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Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening Systems Bonded on RC

Structures Using Pulsed Stimulated Infrared Thermography

Chapter · March 2012

DOI: 10.5772/27488 · Source: InTech

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 9
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP
Strengthening Systems Bonded on RC
Structures Using Pulsed Stimulated
Infrared Thermography
Frédéric Taillade, Marc Quiertant, Karim Benzarti,
Jean Dumoulin and Christophe Aubagnac
Université Paris-Est, IFSTTAR, F-75015 Paris
France
1. Introduction
In civil engineering, strengthening or retrofitting of reinforced concrete (RC) structures
by externally bonded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) systems is now a commonly
accepted and widespread technique (Hollaway, 2010; Quiertant, 2011). However, the
use of bonding techniques always implies following rigorous installation procedures
(440.2R-08 Committee ACI, 2008; AFGC, 2011; FIB, 2001) and application personnel have to
be trained in conformity with installation procedures to ensure both durability and long-term
performances of FRP reinforcements. The presence of bonding defects can significantly affect
the structural performance and durability of the strengthening systems. Defects have then to
be detected, located and evaluated in order to estimate if injection or replacement is needed. In
these conditions, conformance checking of the bonded overlays through in situ nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) techniques is highly suitable. The quality-control program should involve
a set of adequate inspections and tests.
Visual inspection and acoustic sounding (hammer tapping) are commonly used to detect
delaminations (disbonds) (Fig.1). However, these current practices are unable to provide
relevant information about the depth (in the case of multilayered FRP systems) and width
of debonded areas and they are not capable of evaluating the level of adhesion between the
FRP and the substrate (partial delamination, damage or poor mechanical properties of the
polymer adhesive). Adherence properties of FRP systems installed on concrete substrates
can be evaluated by conducting on site pull-off adhesion tests on witness panels specifically
bonded on test zones (Fig.2).
Consequently, different authors have developed nondestructive methods to assess the
quality of the FRP/concrete adhesive bond, based on microwave (Akuthota et al.,
2004), acousto-ultrasonic (Ekenel & Myers, 2007), impact-echo (Maerz & Galecki, 2008),
shearography (Hung, 2001; Taillade et al., 2011; 2006), infrared thermography (Galietti et al.,
2007; Valluzzi et al., 2009) or a coupling of these two latter techniques (Lai et al., 2009;
Taillade et al., 2010).
This chapter is devoted to the pulsed stimulated infrared thermography technique applied
to the detection and the characterization of the depth and width of adhesion defects
(delaminations or adhesive disbonds) of FRP externally bonded on RC structures.
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Fig. 1. Inspection with acoustic sounding (hammer tapping).

Fig. 2. Pull-off method.

In a first part, the principle of pulsed stimulated infrared thermography is recalled ; laboratory
investigations are then presented in a second part. The laboratory samples contain different
defects (with calibrated size and depth) inserted between the concrete substrate and the
carbon FRP laminate bonded to its surface. Experiments were conducted in laboratory on
the dedicated samples and complementary 2D numerical simulations were also carried-out.
Analysis methods of thermograms are presented. Thermal signatures of different geometries
of defects are studied in the cases of pulse and square heating thermal excitations. Main
advantages of each stimulated technique are discussed in relation to the targeted application.
Results from experiments based on long pulse approach are also discussed in details.
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 1953

In the second part of this chapter, a case study of field application is presented for the proposed
method. Inspection is carried-out using a hand-held heating device and an infrared camera.
Such a simple technology enables real time NDE in the field with a high efficiency.

2. Principle of pulsed stimulated infrared thermography

For many years, the Pulsed Stimulated Infrared Thermography technique has been used
to control aerospace structures, in particular to detect and characterize delaminations in
carbon/epoxy composites (Maldague, 2001).
Pulse heating principle consists in heating the surface of the composite during a period τ and
measuring the temperature distribution on the sample surface with an infrared camera (Fig.3).

Fig. 3. Principle of stimulated infrared thermography.

Fig. 4. Thermograms of sound and faulty regions.

Detection and localization of the subsurface defects can then be performed using adequate
image analysis approaches (Ibarra-Castanedo et al., 2004). Characterization of the resistive
subsurface defects can be achieved by monitoring the emergence of a thermal contrast
(Balageas et al., 1987) between sound and faulty areas (Fig.4) after the pulse illumination
(thermal relaxation phase). The thermal contrast CT could be expressed by:
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Fig. 5. Axisymmetric finite element model.

