate post, in such a manner that when the
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 129

gate is opened, the bow will be drawn, and its

elasticity
will serve to shut the gate when released. Our artist has

Fig. 201. CHINESE DOOB OB GATE SPBING.

shown the Chinese invention attached to a gate of Yan-

kee pattern.

LIFTING GATES.
There are various forms of gates not hung on hinges
at all, but either suspended from above to lift, and pro-

Fig. 202. GATE SHUT.

vided with counterweights, or made in the form of mov-

able panels. Figure 202 represents a gate for general use,
130 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

which is peculiarly well adapted to a region visited by

deep snows in winter. The post, firmly set, extends a
little higher than- the length of the gate. In front of
this and firmly fastened to it at bottom and top, is a
board at sufficient distance from the post for the gate to
move easily between them. An iron bolt through the
large post and the lower end of the tall, upright gate
bar, serves as a balance for the gate to turn on. A
rope attached to the bottom of the gate runs over the

Fig. 203. GATE OPEN.

pulley and has a weight of iron or stone that nearly bal-

ances the gate. The opened gate is shown in figure 203.
Figure 204 shows a gate balanced in a similar manner,
and arranged so it can be opened by a person desiring to
drive through, without leaving the vehicle. It is sus-

pended by ropes which pass over pulleys near the top of

long posts, and counterpoised by weights upon the other
ends of the ropes. Small wheels are placed in the ends
of the gate to move along the inside of the posts, and
thus reduce the friction. The gate is raised by maans of
ropes attached to the center of the upper side of the
gate, from which they pass up to pulleys in the center of
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 131

the archway, and then out along horizontal arms at right

angles to the bars which connect the tops of the posts.
By pulling on the rope, the gate, which is but a trifle
heavier than the balancing weights, is raised, and after
the vehicle has passed, the gate falls of itself. In passing

Fig. 204. A " SELF-OPENING " GATE.

in the opposite direction, another rope is pulled, when

the gate is raised as before.
Figures 206 and 207 show a gate specially designed for
snowy regions. The latch-post,figure 205, is fixed in the
ground and connected with the fence. It is an ordinary

square fence-post, to the side of which a strip of board is

nailed, with a space of an inch between the board and
the post. At the opposite extremity of the gate a heel-
post is set
slanting, as shown in figures 206 and 207. The
gate is made by
laying the five horizontal bars on a barn
floor or other level place, with one of the sloping cross-
bars under them and the other above them. Half inch
132 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

holes are bored through the three thicknesses, carriage

from below, and the nuts screwed on. The
bolts inserted

gate, thus secured at one end, is carried to the place

Fig. 305. LATCH-POST. Fig. 206. THE GATE OPEN.

where it is to remain and the other ends
of the horizon-
tal barssecured to the heel-post by similar bolts. These
should work freely in the holes. The lower bar is four

":. 207. THE GATE CLOSED.

feet long and the upper bar seven feet. To the heel of
the upper bar is hung a weight nearly heavy enough to
balance the gate, so that it may easily be swung up, as
shown in figure 206, and the weight will keep it raised.
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 133

Figures 208 and 209 illustrate a very cheap way of

making a hole through a picket fence in a place where
there is not sufficiently frequent occasion for passing, to
call for a more elaborate gate. Strips of inch board, as

Fig. 208. THE GATE IN POSITION.

wide as the the fence, and five or six feet long,

rails of

are nailed to the upper side of the rails and three pickets
are nailed to the strips. The pieces are then sawed off,
beveling, and the pickets detached from the fence-bars

Fig. 209. THE GATE OPEN.

by drawing or cutting the nails. The gate can be lifted

up and set at one side, but can not be pushed in or pulled
out. No rope or other fastening is required, besides it is
almost invisible, which is many times an advantage. The
gate, as lifted out of the fence and set on one side, is
shown in figure 209.
134 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

Figure 210 shows an improved form of this gate with-

out posts. In this case the small board strips are cut
only as long as the gate is to be made wide, and a diago-
nal cross-brace running between them, as shown in the

wuUi

Fig. 210. A SMALL GATE IX A PICKET FENCE.

engraving. The hinges are fastened to the horizontal

bars of the fence by wooden pins shown at a and b. A
piece of rope or a short wire passing over the ends of two
of the pickets serves to keep the gate securely fastened.
These openings are not designed for a regular gate, and

Fig. 211. MOVABLE PANEL.

could not be used for the passage of any vehicle, as the

horizontal bars would be in the way. For a back gate to
the garden such an opening would frequently be found
convenient and save many steps.
Figure 211 shows a lifting-gate, or rather, a movable
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 135

panel, wide enough to permit the passage of a team and

vehicle. This might be useful in places where it was
not desired to pass frequently.
Figure 212 shows another very convenient form of gate
for use in a country where the snow is deep. It is fitted

Fig. 212. A GATE NOT CLOGGED WITH SNOW.

in a strong frame, and is balanced by weights, so that it

can be easily raised. The engraving sufficiently explains
how this very useful gate is made and hung in the frame.

RUSTIC GATES.

A picturesque rustic gate is shown in figure 213. The

fence and posts are made to correspond. Its manner of
construction is clearly shown in the illustration. The
vases on the top of the posts may be omitted, unless time
can be taken to keep them properly watered.
A very neat, cheap, and strong rustic gate is shown in

figure 214. The large post and the two uprights of the
gate are of red cedar. The horizontal bars may be of
the same or other wood. The longer upright is five and
a half feet long, the shorter one four and a half feet.
136 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

The ends of the former are cut down to serve as hinges,

asshown in the engraving. Five holes are bored ihrough

. 213. ORNAMENTAL GATE.

each of the upright pieces, two inches in diameter, into

which the ends of the horizontal bars are inserted and

Fig. 211 LIGHT BUSTIC GATE.

wedged securely. For the upper hinge a piece of plank

is bored to receive the gate, and the other end reduced
 GATES ANI> FASTENINGS. 137

and driven into a hole in the post, or nailed securely to

its top. A
cedar block, into which a two-inch hole has
been bored, is partially sunk in the ground to receive the
lower end of the upright piece. A
wooden latch is in
better keeping with the gate than an iron one.

BALANCE GATES.

Figure 215 is a modernized form of a gate which has

for generations been popular in New England and the
Middle States. In the primitive method of construction,
the top bar consisted of the smoothly trimmed trunk of

Fig. 215. BALANCE GATE.

a straight young tree, with the butt end projecting like a

"heel" beyond the post upon which it turned. Upon
its extremity a heavy boulder, or box of smaller stones,
served as a counterweight. In the gate represented here-
with the top stick is of sawn timber, upon the heel of
which the large stone is held by an iron dowel. The
other end of the top bar rests, when the gate is closed,
upon an iron pin, driven diagonally into the post, as
shown in the illustration. A
smaller iron pin is pushed
into the post immediately above the end of the top bar,
to secure the gate against being opened by unruly ani-

mals, which may attempt to get in,

138 FENCES, GATES AXD BRIDGES.

Figure 216 shows a balance gate which is used in some

parts of North Carolina. It is a picket gate framed into

Fig. 216. CABOLINA BALANCE GATE.

the lower side of a long pole, which is hung near its

middle to a pivot driven into the top of the gate-post.

