FACULTY OF EDUCATION

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UNIT III: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

Module 11: Optics

Introduction
By just reading this module, you are already experiencing the application of optics. Optics is a
fundamental branch of physics that deals with the behavior and properties of light, including its
generation, propagation, and interaction with matter. In fact, many modern technologies such as fiber
optic communication, holography, and laser surgery rely heavily on optics.

In this module, you will be able to understand the principles behind how you are able to see images
through your eyes, lenses, and mirrors. You will learn about the behavior of light as it interacts with
these optical systems, and how to use ray diagrams to predict the characteristics of the resulting images.
Additionally, you will explore the phenomenon of refraction, where light bends as it passes through a
medium with a different refractive index.

Furthermore, you will learn about the diffraction of light, which occurs when it passes through a very
small opening or obstacle. This behavior is fundamental to many optical instruments, such as telescopes
and microscopes, and understanding it is essential for designing and optimizing such systems. You will
also study the interference of light waves, which occurs when two or more waves overlap in space, and
how this phenomenon can lead to bright and dark fringes in patterns of light and dark bands.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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Overall, by studying optics, you will gain a deeper understanding of the properties and behavior of light,
and how to apply this knowledge to a wide range of practical applications.
Objectives
After working on this module, you should be able to:
▪ Explain the law of reflection,
▪ Explain the law of refraction,
▪ Describe total internal reflection,
▪ Explain dispersion,
▪ Draw image formed by lenses and mirrors,
▪ Explain interference, and
▪ Explain diffraction

TOPIC 30:
Geometric Optics

Optics is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior and properties of light, including its
interactions with matter and the formation of images. In this module, we will discuss the fundamental
concepts of optics, including reflection and refraction, and image formation.

Applications of Optics:
Optics has numerous practical applications in various fields, including:
▪ Optics in Medicine: Optics is used in medicine for imaging techniques such as X-rays, CT scans,
and MRI scans. Lasers are also used in medicine for surgeries and treatments.
▪ Optics in Communications: Fiber optics is a technology that uses thin glass fibers to transmit data
as light pulses, and is used in telecommunications and internet communication.
▪ Optics in Manufacturing: Optics is used in manufacturing processes such as cutting, drilling, and
welding, as well as in the production of semiconductors and other electronic components.

Optics is a fundamental area of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light. By
understanding the nature of light, the principles of reflection and refraction, and the formation of
images, we can develop and optimize numerous technologies in fields such as medicine,
communications, and manufacturing.

Geometric optics is the study of the behavior of light as it interacts with lenses and mirrors, and how this
interaction forms images. In this module, we will discuss the fundamental concepts of geometric optics,
including the properties of light rays, the behavior of light in mirrors and lenses, and how to construct ray
diagrams to understand image formation.
Properties of Light Rays:
Light rays are straight lines that represent the direction of propagation of light. They can be used to
understand how light behaves when it interacts with lenses and mirrors. The properties of light rays
include the angle of incidence, angle of reflection, angle of refraction, and the direction of the light ray.

Reflection:

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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When light rays hit a surface, such as a mirror, they bounce off in a predictable way. The angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and the reflected light ray is on the opposite side of the
mirror from the incident light ray. By understanding this behavior, we can create accurate and realistic
images using mirrors. The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (θi) is equal to the angle of
reflection (θr), where both angles are measured with respect to the normal line to the surface at the
point of incidence. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
θi = θr
where θi is the angle of incidence, and θr is the angle of reflection.

Refraction:
When light rays pass through a transparent material, such as a lens or a prism, they bend due to a
change in the speed of light. This bending is called refraction, and is governed by Snell's law, which
relates the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction. By understanding this behavior, we can create
accurate and realistic images using lenses and prisms. The law of refraction, also known as Snell's law, is
a principle that governs how light waves propagate when they pass from one medium to another. Snell's
law states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal
to a constant value, which is known as the refractive index of the two media. This can be expressed
mathematically as:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
where:
n1 is the refractive index of the first medium
n2 is the refractive index of the second medium
θi is the angle of incidence (the angle between the incident ray and the normal to the surface)
θr is the angle of refraction (the angle between the refracted ray and the normal to the surface)

This equation describes the behavior of light waves as they pass through a boundary between two media
with different refractive indices, such as air and water or glass and air. The law of refraction is a
fundamental principle of optics and has numerous applications in fields such as engineering, physics, and
medicine.