T
CT = −1 (1)
T sound
where T sound and T are respectively the temperature above sound and faulty regions.
Using the thermal diffusion time concept, hypothesis of heat diffusion in a semi infinite body
and assuming the period τ is infinitely short (Dirac pulse), the depth d of the defect can be
deduced from the time tmax associated to the maximum thermal contrast using the expression:

√
d= αtmax (2)
where α = λ/ρc is the thermal diffusivity of the material through the thickness direction with
ρ, c and λ are respectively the density, heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the material.
It follows that for defects of same nature but localized at different depths, their localization
is based on the detection of thermal contrast appearing at different time on thermal image
sequences. For a same thermal solicitation, thermal contrast fades while defect depth increase.
So, localization of defects requires to analyze the whole sequence of thermal images acquired
during and after thermal solicitation.

3. Finite element simulation for test calibration

In this section, it is proposed to calculate the thermal time response of a sample (carbon FRP
/ polymer adhesive / concrete) with a bonding defect and subjected to an external heat pulse
of finite duration. It is assumed that thermal stress is applied uniformly over the composite
surface. To simplify the simulations, an orthotropic behavior is assumed for the FRP material
while concrete and polymer adhesive are considered as isotropic. The bonding defects are
assumed to be circular areas of finite diameter characterized by a lack of glue (Fig.5). The
finite element software enables one to solve the Fourier heat transfer equation:

∂T
ρc = div (λ grad T ) (3)
∂t
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 1975

The FRP reinforcement, which is based on bonded carbon fabrics in this case, is simulated by a
definite thickness of carbon/epoxy laminate exhibiting equivalent properties. Thicknesses of
the FRP laminate, glue layer and concrete substrate are respectively 2 mm, 0.2 mm and 20 mm.
Since a delamination of surface area 6.5 cm2 is considered as the threshold above which repair
should be undertaken (Maerz & Galecki, 2008), various diameters ranging from 10 to 40 mm
have been chosen for the bonding defects.
Thermal properties considered in the numerical calculations are given in Table 1 for the
different materials.
Table 1. Thermal properties of the materials.
Material ρ c λ
(kg.m−3 ) (J.K −1 .kg−1 ) (W.m−1.K −1 )
Epoxy 1200 1200 0.2
Concrete 2300 900 1.8
Composite 1500 850 4.2 along fiber
0.7 perpendicular to the fiber

Figure 6 shows the computed thermal response of the composite surface heated with a thermal
flux equal to 1000 W.m−1 for 1 s. Time evolutions of the temperature near sound and faulty
areas are depicted for defect diameters equal to 20, 30 and 40 mm. Maxima of the thermal
contrast (Fig. 7) are respectively observed 9.0 s, 12.5 s and 16.4 s after the end of the heating
period, according to the diameter of the defect. Using the composite thermal diffusivity
in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the fibers) and equation 2, these characteristic
times enable one to estimate an average value of the defect depth, as well as an expanded
uncertainty (k = 2): d = 2.7 ± 0.8 mm. Although the accuracy is low, it remains in the same
range as uncertainties on the thermal properties of materials (typically 20%) and it should be
underlined that the thickness of the adhesive layer is not known precisely in most practical
cases (typical uncertainty of 30%). We prefer this technique, very simple to implement, rather
than the early detection method. Nevertheless, it is to note that the early time detection related
to different diameters of the defect is merged at the same short times t0 ≈ 2.2 s but it is
necessary to apply a threshold of detection factor (Krapez et al., 1994) depending on the noise
level of the experiment, in order to assess the depth of the defect with a good accuracy.
To increase the measured thermal contrast, it is possible to apply the thermal flux for a
longer period and/or to use a high sensitivity infrared camera (NETD of the order of 25 mK).
Moreover, in practice, the second solution is almost unrealistic due to the prohibitive cost of
this type of IR camera which is not suitable to field inspections. By increasing pulse duration,
the contrast can be enhanced but the maxima of the thermal contrast is delayed (Fig.8) and
Equation 2 is not applicable directly any more.