Fig. 217. A TIDY BALANCE GATE.

Figure 217 shows a more elegant form, the "heel" of

the gate remaining on a level with the top line of the
fence.

GATE FOE SNOWY WEATHER.

The gate shown in figure 218 is suitable for all weather,

but especially useful when there is a deep snow; for it is
easily lifted up above the snow, and kept in place by put-
ting a pin through holes in the hinge-bar, \\hich is firmly
fastened to the gate post. The hinge-bar should be of
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 139

good, tough wood, and made round and smooth, so that

the gate can swing and slide easily. Boards can be used
in place of pickets if preferable. The latch-post to the

Fig. 218. GATE FOR SNOWY WEATHER.

right, has a long slot for the latch to work in, instead of
a hasp, so that it can be fastened when the gate is at any
height.

WEST INDIA FARM GATES.

The illustrations, figures 219 and 220, show two forms
of gates used on the island of Jamaica. These gates are

Fig. 219. WIDE FARM GATE,

140 , FEKCES, GATES AND BBIDGES.

twenty-one feet long, each, and cannot possibly sag,

even if any number of small boys swing on them. In
gate figure 220 the main post is nine by six inches; the
bars marked 2, 3, 5 and 7 are let in the wood three
inches on the upper side and one and a half inches on
the lower. The tenons, indicated by the dotted lines,
go entirely through the posts, and are fastened with
pins. Brace 6 is attached to the upper bar eighteen
inches beyond the center, F; D is a stout fence wire

Fig. 220. ANOTHER WIDE FARM GATE.

fastened by a screw nut at E; the wire, B, is held

tightly by the screw hook, A; the iron band, 9, is an
inch thick and is bolted to the post. It works on a

pivot one and a quarter inches in diameter, and which

turns on a flat piece of iron at the bottom of a piece
of a one and a half inch iron pipe, which is soldered
with molten lead in the stone, 10. Only hard wood is
used in the construction. In the gate shown in figure 219,
the construction differs from the one just described in
that it has a light chain fastened in the shackle, C,
and is screwed firmly at A. It is attached to the post,
ff, by a pivot, as seen in our illustration.
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 141

GATE HINGES OF WOOD.

It is often convenient and economical,

especially in
newly settled regions, where blacksmiths and hardware
stores are not at hand, to supply hinges for gates, to make
them of wood. The simplest and most primitive form is
shown in figure 221. A post is selected having a large
limb standing out nearly at right angles. A perpendicu-
lar hole in this secures the top of the rear gate standard.
The foot rests in a stout short post, set against the main

Fig. 221. Fig. 222.

post. Asmall gimlet hole should extend outward and

downward from the lowest side or point in the hole in
the short post, to act as a drain, or the water collecting
in it would be likely to soon rot both the standard and
the short post itself. Another form is to hold the top by
a strong wooden withe. A third form is illustrated in
figure 222, in which the top of the standard passes
through a short piece of sawed or split plank, spiked or
pinned upon the top of the post.
 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

The form shown at figure 223 is made of a stout lithe

sapling or limb of beech, hickory or other tough hard

wood or, if it is attainable, a piece of iron rod.

Fig. 223. A WITHE HINGE.

A gate can be made without hinges by having the

hanging stile somewhat longer than the front stile, and
making both ends rounded. The lower one is to work

Fig. 224. GATE WITHOUT HINGES.

in a hole in the end of a short post raised BO that the soil

will not readily get in, and the upper one works in a
hole made in an oak piece attached to the top of the gate
post. Gates of this kind can be made and hung with but
more expense than bars, and will be found far more
little

convenient and saving of time than the latter.

 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 143

Figure 225 represents a small hand-gate hung upon an

iron pin driven into a hole bored in the bottom of the

hinge-post, and one of similar size and material bent to a

Fig. 225. SOCKET HINGES.

sharp angle, and fitted in the top. The lower pin rests
in the sill and the upper one extends through the post
to which the gate is hung.

DOUBLE GATES.
Figure 226 shows a substantial method of hanging two
gates to the same post. The post may be of masonry

Fig. 2:26. A DOUBLE GATE.

144 FEXCES, GATES AXD BRIDGES.

and the hinge bolts pass through the post, thus prevent-
ing any sagging. It is frequently convenient to have

gates in the barnyard hung in this manner, then yards

Fig. 227. DOUBLE BALANCE GATE.

may be shut off one way or the other by simply swinging

the gates.
Figure 227 represents a balanced gate for a double drive-
way. The total length is thirty feet sixteen feet on one

Fig. 228. DOUBLE BALANCE GATE WITH STONE POST.

side of the supporting post and fourteen feet on the

other. The horizontal top-piece may be of sawn timber,
or better still, of a round pole cut from a straight young
tree, the larger end being on the short side, its additional
thickness serving to counterbalance the longer extremity
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 145

of the gate. The vertical strips of the original gate, from

which the sketch was made, were lag-sticks from an old
tread horse-power, and the chain was a part of the re-
mains of a worn-out chain pump. It is held in place by
staples driven into the vertical

pieces, as shown in the illustra-

tion. A pin pushed into the post
at either end of the large top bar |

fastens securely when closed.

it

Figure 228 is a gate which com-

bines some of the features of the
preceding two. The stone pillar
is round, three feet across and four

and a half feet high. A

post is Fig. 229. THE GATE
LATCH.
placed in the center, upon the end
of which the bar rests, bearing the two gates. The fence
is arranged in a sweeping curve, so that only one passage-
way can be open at once.

Figure 230 shows a style of double gate, which has

Fig. 230. A DOUBLE HINGELESS GATE.

been found very useful on large stock farms, where it is

necessary to drive herds of cattle through it. Two high
posts are set in the ground about twenty feet apart, and
a scantling is put on, which extends from the top of one
post to that of the other. A two-inch hole is bored in
the center of this scantling, and a similar hole in a block
146 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

of wood, planted firmly in the ground in the center of

the gateway. The middle post of the gate frame is
rounded at each end to fit these holes, and this post is
the pivot on which the gate turns. With this gate one
cow cannot block the passage, besides there is no sagging
of gate posts, as the weight of the gate is wholly

upon the block in the center. To make the latch,

figure 229, a bar of iron one and a half inch wide and
eighteen inches long is bolted to one of the end uprights
of the gate, and a similar bar to one of the posts of the

gateway. For a catch, a rod of three-eighth inch iron

passes through a half-inch hole near the end of the bar
upon the gateway. This rod is bent in the form shown
in the engraving, and welded. It will be seen that the

lifting of this bent rod will allow the two bars to come
together, and when dropped it will hold them firmly.