Total Internal Reflection:

The law of total internal reflection states that when a light ray travels from a medium with a higher
refractive index to a medium with a lower refractive index, there exists a critical angle of incidence
beyond which the light ray is entirely reflected back into the higher refractive index medium, and no
refraction occurs.

The mathematical equation for the critical angle of incidence can be derived using Snell's law, which
states:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two media, and θ1 and θ2 are the angles of incidence
and refraction, respectively.

When the angle of refraction is 90 degrees (i.e., the light ray is just grazing the surface of the second
medium), the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to 1, and the equation becomes:
n1 sin θc = n2

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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where θc is the critical angle of incidence. Solving for θc, we get:

θc = sin^(-1)(n2/n1)
This equation shows that the critical angle of incidence increases as the refractive index of the second
medium decreases, and vice versa.

Dispersion:
In geometric optics, dispersion refers to the phenomenon where different colors of light refract at
slightly different angles as they pass through a prism or other refracting medium. This causes the light to
spread out into a spectrum of colors, with red light bending the least and violet light bending the most.

The mathematical equation that describes the amount of dispersion (or angular deviation) of a ray of
light passing through a prism is given by:
Δθ=[(n(λ)−1)/A] α
where Δθ is the angular deviation of the ray, n(λ) is the refractive index of the prism for light of
wavelength nλ, A is the prism's refracting angle (i.e., the angle between the two faces of the prism), and
α is the angle of incidence of the ray on the first face of the prism.

The refractive index n is dependent on the wavelength of light, and therefore different colors of light will
experience different amounts of deviation. This causes the light to spread out into a spectrum of colors,
with red light being bent the least and violet light being bent the most, resulting in a rainbow-like
pattern.

Image Formation:
Images can be formed by lenses and mirrors, and are created through the manipulation of light rays. By
using ray diagrams, we can determine the properties of an image, such as its size, orientation, and
position. The position of the image depends on the distance of the object from the lens or mirror, and
the focal length of the lens or mirror.

Geometric optics describes how light rays propagate in a straight line and interact with surfaces and
lenses. The formation of images by lenses is based on the principles of refraction and the relationship
between object distance, image distance, and focal length.

The mathematical equation that describes the image formation by a lens is the thin lens equation, which
relates the object distance (u), image distance (v), and focal length (f) of a lens. The thin lens equation is:
1/f = 1/v - 1/u
where:
▪ f is the focal length of the lens, which is the distance between the lens and the point where
parallel rays of light converge or diverge after passing through the lens.
▪ u is the object distance, which is the distance between the object and the lens.

▪ v is the image distance, which is the distance between the lens and the image formed by the
lens.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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The thin lens equation can be used to determine the position and size of the image formed by a lens,
given the object distance and the focal length.

Image formation with mirrors can be analyzed using the following equation:
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
where f is the focal length of the mirror, do is the object distance (distance from the object to the mirror),
and di is the image distance (distance from the mirror to the image).

This equation is known as the mirror equation and describes the relationship between the object
distance, image distance, and focal length of the mirror. It states that the inverse of the focal length is
equal to the sum of the inverses of the object and image distances.

The sign convention used for the distances is as follows:

Object distance, do: positive if the object is in front of the mirror, negative if the object is behind the
mirror.
Image distance, di: positive if the image is in front of the mirror, negative if the image is behind the
mirror.
Focal length, f: positive for concave mirrors, negative for convex mirrors.
Using the mirror equation, we can determine the position, size, and nature (real or virtual) of the image
formed by a mirror. The magnification of the image is given by the equation:
m = -di/do
where m is the magnification, and the negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.

By combining the mirror equation and the magnification equation, we can solve for the image distance
and magnification in terms of the object distance and focal length:

di = f(do - f)/do

m = -di/do = -f/(do - f)

These equations are used to analyze the image formation with mirrors in various optical systems, such as
telescopes, microscopes, and cameras.