4. Analysis method
Different analysis tools (Balageas et al., 1987; Ibarra-Castanedo et al., 2004; Maldague, 2001)
can be used. They are based on techniques of contrast enhancement (increase in the defect
signature), thermal images sequence decomposition on basis (data compression) and image
segmentation (localization of defects on thermal images).
A first approach to reduce the number of thermal images to be analyzed in a sequence
(Ibarra-Castanedo et al., 2004) consists in using frequency analysis tools. The Fourier
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2.468
10
Temperature (K)

T
Φ : 20 mm

TΦ : 30 mm

TΦ : 40 mm
Tsound
2.467
10

0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
time (s)

Fig. 6. Thermograms of sound and faulty regions for three defect diameters.
−3
10

−4
10

Φ : 20 mm
−5
T

10 Φ : 30 mm
C

Φ : 40 mm
−6
10

−7
10 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
time (s)
Fig. 7. Thermal contrast simulation for three defect diameters.

transform (Equ.4) is applied to temporal evolution of each pixel of the thermal image (T (t)):
N −1
Fn = Δt ∑ T (mΔt)exp(− j2πn/N ) (4)
m =0

where Δt is the sampling time, Fn is the complex image of the n th frequency and N the
maximum number of the frequencies.
Magnitude and phase maps calculated are then analyzed to locate defects.
Another approach is based on Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) which is an interesting
tool for the extraction of the spatial and temporal information from a thermographic matrix
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 1997

0
10

−1
Φ : 40 mm
10

−2
10

−3
T 10
τ = 100 s
C

−4
10

−5 τ = 10 s
10

−6 τ=1s
10

−7
10 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
time (s)

Fig. 8. Thermal contrast simulation for three thermal flux durations τ and 40 mm defect
diameter.

in a compact or simplified manner (Rajic, 2002). The SVD of a M × N matrix A (M > N) can
be calculated as follows:
A = U ∑ VT (5)
where U is a M × N orthogonal matrix, ∑ is a diagonal N × N matrix (with the singular values
of A in the diagonal), and V T is the transpose of a N × N orthogonal matrix (characteristic
time).
Hence, to apply the SVD to thermographic data, the 3D thermogram matrix representing time
and spatial variations has to be reorganized as a 2D M × N matrix A. This can be done
by rearranging the thermograms for every time as columns in A, in such a way that time
variations will occur column-wise while spatial variations will occur row-wise.
Under this configuration, the columns of U represent a set of orthogonal statistical modes
known as Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOF) that describe the spatial variations of
data. On the other hand, the Principal Components (PC), which represent time variations,
are arranged row-wise in matrix V T . The first EOF will represent the most characteristic
variability of the data; the second EOF will contain the second most important variability, and
so on. Usually, original data can be adequately represented with only a few EOF. Typically, a
1,000 thermal images sequence can be replaced by 5 to 10 EOF and analyzed to locate defects.
When the defect is located (spatially) in the image sequence using one of the previous
methods, the method can be refined in order to improve the determination of the defect depth,
i.e. (i) to be insensitive to the material anisotropy in terms of thermal diffusivity (Krapez et al.,
1994) if we determine the early detection time t0 (Fig.4) and (ii) to take the non uniformity of
the heat flux into account (Krapez et al., 1992). As shown in figure 8, in the case of a finite
pulse duration τ, equation 2 must be modified.
The first order correction consists in moving the time scale origin toward the pulse barycenter
(Degiovanni, 1987). Moreover, in the case of an infinitely extended defect located in a
homogeneous medium, Krapez (Krapez, 1991) has proposed an abacus to apply a correction
and take the pulse duration into account (Fig.9).
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Fig. 9. Variation of the Fourier number F0 vs. the pulse duration for different thermal
resistances of the defect.

This abacus (Fig.9) gives the variation of the Fourier number F0 (F0 = αtmax /d2 ) as a function
of the pulse Fourier number F0τ (F0τ = ατ/d2 ) for various thermal resistances of the defect R∗ ,
where R∗ is the ratio between the discontinuity resistance of the defect R and the resistance of
the front layer (R∗ = R/ (d/λ)).
Although the composite can not be considered as an isotropic material and defects have a
finite size, it is proposed to use this abacus in our case in order to improve the estimation of
the defect’s depth.
Equation 2 is then used in a first approximation to estimate the depth of the defect d. This
depth enables one to compute the different parameters R∗ and F0τ used in the abacus (Fig.9).
Finally, a value of F0 is determined and we use it to improve the depth estimation and so on
(Fig.16): 
 αtmax
d = (6)
F0

where d is the new value of depth.