DOUBLE-LATCHED GATES.

Figure 231 represents a substantial farm gate with two

latches. This is a very useful precaution against the

Fig. 231. A DOUBLE-LATCIIED FARM GATE.

wiles of such cattle as have learned to unfasten ordinary

gate-latches. The latches work independently of each

other, the wires, b, 5, being fastened to the hand lever a,
 GATES AND FASTEXIXGS. 147

and then to the latches

e, e. A
roguish animal will
sometimes open a gate by raising the latch with its nose,
but if one attempt it with this, it can only raise one latch
at a time, always the upper one, while the lower one re-
mains fastened. As soon as the animal lets go, the latch
springs back and catches again. A hog cannot get
through, for the lower latch prevents the gate from open-
ing sufficiently to allow it to pass. A
cow will find it
difficult to open the gate, because she cannot raise the

gate high enough to unlatch it. The latches e, e, work up

and down in the slides c, c, and when the gate is fastened
they are about half-way between the top and bottom of
the slides.
Figure 232 shows another form of double latches,
which are closed by absolute motion, instead of depend-

. 232. A GATE FOB ALL LIVE STOCK.

ing upon their own weight. There are two latches fast-
ened to a jointed lever, so that when the upper end or
handle ispushed backward or foward, the latches both
move in the same direction. The construction of the
gate, and the form and arrangement of the latches and
lever, are plainly shown.

IMPROVED SLIDE GATE.

The old style slide gate is an un wieldly contrivance,
and the only excuse for its use is its simplicity and
cheapness. Numerous devices have been invented and
148 FENCES, GATES AND BE! DOES.

patented to make it slide easier and swing easier, but

their cost has prevented them from coming into general
use, and the old gate still requires the same amount of
tugging and heaving to open and close it.
Figure 233 shows the attachment. The blocks at top
and bottom are hard wood, one inch and a quarter thick. -

The two boards should also be of hard wood. Between

the boards are one or two small iron or hard wood wheels,
turning upon half inch bolts, which pass through both
boards. The bars of the gate run on these wheels. The

Fig. 333. Fig. 234. THE GATE COMPLETE.

gate complete, with attachment, is shown in figure 234, the

gate being closed. To open the gate, run it back nearly
to the middle bar, then swing open. As the attachment
turns with the gate, the lower pivot should be greased
occasionally. It is well to fasten a barbed wire along the

upper edge of the top bar, to prevent stock from reach-

ing over and bearing down on the gate. Where hogs are
enclosed, it is advisable to fasten a barbed wire along the
lower edge of the bottom bar, as it keeps small pigs from
passing under, and prevents large ones from lifting the
gate up, or trying to root under.

A COMBINED HINGE AND SLIDING GATE.

The illustrations, figures 235 and 236, show a gate very
handy for barnyards. It is fourteen feet wide for ordi-
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 149

nary use, and has three short posts. The middle one is
movable. A box of two inch boards made to fit the post
is planted in the ground in this the post is set, and can
;

be removed at pleasure. This post is placed three feet

from the outside one. The hinge is made of hard wood,

Fig. 235. THE GATE OPEN.

with a wheel six inches in diameter, as shown in the en-

graving. It should be so constructed that the gate will
move freely, but not too loosely. It is supported at the
top by a cap, placed diagonally across, and at the bottom
by a block of locust or cedar under it. The middle up-

Fig. 236. THE GATE CLOSED.

rights of the gate should be placed a little to one side

of the center, so that the gate can be balanced under
the roller. Wooden catches are placed in the middle
post, upon which the gate rests. To open the gate, push
it back to the middle post, elevate the gate slightly, and
it will roll down to- the center, where it can be readily

opened. Figure 235 shows the gate open, and in figure

150 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

236 it is This gate has no latch. A barn-

seen closed.
yard gate not usually opened wide. A space large
is

enough to admit a man or horse is all that is necessary in

most cases. It is more easily opened than the ordinary
gate, and it will stay where it is placed. By cutting a
notch in the third board, and elevating it to the upper
catch on the middle post, a passage is made for hogs and
sheep, excluding larger animals.

GATES OF WOOD AND WIEB.

One of the cheapest and most popular styles of farm

gate is made of plain or barbed wire, supported by

Fig. 237. A NEAT GATE OF SCANTLING AND WIHE.

wooden frames. Figure 237 shows a very neat form of

combination gate. To make it, obtain three uprights,
three inches by one and a half inches, five and a half
feet long, and four strips, three inches by one inch,
eleven feet long. Cut shoulders in the ends of the strips,
and saw out corresponding notches in the uprights;
 GATES AXD FASTEXIXGS. 151

make and a half inch, or half the width of the

these one
strips. The bottom notch is two and a half inches from

the end of the upright, and the upper one nine and a
half inches from the top end. Fit the strips into the
notches. There is then a space of one inch between the
strips, into which put inch strips, so as to make all solid,
and fasten together with carriage bolts. Braces three by
one and a half inches are inserted, and held in place by
bolts or wrought nails. Bore as many holes in the end-
pieces for one-quarter inch eye-bolts, as it is desired to
have wires. Twist the wire firmly into the bolts on one
upright, and secure the other end to the corresponding
bolts on the upright at the opposite end. In stretching
the wires, pass them alternately on opposite sides of the
c*enter piece, and fasten in place by staples. This will,
in a measure, prevent warping. screwing down the
By
bolts with a wrench, the wires be drawn as tightly
may
as desired. The hinges are to be put on with bolts, and
any sort of fastening may be used that is most conven-
ient. Barbed or smooth wire may be used.

A GOOD AND CHEAP FARM GATE.

Figure 238 shows a gate of common fence boards and

wire, which can be made by any farmer. The longer
upright piece, seven feet long, may be made of a round
stick, flattened a little on one side. The horizontal bars
are of common fence boards cut to the desired length, and
the shorter, vertical piece may be made of scantling, two

by four inches. Three wires, either plain or barbed, are

stretched at equal intervals between the upper and lower
bar. A double length of wire is extended from the top
of the long upright to the opposite lower corner of the
152 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

gate. A stout stick is inserted between the two strands

of this diagonal brace, by which it is twisted until it is

Fig. 238. GOOD AND CHEAP FARM GATE.

sufficiently taut. If the gate should at any time begin

to sag, a few turns brings it back.

AN IMPROVED WIRE GATE.