Applications of Geometric Optics:

Geometric optics has numerous practical applications in various fields, including:
▪ Telescopes and Microscopes: Telescopes and microscopes use lenses to magnify distant objects
and small objects, respectively.
▪ Cameras and Projectors: Cameras and projectors use lenses to form images on film or screens.
▪ Optical Instruments: Optical instruments, such as spectrometers and interferometers, use lenses
and mirrors to measure the properties of light and objects.

Geometric optics is a fundamental area of physics that describes the behavior of light as it interacts with
lenses and mirrors. By understanding the properties of light rays, the behavior of light in mirrors and

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
 FACULTY OF EDUCATION
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lenses, and how to construct ray diagrams, we can create accurate and realistic images for a wide range
of practical applications, from telescopes and microscopes to cameras and projectors.

If you prefer to have a more detailed discussion on this topic, you can read the
following chapters on textbooks from OpenStax:
▪ Chapter 25 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (pp.
981-1022)
▪ Chapter 1,2 of University Physics Vol. 3 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny &
William Moebs (pp. 7-27, 53-82)
▪ Chapter 20 of Physics for Dummies by Steven Holzner (pp. 323-338)

Here are some recommended YouTube videos that cover the topic of geometric
optics:
▪ "Geometric Optics" by Khan Academy - This video provides a
comprehensive introduction to the principles of geometric optics, including
reflection, refraction, and the behavior of lenses and mirrors.
▪ "Geometric Optics - Lenses" by Michel van Biezen - This video focuses
specifically on lenses and how they can be used to form images.
▪ "Geometric Optics and Image Formation" by Walter Lewin - This video is
part of a lecture series on physics and covers the basics of geometric optics
and image formation, including the concept of virtual images.
▪ "Mirrors and Lenses: Crash Course Physics #38" by Crash Course - This
video provides a fun and engaging overview of geometric optics, including
the use of mirrors and lenses to form images.
▪ "Geometric Optics, Reflection and Refraction" by Doc Physics - This video
covers the basics of geometric optics, with a focus on reflection and
refraction.
These videos are a great starting point for learning about geometric optics, and I
hope they are helpful!

Here are some tips for solving problems in geometric optics:

1. Draw accurate ray diagrams: Drawings are a powerful tool in geometric optics. Start by drawing a
clear, accurate ray diagram for the given problem. Make sure your diagram includes the incident
ray, the normal line, and the refracted ray (if applicable).
2. Use the relevant equations: Once you have your ray diagram, use the relevant equations to solve
for the unknowns. For example, the thin lens equation is commonly used to find the image
distance or object distance for a lens.
3. Understand the sign conventions: Geometric optics uses sign conventions to indicate the
direction of light rays and the location of objects and images. Make sure you understand these
conventions and use them correctly when solving problems.
4. Use trigonometry: Geometric optics often involves the use of trigonometry to calculate angles
and distances. Make sure you have a solid understanding of basic trigonometric functions like
sine, cosine, and tangent.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
 FACULTY OF EDUCATION
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5. Check your answer: Once you have solved the problem, double-check your answer to make sure
it makes sense. Does the image distance have the correct sign? Is the magnification greater or
less than 1?

Remember, practice makes perfect! The more problems you solve, the more comfortable you will
become with using these techniques to solve geometric optics problems.

Example 1: Snell's Law: Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles of incidence and
refraction when light passes through a boundary between two different materials. It is given by: n1 sin
(θ1) = n2 sin (θ2), where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two materials, and θ1 and θ2 are the
angles of incidence and refraction, respectively. For example, if light passes from air (n1 = 1) into water
(n2 = 1.33), and the angle of incidence is 30 degrees, what is the angle of refraction? Using Snell's Law,
we can find that θ2 = arcsin ((n1/n2)*sin (θ1)) = arcsin ((1/1.33)*sin(30)) = 22.2 degrees.