5. Experimentations
Laboratory tests have been carried out to evaluate the performance of the proposed NDE
method. A concrete slab (400 × 300 × 15 mm3 ) has been manufactured and externally
reinforced by three superimposed layers of pultruded FRP plates (thickness of 1.2 mm) with
intermediate glue layers of thickness 1 mm, as shown in figure 10. Bonding defects were
simulated by locally replacing the adhesive by polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) discs (0.5 mm
thick), placed either between the concrete surface and the lower FRP plate, or between two
adjacent FRP layers. The final specimen contains discs of three different diameters (10, 20 and
30 mm), located at three different depths (1.2, 3.4 and 5.6 mm).
The surface of the specimen was heated during 50 s using a flexible electric cover (electric
power is about 1000 W and the surface is 1 × 0.9 m2 ). To visualize the temperature of
the sample surface during the cooling phase after external heating, we used an infrared
camera which produces images of 320 × 240 pixels and composed of uncooled microbolometer
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 2019

Fig. 10. Concrete slab reinforced with bonded FRP plates (3 superimposed layers) and
containing calibrated defects.

Fig. 11. Thermal image at the beginning of thermal relaxation.

detectors allowing to see temperature differences as low as 80 mK in the range from −40◦ C to
+2, 000◦ C. The spectral response is comprised between 7.5 and 13 μm.
Figures 11 and 12 show thermal images of the sample at the beginning of the thermal
relaxation and 52 s after the end of the heating stage. On these figures, we notice the non
homogeneity of the heating.
Using SVD method to analyze the sequence of acquired thermal images, one can select only
few images to localize the defects (Fig.13). Furthermore, SVD method in that case partly
corrects effects of the non homogeneity of the previous heating.
The thermograms (Fig.14) and the thermal contrast (Fig.15) are computed above the larger
defect (diameter = 30 mm). The maximum contrast appears 7 s, 33 s and 120 s after the end of
the heating respectively to the depth. Using equations (2) and (6) iteratively, it is possible to
retrieve the defect’s depth with a good accuracy in the three cases considered here.
Taking the thermal diffusivity perpendicular to the FRP into account, and after some iterations
(Fig.16), the depth of the defects and its expanded uncertainty (k = 2) were estimated to
1.2 ± 0.2 mm, 3.3 ± 0.3 mm and 6.3 ± 0.3 mm which can be compared to the actual depth
values of 1.2, 3.4 and 5.6 mm. Globally, a fairly good agreement was obtained. However, it is
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Fig. 12. Thermal image 52 s after the end of the heating stage.

Fig. 13. 3D view of EOF map obtained with SVD method.

to note that an increased deviation was observed for the defect depth of 5.6 mm, since in this
case measured temperature values were very close to the ambient noise.

6. Field inspection - a case study

In this part, the feasibility of the thermographic method for routine inspection of strengthened
concrete structures is illustrated through a case study conducted on an existing RC structure.
The field test presented in this section only focuses on the detection of bonding defects.
Evaluation of the depths of localized defects was not performed here.
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 203
11

Tsound
T 1 layer
Above defects of diameter 30 mm T 2 layers
T 3 layers

Temperature (K) 2.49

10

2.48
10

1 2
10 10
time (s)
Fig. 14. Experimental thermograms of sound (solid line) and faulty regions above the larger
defects (dashed line for a depth of 1.2 mm, dotted line for a depth of 3.4 mm and dash-dot
line for a depth of 5.6 mm).
−3
x 10

4 1 layer
3 layers
3

2
CT

2 layers
−1

−2

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

time (s)

Fig. 15. Thermal contrast vs. computed time for regions above the larger defects (dashed line
for a depth of 1.2 mm, dotted line for a depth of 3.4 mm and dash-dot line for a depth of
5.6 mm).

6.1 Description of the bridge and repair works

The bridge under study is located near Besançon in France, over the Doubs river. It was built
in the 60ies. The bridge consists in three distinct and independent sections, i.e, 2 access spans
and a main central structure. The latter is divided itself into three spans, respectively 29, 54
and 29 m long, and composed of two box-girders made of prestressed concrete.
204
12 Infrared Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH
Thermography

9
1.2 mm
3.4 mm
8 5.6 mm

Defect’s depth esitmated (mm)

7

1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Iteration number

Fig. 16. Iterative estimation of the defect’s depth (dashed line for a depth of 1.2 mm, dotted
line for a depth of 3.4 mm and dash-dot line for a depth of 5.6 mm).