Figure 239 shows an improved form of wire farm

gate, in which the wires can be made tight at pleas-

Fig. 239. IMPBOVED WISE GATE.

ure. Instead of attaching the wires to both of the end

standards of the gate, a sliding standard is put on
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. -
153

near the end, to which the wires are fastened. This is

secured to the main standard by two long screw bolts,
leaving a space between the two of five or six inches.
The wires are tightened by turning up the nuts.
A plainer but very effective gate is shown in figure 240
The uprights are three and one quarter
by two inches,
the horizontals twelve or thirteen feet
long, by three and
a half by two inches, all of pine. The horizontals are
mortised into the uprights, the bolts of the
hinges
strengthening the joints. The barbed wires prevent ani-

Fig. 240. GATE OF WOOD AND WIBB.

mals from reaching over and through the gate. To put,

in and tighten the wires, bore a three-eighth inch hole
in the upright, pass the wires through, one or two inches

projecting, plug up tightly with a wooden pin, and bend

down the ends of the wire, Measure the distance to the
other upright, and cut the wire two inches longer. Pass
the wire through the whole and tighten with pincers.
When the wire is stretched, plug up with a wooden pin,
and then bend down the wire. If the wire stretches, it
can be tightened very easily.
Figure 241 represents a light gate, that a child can
handle, which does not sag or get out of repair, and is
cattle proof. The materials are two boards, twelve or
fourteen feet long, three uprights, the end piece three
154 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

and one-half feet and the center four and one-half feet,
two strands of barbed wire, one between the boards, and

341. BARBED WIRE IN A GATE.

the other at the top of the uprights. It is hung the

same as the common form of gate.

TAKING UP THE SAG IN GATES.

Various means have been devised for overcoming the

sagging of gates. In figure 242 the hinge-post of the

Fig. 242. REMEDY FOR A SAGGING GATE.

gate-frame extends somewhat above the upper bar of the

gate. A board is fastened to the top of this post, a,
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 155

which runs downward to b, near the middle of the upper

cross-bar,and then connects with a short double band
one on each side of the long board which is provided
with a bolt fitting into notches, c, cut in the under side
of the upper bar of the gate. The form of the double-
latch piece, with its bolts, and its attachment to the
board is shown at d.

Figure 243 represents an arrangement which not only

provides for taking up the sag, but also for raising the
gate above encumbering snow. The gate is made of or-
dinary inch boards put together with carriage bolts, upon
which the joints play freely. The end of the gate, a, is
made of two boards, and the post, b, is four by six inches.

Fig. 343. A LIFT-BAR FOR A GATE.

One board of the end, a, is notched. The diagonal piece,

fastened at d, by means of a bolt through it and the
c, is

lower board. The end, a, of the diagonal piece, is

shaped to fit the notches,
by means of which the gate can
be raised and lowered. It can also be used as a passage
for pigs between fields, by simply raising the gate suffi-
them go through. A board, not shown in
ciently to let
the engraving, is tacked to the notched board, to prevent
the diagonal piece from slipping out of its place.
A much firmer gate is shown in figure 244. The
hinge-post is about twice the height of the gate, and has
a cap-piece, , near the top. This cap is of 2 by 6 hard-
156 FENCES, GATES AND BEIDGES.

wood, strengthened by two bolts, e, e, and held in place

by two wooden pins, driven just above it and through
c </

JLO

Fig. 244. A REMEDY FOR A SAGGING GATE.

the tenon end of the post. Wedges c and d are driven

in the cap on each side of the post. Should the gate
sag, the wedge, d, may be loosened, and c driven further
down. The lower end of the gate turns in a hole bored
in a hard-wood block placed in the ground near the foot
of the post.

Fig. 245.

Figure 245 shows a gate similarly hung on pivots

driven into the ends of the hinge-bar. These play in eye-
 CRATES AND FASTENINGS. 157

bolts which extend through the post to which the gate is

hung, and are fastened by nuts on the other side. As
the gate sags, the nut on the upper bolt is turned up,
drawing the upper end of the hinge-bar toward the post,
and lifting the gate back to a horizontal position.

GOOD GATE LATCHES.

Some cows become so expert, they can lift almost any

gate latch. To circumvent this troublesome habit,
latches made as shown in figure 246 will fill this bill

exactly. It is a piece of iron bar, drawn down at one

Fig. 346. GATE LATCH.

Fig. 347. SPRING GATE CATCH.

end, and cut thread to screw into the gate post.

-with a
A stirrup, or crooked staple, made as shown, is fitted by
a screw bolt and nut to the bar. A small bolt must be
driven in to keep the stirrup from being thrown over.
A projecting slat on the gate, when it is shut, lifts the
stirrup and holds the gate. This latch is too much for
breechy cows, and they are never able to get "the hang
of it."
A simple catch for a gate may easily be made from a
158 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

piece of seasoned hickory, or other elastic wood, cut in"

the shape as shown at a in figure 247. This is fast- 1

ened strongly to the side of the gate, with the pin, c,

working through the top loosely, so that it will play
easily. The catch, b, is fastened to the wall or post, as
the case may be. The operation will be easily under-
stood from the illustration, and it will be found a service-
able, sure, and durable contrivance. The gate cannot be
swung to without catching, and it may swing boih ways.
A very simple and convenient style of fastening is il-
lustrated in figures 248 to 251. It can be made of old

Fig. 248. LATCH IN POSITION. Fig. 250.

buggy springs, or any flat steel, and should be one inch

broad by three six-tenth inch thick, and about eighteen
inches long, at the distance of four inches from the lower
end. The lever is slightly bent, and has two screw or
bolt holes for fastening, figure 249. Eight inches of the
top portion is rounded and bent at right angles. The
upper part passes through a narrow mortise in the head-
post of the gate figure 248. A flat staple, large enough
to go over the spring holds it in place. An iron hook,
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 159

figure 250, driven into the post, holds the latch. A

wooden lever, bolted to the top board of the gate, figure

Fig. 251. LATCH WITH TOP LEVER.

251, enables a person on horseback to open or close the

gate. This latch can be applied to any kind of a gate,
and is especially desirable in yards or gardens, when, by

the addition of a chain and weight, one may always feel

that the gate is securely closed. The latch does not cost
more than fifty cents, and if
properly made and put on
will last as long as the gate.

Fig. 252. GATE LATOH.

In figure 252 is represented a style of gate latch in use

in some Southern States. It possesses marked ad van-
160 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

tages, for certain purposes, over others. It holds to an

absolute certainty, under all circumstances, and by allow-

Fig. 253. LATCH AND PIN.

ing the latch pin to rest on the bottom of the slot in the
post, it relieves the hinges and post from all strain. The
latch be formed by a common strap-hinge, made to
may
work very easily, and the pin should be either a strong
oak one or an iron bolt or "lag screw."
Figure 253 shows a latch which cannot be opened by

Fig. 254. GATE LATCH.

the most ingenious cow or other animal. The latch of

wood slides in two iron or wood bands screwed to the
 GATES AND FASTENINGS. 161

gate. It is moved by a knob between the bands, which

also prevents it from going too far. The outer end is
sloping and furnished with a notch. It slides through
a mortise in the gate post, indicated by dotted lines.
"When the gate is closed, the latch is slid through the
mortise, and the drop-pin, which plays vertically in two
iron bands, is lifted by the slope on the latch, and drops
into the notch. It can be opened only by lifting the

drop-pin, and sliding back the latch at the same time.

Figure 254 shows a very ingenious and reliable form
of latch. The curved tail must be thin enough and suf-
ficiently soft to admit of bending, either by a pair of
large pincers or a hammer, just so as to adapt it to the
passage of the pin bolted through the front stile of the
gate. As the gate closes, the latch lifts out and the tail-

piece advances. The catch-pin cannot possibly move out,

unless the whole end of the gate moves up and forward.

TOP HINGE OF FARM GATE.

Continual use, more or less slamming, and the action

of the weather, make the gate settle somewhat, but

Fig. 255. TOP HINGE OF FABM GATE.

the illustration, figure 255, shows a hinge which obvi-

ates this trouble. The upper hinge is made of a half-
inch rod, about sixteen inches long, with an eye on one
end, and a long screw-thread cut upon the other. This
162 FENCES, GATES AHD BRIDGES.

thread works in a nut, which nut has a bolt shank and

nut, whereby it is firmly attached to the top bar of the
gate. If the gate sags at all, it must be simply lifted off
the thumbs, and the hinge given a turn or two in the
nut; and the same is to be done in case of subsequent
sagging. The hinge bolt must, of course, have some
opportunity to move in the stile, and must be set long
enough at first to allow the slack to be taken up when-
ever found necessary.

GATEWAYS IKT WIRE FENCE.

Kegular posts and bars at a passage-way through a

wire fence are inconvenient and unsightly. A good sub-

Fig. 256. GATEWAY IN A WIRE FENCE.

stitute for a gate is illustrated in figure 256. Light gal-

vanized iron chains have a "swivel" near the end, by
which they may be loosened or tightened, so as to be of

Figs. 257 and 258. BUCKLE ANT> SNAP HOOK FOB CHAIN GATE.

just the right length, and a snap-hook at the other. These

are both shown of larger size in figures 257 and 258.
 GATES AHD FASTENIHGS. 163

The chains are attached by screw-eyes to the posts, and

should correspond in number, as well as in position, with
the wires. Thus they appear to be a continuation of the
same, and as they are larger, they appear to the animals
to be stronger, and even more dangerous than barbed

Fie:. 259. THE GATE CLOSED.

wire hence are avoided. A short rod of iron may be

made to connect them at the hook-ends, and so in open-
ing and closing the way, they may all be moved at once.
A cheaper and simpler form of wire gate is shown in
figures 259 and 260. It consists of the same number of
strands as in the adjoining fence, attached to a post in
the ordinary way at one end, while the other wire ends
are secured to an iron rod. This rod is pointed at the
lower end, and when the gate is closed, as seen in figure

'

Fig. 260. THE GATE OPEN,

259, this end passes down through a loop, and the upper
end is In opening the gate, the rod
secured to a hook.
is loosened and
swings out, when the sharp end is thrust
into the earth, or a hole in a wooden block set in the

ground at the proper place to receive it.

164 FENCES, GATES AKD BRIDGES.

Figure 261 show* a somewhat similar arrangement.

The gate wires are fastened to one post with staples, and
attach the loose ends to a five-foot pole. To shut the
gate, take this pole or gate-head and put the lower end

Fig. 261. A WIRE GATE.

back of the lower pin, and spring the upper end behind
the one above. If the wires are all of the right length,

they will be taut and firm. Two slats fastened to the

gate wires will keep them from tangling. A short post
set at one side of the gateway may be found convenient
to hold the gate when open.

CHAPTEE XII.

WICKETS AND STILES.

IRON WICKETS.

Wickets and stiles are convenient passageways through

or over fences crossing foot-paths. The bow wicket has
the advantage of providing a gate
"
always open and
always shut," and not apt to get out of repair. A
wrought iron bow wicket, with short vertical bars, is
shown in figure 262. Figure 263 has the bars horizon-
 WICKETS AND STILES. 165

tal, and folds in the middle for a wheel-barrow or small

animals to pass. To go through it, a person simply steps

Fig. 262. WICKET WITH HINGE.

into the bow, swings the gate away from him, and
swings
it back in passing out. There is no latch to fasten, and

Fig. 263. WICKET WITH UPRIGHT BARS.

no fear of the entry of live stock. Similar wickets may

be constructed of wood for board fences.

WOODEN WICKETS.

Figure 264 shows a wicket gate common in England,

where it is much used in foot-paths across fields, etc. It
166 FEXCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

is an ordinary small gate, which swings between two

enough apart to permit the passage of a
posts, set far
person. These two posts are thevtwo ends of a V-shaped

Fig. 264. A GATE FOR FOOT-PATH.

end in the fence. The engraving shows the construction

of the end of the fence, with the two posts, between
which the gate swings.
Figure 265 is another form of gate, which consists of a
V-shaped panel, filling the opening in the fence the open

Figs. 265 and 266. COMMON A?TD IMPROVED WICKETS.

ends of the V being fixed to posts equally distant from

and in a line with one of the posts in the fence, and at
right angles to it, This is improved by using bent
 WICKETS AND STILES. 167

wheel-rims, figure 266, instead of the straight pieces form-

ing the V-shaped panel. Kept well painted, the hickory
rims will bear the exposure to the weather perfectly. The
palings should be of oak, an inch wide and half an inch
thick, fastened on with screws. The opening in these
stiles must be sufficient to allow a corpulent person to

pass easily, even if a frisky bull is in uncomfortable prox-

ft

Fig. 367. A CONVENIENT STILE.

imity, and for this figure 266 is really the most conven-
ient form. The objection to both of these stiles is, that
there is no actual closing of the passage.- Calves, sheep
and mention dogs, work their way through.
pigs, not to
To prevent the gate-stile, figure 267, was invented.
this,
It has a small gate swinging on the middle post, but

stopped in its movement by the end posts of the V. A

Fig. 268. A GATE STILE.

person can pass by stepping well into the V and moving

the gate by him, where he has free exit. This form is
efficient, but inconvenient. A' fourth form, the best of
all, is the swinging A-stile, figures 268 and 269. In this
there are two light gates, made upon the same hinge-
post, spreading like the letter A, and braced with a cross-
piece between the rails of each side, like the center part
1G8 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

of the A. This gate is swing on each side of the

set to

center-post, as shown. much narrower than the

It is so

V-stiles, that it is almost impossible for small animals to

pass, but it is easily hung so that it will always remain

Fig. 269. SWINGING STILE.

closed, and no temptation to animals. on the out-

so offer
side. At night, or when not in use, a wire
ring or withe-
hoop thrown over the top of the post and the upright
part of the gate frame, will securely fasten it. To make

Fig. 270. A NEAT GATE.

the gate swing shut, all that is necessary is to set the eye
of the lower hinge of the gate well out towards the out-
side. In figure 270 we give a neat A-gate, made of pine
or any strong and light wood.