Fig. 17. View of the bridge under consideration; FRP repaired zones correspond to the white
parts on the girders.

A visual inspection conducted in the 90ies revealed extensive transverse cracking of lower
slabs of box-girders at mid-span. Such a deterioration was mainly attributed to an inadequate
of the thermal gradients consideration in the initial design and to a lack of the inter-element
continuity of longitudinal prestressing in lower slabs.
In order to prevent brittle failure at mid-span, it was decided to repair the cracked box-girders
by bonding carbon fibre sheets according to the wet lay-up process (onsite impregnation).
A recalculation of the structure was performed in order to optimize the repair design with
respect to the shear stress distribution. Finally, composite reinforcements were installed at the
outer side of the web of girders as shown in figure 17.
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 205
13

Fig. 18. Inspection operations.

6.2 Thermographic inspection of the FRP repairs

The first operational evaluation of the innovative thermographic method was accomplished
during the inspection of the CFRP installation. The in situ inspection procedure is based on
the use of an uncooled infrared camera coupled with a hand-held thermal excitation device
consisting of an infrared lamp or an electric cover.
Such a simple set-up offers a fully portable real-time assessment system. The main difficulty
of the inspection was the accessibility to the FRP bonded areas, which was resolved by using
a truck mounted lift-platform (Fig. 18).
Figure 19 shows the geometrical configuration of the controlled area. The thermal solicitation
is imposed by heating the FRP surface with an infrared lamp. Two examples of detected
defects are presented in figure 20. The top image shows a wrapping defect and the bottom

Fig. 19. Shematic representation of the survey area by active infrared thermography.
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14 Infrared Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH
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Fig. 20. Thermal images showing defect on bonded CFRP wrap.

image a gluing defect. These two small debonds were confirmed afterwards by hammer
tapping.

7. Conclusion
In this paper, basic principles of the pulsed stimulated infrared thermography technique
used for NDE of bonded overlays are briefly recalled. A finite element simulation of the
thermal time response of bonding defects on a concrete sample reinforced by externally
bonded FRP makes it possible to calibrate this NDE technique for this particular application.
Moreover, a theoretical analysis of the thermograms is developed in order to quantify the
defect depth. Besides, a laboratory evaluation, performed on FRP-strengthened concrete
sample containing calibrated defects, has demonstrated the effectiveness of the method for
detecting and assessing the depth of the bond defects. Defects were located between concrete
and external FRP reinforcements or between two layers of FRP.
Thermography offers a simple method with real time and full field imaging capabilities.
Moreover, hand portability of the thermal imaging equipment, including the heating
source, is well adapted to field application. Furthermore, feasibility of the thermographic
inspection method into the field was demonstrated during the inspection of a recently CFRP
strengthened bridge. In this last validation test, only qualitative evaluation of the adhesive
bond was performed (detection of the bonding defects). Based on satisfactory laboratory
and field results, it is the author’s point of view that a coupling of the two methods (pulsed
stimulated infrared thermography and analysis of the thermograms) will offer an effective
NDE tool for the evaluation of FRP strengthening systems bonded on concrete structures.
Nondestructive Evaluation of FRP Strengthening
Systems
Nondestructive Bonded on Strengthening
Evaluation of FRP RC Structures Using
Systems Bonded Pulsed
on RC StructuresStimulated Infrared
using Pulsed Stimulated InfraredThermography
Thermography 207
15

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FRP systems for strengthening concrete structures, Technical report, ACI, Michigan
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Akuthota, B., Hughes, D., Zoughi, R., Myers, J. & Nanni, A. (2004). Near-field microwave
detection of disbond in carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites used for
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Balageas, D., Déom, A. & Boscher, D. (1987). Characterization and nondestructive testing
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Degiovanni, A. (1987). Correction de longueur d’impulsion pour la mesure de la diffusivité
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Missouri Department of Transportation.
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Maldague, X. P. V. (ed.) (2001). Theory and practice of infrared technology for non-destructive
testing, John Wiley & sons Inc.
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applied to the non destructive evaluation of bonded interfaces between concrete and
CFRP overlays, European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 15(4): 545–556.
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