STILES FOR WIRE-FENCES.

The extensive use of wire-fences calls for a farm conve-

nience, heretofore but little known in this country the
 WICKETS AND STILES. 169

stile. The manner of constructing one suitable for barb-

wire fence is shown
so plainly in the engraving, figure 271,
that no description is necessary. The cross piece, upon

Fig. 271. STILE FOR BARB WIRE FENCE.

which one passes from one flight of steps to the other,

may be of any desired width.
Stiles of convenient forms for wire fences are shown in

Fig. 272. FENCE STLLE. Fig. 273. ANOTHER STILE.

figures 272 and 273. The one seen in figure 272 takes
less space on each side of the fence, but it is not so sim-
ple as that shown in figure 273.

Figure 274 shows a passageway in a wire fence, which

170 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

requires no climbing, and while it presents an effectual

barrier to large animals, is readily passed by any but very

^ AWW
Fig. 274. WISE FEXCE PASSAGE.

corpulent persons. and was patented in

It originated

England, but we believe there is no restriction on its

construction and use in this country.

CHAPTER XIII.
FENCE LAW.
FENCING OUT OB FENCING IN.

The common law of England, which to a large extent

became the law of the original States, bound no one
to fence his land at Every person is bound under
all.

that law to fence his own

cattle in, but not bound to
fence other cattle out. Every owner of domestic animals
is liable for injury committed by them on the lands of

others, even though the land was wholly unfenced. But

this feature of the English common law was not suited
 FENCE LAW. 171

to the conditions which surrounded the early settlers in

,
any part of this country. So long as any region is
sparsely settled, the amount of unoccupied land is so
much greater than the occupied, that it is cheaper to
fence stock out, than to fence it in. Hence the English
common law in regard to fencing has been superseded by
statute in many of the States. In others it has always
remained in force, or has been revived by later statutes.
There is such great diversity on this point in the statutes
of the several States, that, to quote from Henry A.
" Manual of Farm " "
Haigh's excellent Law, every one
having occasion to look up any point of law, should as-
certain the statutory provisions concerning it from some
official source. Do not depend upon this book or any
other book for them, because they are liable to change,
and do change from year to year but go to your town
;

clerk or justice of the peace, and examine the statutes

"
themselves.

DIVISION FENCES.

The legal obligations of adjoining owners to build and

maintain division fences, rests entirely upon the statutes
of the respective States, save in cases where long usage
has created prescriptive rights, or special agreement ex-
ists. Such fences are to be built on the boundary line,
the expense to be borne equally by the parties, or each
one shall make and maintain half the fence. If they
cannot agree, or either refuses or neglects to do his share,
the statutes provide methods by which the matter may
be determined. In some of the States, two or more pub-
called fence- viewers, are elected annually in
lic officers,

each township, whose duties, as prescribed by statute,

are, when called upon, to hear and decide questions re-
lating to fences .in their respective towns. In other
States, these duties are performed by overseers of high-
'

ways or selectmen, ex-ojftcio.

Whenever any owner or
172 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

occupant of land refuses to build or maintain half the di-

vision fence, or cannot agree, with his adjoining neighbor
as to which portion they shall respectively maintain, the
fence-viewer may be called. Upon being so called, the
fence-viewer shall upon reasonable notice, and after

viewing the premises, determine and assign the respective

portions of the fence to be maintained by each. The as-
signment when so made and recorded by the proper of-
ficer, becomes binding upon the present and all subse-

quent owners of the land. (2 Wis. 14). When by rea-

son of a brook, watercourse, or natural impediment, it is
impracticable or unreasonably expensive to build a fence
on the true line between adjacent lands, and the owners
thereof disagree respecting its position, the fence viewers
may, upon application of either party, determine on
which side of the true line, or whether partly on one
side and partly on the other, and at what distances, the
fence shall be built and maintained, and what portions
by either party, and if either party refuses or neglects to
build and maintain his part of the fence, the other shall
have the same remedy as if the fence were on the true
line. When a division fence shall be suddenly destroyed
or prostrated by fire, winds or floods, the person who
ought to repair or rebuild the same should do so in ten
days after being notified for that purpose, and in the
meantime he will be liable for damages d.one by estrays.
There is no legal obligation in any of the States, upon
any proprietor of uncultivated, unimproved and un-
occupied land, to keep up division fences. When a pro-
prietor improves his land, or encloses land already im-
proved, the land adjoining being unimproved, he must
make the whole division fence, and if the adjoining pro-
prietor afterward improves his land, he is required to
pay for one half the division fence, according to the value
thereof at that time. The laws of the respective States
are not uniform touching the obligations to maintain one
 FEXCE LAW. 173

half a division fence after theowner of the land ceases to

improve In Rhode Island and some other States, the
tt.

proprietors are required to maintain these respective pro-

portions, whether they continue to improve their land or
not. In Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and several
other States, it is provided that if one party lays his
lands common, and determines not to improve them, he
may, upon giving due notice, cease to support such
fences. But in most of the States, he must not take
away any part of the division fence belonging to him and
adjoining the next enclosure, provided the other party
will allow and pay for his part of such fence. If the

parties cannot agree as to its value, it may be decided

by two or more fence-viewers. "Where adjacent land is
owned in severalty and occupied in common, and either
party desires to occupy his in severalty, and the parties
disagree, either party may have the line divided by the
fence-viewers, as in other cases.
Owners of adjoining lands may agree between them-
selves as to the building and maintenance of division
fences, and such agreements are valid, whether they are
in accordance with the law or not. In some States such
an agreement, if in writing, and filed with the clerk of
the township, becomes binding upon all subsequent hold-
ers of the land. If not in writing, however, such an

agreement may be terminated by either of the parties at

pleasure.
HIGHWAY FENCES.

Under the common law, the land owner is under no

obligation to fence his land along a public highway.
Bnt in Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Oregon, and some other
Western and Southern States, the common law rule has
been modified by statutes depriving the land-holder of
his action for trespass, unless he maintains sufficient
fences around his land. In these States, the owner of
174 FENCES, GATES AKD BEIDGES.

land must enclose it with he would

sufficient fences if
cultivate it. Even where no such statutory pro-
there is

visions, it is practically necessary to maintain highway

fences, as a protection against cattle which are driven

along the highway. The use of barb wire for fencing
along the public roads has given rise to questions for
which there were no precedents. A case was decided in
the United States Circuit Court, at "Watertown, Xew
York, December 17, 1885. The action was brought by
a horse breeder to recover damages from his neighbor for
injuries sustained by the plaintiff's horse from a barbed
wire fence, stretched along the roadside in front of the
defendant's premises. A non-suit was granted on the
ground that the animal received the injuries through the
contributory negligence of its owner. Among the rul-
ings of the court was one permitting the plaintiff to be
questioned, to show the fact that he had on his own farm
a similar fence, but of sharper form of barb. The court
further held that it might be a question whether it
would not be competent testimony to show the common
employment of barb wire fence in that region, and held
that for the purpose of this case, a barbed wire fence, if
properly constructed upon the highway, must be deemed
a legal fence.
It may be said in a general way, that though there is
no legal obligation resting on the land holder to maintain
fences along the public highway, he neglects to do so at
his own risk and peril.

WHAT IS A LEGAL FENCE ?

What shall be necessary to constitute a legal and suf-

ficient fence is specifically defined by the statutes of the
several States, but there is no uniform rule among all.

In Elaine, K"ew Hampshire, Massachusetts and many

other States, it is provided that all, fences four feet high,
 FEXCE LAW. 175

and in good repair, consisting of rails, timber, boards, or

etone wall, and all brooks, riv.ers,' ponds, creeks, ditches,
hedges, and other things deemed by the fence viewers to
be equivalent thereto, shall be accounted legal and suffi-
cient fences. In Vermont, Connecticut, Michigan, and
some other States, a legal fence must be four and a half
feet high. In Missouri post fences must be four and one
half feet high, hedges four feet high, turf fences four
feet high, with ditches on each side three feet deep in the
middle and three feet wide ;
worm fences must be five
and one-half feet to the top of the rider, or if not
high
ridered, five feet to the top of the top rail, and must be
rocked with strong rails, poles or stakes stone or brick
;

fences must be four and one-half feet high. In New

York the electors of each town may, by vote, decide for
themselves how fences shall be made, and what shall be
deemed sufficient. No part of the fence law is so defi-
nitely regulated by the statutes of the respective States as
the requirements of a legal fence. In all cases where
practical questions arise involving this point, it is best to
consult the statutes, which will be found in the office of
the township clerk.

KAILROAD FENCES.
In nearly every State, railroad companies are required
by statute to construct and maintain legal and sufficient
fences on both sides of their roads, except at crossings of
public highways, in front of mills, depots, and other
places where the public convenience requires that they
shall be left open. The legal obligations of railroad com-
panies to fence their roads rest wholly upon such statutes.
In New Hampshire it is provided that if any railroad
company shall neglect to maintain such fences, the owner
of adjoining land may build them, and recover double the
cost thereof of the company. It is generally held by the

courts in all the States that, in the absence of such fences

176 l-ESCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

the railroad company is liable for all resulting damage to

live stock, and no proof of contributory negligence on the
part of the owner of live stock is allowed as a plea in de-
fence, the statute requiring such fences being a police
regulation. When the railroad company has built a suffi-
cient fence on both sides of its road, it is not liable for
injuries which may occur without negligence on its part.
If the fence is overthrown by wind or storms, the com-

pany is entitled to reasonable time in which to repair it,

and if cattle enter and are injured, without fault on the
company's part, it is not liable. If cattle stray upon the
track at a crossing of a public road, and are killed, the
owners cannot recover damages, unless the railroad com-
pany isguilty of gross negligence or, intentional wrong.
A law in Alabama making railroad companies absolutely
liable for all stock killed on the tracks, was held to be
uncon sti tutional.

CHAPTEE XIV.

COUNTRY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.

STRENGTH OF BRIDGES.

Bridge building is a profession of itself, and some of the

great bridges of the world are justly regarded as among
the highest achievements of mechanical science and skill.
But it is proposed to speak in this work only of the cheap
and simple structures for spanning small streams. The
measure of the strength of a bridge is that of its weakest
part. Hence, the strength of a plain wooden bridge
resting upon timber stringers or chords, is equivalent to
 COUXTRY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS, 177

the sustaining power of the timbers in the middle of the

span. The longer the span, other things being equal,
the less its strength. The following table shows the sus-
taining power of sound spruce timber, of the dimensions
given, at a point midway between the supports:

LENGTH
OF SPAN.
178 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

the end of the sill to about four feet above the center.
The truss rod, d, is one inch in diameter for short bridges

Fig. 275. A SIMPLE FORM OF BRIDGE SPAN.

up to two inches for longer spans; it is provided with an

iron washer at the top. The rod passes through the sill,

Fig. 276. A STRONGER SPAN.

and a cross sill, e, which passes under the main sills, thus
adding firmness to the whole structure. Logs, /, /, are

Fig. 277. A SHORT BRIDGE.

placed against the ends of the sills to keep them in place,

and where the wheels will first strike them instead of the
 COUNTRY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. 179

floor plank, thus greatly equalizing the pressure. Figure

276 represents a modification of the above. The two
trass rods and braces give the structure greater strength
and solidity, adapting it for spans eighteen feet in
length. For the latter length, sills should be of good

Fig. 278. A BOLT TBCSS.

material, ten inches wide and fourteen inches deep, with

three middle sills of about the same size.
Figure 277 is a more improved style of bridge, the truss
serving both to support the structure, and as a parapet.
The top railing is of the same width as the sill, about
one foot. The lower side may be cut away, giving the
bridge a more finished appearance. The railing at the
center is six inches thick, and three inches at the ends.
The tie, li, is full width and four inches thick. bridge A
of this kind will answer for heavy traffic, even if
twenty

Fig. 279 BRIDGE BRACED FROM BELOW.

feet in length. The bolt truss, in figure 278, is adapted

for a span of twenty-five feet. This makes a bridge of
great firmness. Each set of truss-rods support a cross-
sill. The road planks are laid crosswise of the bridge.
The middle sills are sometimes half an inch lower than
180 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

those along the sides, and should be foar or five in num-

ber. The ends of the planks fit closely against the in-
side of the truss sills, thereby keeping the planks securely
iu place.
A common method of bracing is from below as shown in
figure 279. 'This is not usually a good practice, as the
braces are liable to be earned away by ice or floods.

ABUTMENTS, PIERS AND RAILINGS.

upon the dry

If the sills of a bridge are laid directly
walls of an abutment, or
upon a heavy plank, the jar of
passing teams soon displaces some of the stones, and
brings undue strain upon certain portions of the wall.

Fig. 280. BSD OF A BRIDGE.

To avoid this, abutments are best made of cut stones,

and laid in cement. A
wooden bent for the support of
the ends of the bridge may be made as shown in figure
280. The whole should be constructed of heavy timber,

pinned together. A coat of white lead should cover the

interior surface of all joints. The number and position
of the posts of the wooden abutment are seen in the en-

graving. A log should be laid upon the wall at m, to re-

 COUNTRY BEIDGES AND CULVEKTS. 181

Fig. 281. FKAMED PIER.

Fig. 382. BRIDGE SUPPORTED BY PILES.

Fig. 283. RAILING OF BRIDGE. Fig. 284.

lieve the bridge from the shock of the passing wagons.

A center pier should be avoided as much as possible,
as it offers serious obstruction in floods, and ice, drift
182 FENCES, GATES AND BKIDGES.

wood and other floating matter become piled against it,

seriously imperiling the entire structure. But in cases
where the length of the bridge is so great as to require
one or more piers, they may be constructed on the plan

Fig. 285. PLANK FLOOR OF BRIDGE.

shown in figure 281, or in case the bottom is so soft as to

render the mudsill insecure, a line of piles supporting a
cross-timber, as in figure 282. A
strong, reliable para-
pet or railing should always be provided. The want of
one may be the cause of fatal accidents to persons and
horses. Figure 283 gives a side view of a good railing,
and figure 284 shows the manner of bracing the posts to
the ends of the cross-beams. They should be thus braced
at every alternate post of the railing. The floor should
be double, as shown in figure 285, the lower planks laid
diagonally, and the upper layer crosswise.

BEIDGES FOE GULLIES.

For small gullies which cross roadways or lanes in

farms, and are not the beds of constant streams, but are
occasionally filled with surface water, a very simple bridge
is sufficient. One like that shown in figure 286 is as
good as any. The sills, a, a, are sunk in a trench dug
against the bank and at least to the level of the bed of
the creek. The cross-sills, I, b, are not mortised into
them, but simply laid between them. The pressure is
 COUNTRY BRIDGES AXD CULVERTS. 183

all from the outside, hence it will force a, a, tighter

against the ends b, b, which must be sunk a little into the
bed of the creek at its lowest point. The posts are mor-
tised into the sills, a, a, and plates, c, c, and d, d, upon

Fig. 286. FRAME FOR BRIDGE.

which the planks are laid. Props may be put against the
lower sides of the posts to hold the bridge against the
stream.
A cheap but practicablebridge is shown in figure 287.
Two logs are laid across the gully, their ends resting on
the banks, and to them puncheons or planks are spiked
to form the bridge. Stout posts, well propped and reach-
ing above the highest water mark, are placed against the
lower side of the logs. If the creek rises, the bridge,

Fig. 387. CONVENIENT FARM BRIDGE.

being free, will be raised on the surface of the water,

while the posts will prevent its being carried away.
Should it not rise with the water, it -opposes so little sur-
face to the current that the posts will hold it fast.
184 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

ORNAMENTAL BRIDGES.
No feature adds more to the appearance of ornamental
grounds than tasteful bridges. A .stream or narrow
channel connecting two parts of a small sheet of water,
affords an opportunity for the introduction of a bridge.

Fig, 288. RUSTIC BBIBGB,

In the absence of such features a bridge may be thrown

across -a dry ravine. Whatever style may be adopted,
should harmonize with the general character of the sur-
roundings. An elaborate bridge of woo.d or masonry
would be as much out of place on grounds unadorned by
other structures, as a rude rustic one would be near highly

BEIDGE OF BOCKS.

finished summer-houses and other architectural features.

On most grounds a neat rustic bridge, something like the
one shown in figure 288, would be in good keeping with
its environments. Such bridges may be made of red
 COUNTRY BKIDGES AND CULVERTS. 185

cedar logs and branches, resting upon stone abutments.

Where boulders are abundant, a stone bridge, something
like figure 289, may be built at very little cost, and will
last for generations. The pleasing effect of rustic or
other ornamental bridges is enhanced by training Vir-
ginia creeper or other climbing plants upon them.

ROAD CULVERTS.

A culvert under a road is, in effect, a short bridge.

The simplest form of plank culvert, resting upon stone
abutments, is shown in figure 290. Such a structure is
cheaply built, and serves a good purpose while the wood-
work remains sound. But the planks wear out and the
timbers decay, requiring frequent renewing. Where
is abundant it is much
stone cheaper in the end to build
wholly of stone, as in figure 291. After the 'abutments

Fig. 290. CULVERT WITH PLANK FLOOB.

are built, a course of flat stone, along each side, projects

inward from six to ten inches, as at a, a, which are covered
with a broad stone, b. Where the stream to be crossed is
so narrow that a row of single stones is sufficient to cover
the opening, a culvert like that seen in figure 292 is
cheaply made. Such structures will remain serviceable
for a generation, if the foiindations are not undermined

by the action of the water.

186 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

Where flat stones enough cannot be easily procured,

culverts may be built of concrete. The abutments are
first made, as in other cases ;
then empty barrels or sugar

Fig. 291. STONE CULVERT.

hogsheads, according to the capacity of the opening, are

fitted in, or better still, a temporary arch is made of

rough, narrow boards. The concrete of cement, sand

Fig. 292. CHEAPER STONE CULVERT.

and gravel, is then prepared and poured in, temporary

supports of lumber having been fixed across each end of
the culvert to keep the concrete in place until it hardens.
 COUNTRY BRIDGES AXD CULVERTS. 187

Small stones may be mixed with the concrete as it is

poured into place, and the whole topped off with a row
of them. This protection of stones on the top is valu-
able, in case the covering of earth is worn or wasted away

Fig. 293. ARCHED CONCRETE CULVERT.

at any time while it is in use. For a longer culvert a

flattened arch is made of concrete, as shown in figure
293. Light timbers are laid across, the ends resting
lightly on the abutments. Across the middle of these a
round log is placed to support the crown of the arch.

Elastic split poles are sprung over all, and upon these are

Fig. 294. ANGULAR CONCRETE CULVERT.

nailed thin narrow boards, extending lengthwise of the

culvert. The ends being temporarily protected, the con-
crete is mixed and poured on, as before. As soon as the
"
concrete has become thoroughly well set," the light
188 FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

cross-sticks are cut in two and the temporary work re-

moved. A cross-section, showing another form of con-
crete culvert, and the method of construction, are shown
in figure 294. Such a culvert is more easily built than
the last, but is not as strong. The best and most dur-
able culvert is of stone, with a regular half-round arch.
Such work can only be done properly by a regular mason,
-but in the end it is cheaper, where the stone can be ob-
tained, than any kind of make-shift.