Example 2: Total Internal Reflection: Total internal reflection occurs when light is incident on a boundary
between two materials with different refractive indices, but at an angle greater than the critical angle.
The critical angle is given by: sin (θc) = n2/n1, where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two
materials. For example, if light is incident on the boundary between water (n1 = 1.33) and air (n2 = 1), at
what angle must the light be incident in order to undergo total internal reflection? Using the equation
for the critical angle, we can find that sin (θc) = n2/n1 = 1/1.33, which gives us a critical angle of
approximately 48.6 degrees.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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Example 3: Refraction through a Prism: A prism is a triangular block of glass that can be used to split
white light into its component colors. The amount of refraction depends on the angle of incidence and
the refractive index of the glass. For example, if white light is incident on a prism at an angle of 30
degrees, and the refractive index of the glass is 1.5, what is the angle of deviation of the red light (which
has a wavelength of 700 nm) as it passes through the prism? Using the equation for the angle of
deviation of a prism, we can find that delta = A*(n-1)*[1-(n1/n2)*sin(A/2)], where A is the angle of the
prism, n is the refractive index of the glass, n1 is the refractive index of air, and n2 is the refractive index
of the glass. For red light, which has a wavelength of 700 nm, we can use the relationship between
wavelength and refractive index (known as dispersion) to find that n = 1.523. Plugging in the numbers,
we find that delta = 3.3 degrees.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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Example 4: If an object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from a lens with a focal length of 10 cm, the
image distance can be calculated as:
1/f = 1/v - 1/u
1/10 = 1/v - 1/30
1/v = 1/10 + 1/30
1/v = 2/30
v = 15 cm

This means that the image formed by the lens is located 15 cm away from the lens. The size of the image
can also be determined using the magnification equation:
m = -v/u
where m is the magnification of the image, which is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of
the object. A negative magnification indicates that the image is inverted relative to the object.

Geometric optics and the thin lens equation are fundamental principles in optics and are used in the
design of lenses and optical systems in various fields, including astronomy, microscopy, and photography.

TOPIC 31:
Interference and Diffraction

Interference and diffraction are phenomena that occur when waves interact with each other or with
obstacles. These phenomena are fundamental to the understanding of wave behavior, and have
numerous applications in fields such as optics, acoustics, and electronics. In this module, we will discuss
the principles of interference and diffraction, and their applications.

Interference:
Interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves combine to form a resultant wave.
This can result in either constructive interference, where the amplitude of the resultant wave is
increased, or destructive interference, where the amplitude of the resultant wave is decreased. The
interference pattern depends on the phase difference between the waves, as well as their amplitudes
and wavelengths.

Diffraction:
Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles or through openings. When waves encounter an
obstacle or opening that is comparable in size to their wavelength, they can diffract, causing them to
spread out in various directions. This leads to the formation of diffraction patterns, which can be
observed in various contexts, including light passing through a narrow slit, or sound waves diffracting
around a corner.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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Applications of Interference and Diffraction:

Interference and diffraction have numerous practical applications in various fields, including:
Optical Interferometry: Optical interferometry uses interference to measure the properties of light and
objects, including the distance between two points, the size and shape of an object, and the refractive
index of a material.
Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy uses diffraction to analyze the properties of light, including its wavelength
and intensity. This technique is used in a wide range of applications, including the analysis of materials
and the study of the universe.
Acoustic Engineering: Acoustic engineering uses diffraction to design and optimize sound systems,
including speakers and microphones, to ensure optimal sound quality and coverage.

Interference and diffraction are fundamental phenomena that occur when waves interact with each
other or with obstacles. By understanding the principles of interference and diffraction, we can explain a
wide range of wave behaviors and phenomena and use this knowledge to design and optimize a range of
technologies, from optical instruments and spectroscopy systems to acoustic systems and sound
engineering.

If you prefer to have a more detailed discussion on this topic, you can read the
following chapters on textbooks from OpenStax:
▪ Chapter 27 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (pp.
1057-1081)
▪ Chapter 3-4 of University Physics Vol. 3 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny &
William Moebs (pp. 117-132, 145-162)
Here are some great YouTube videos about interference and diffraction:
▪ "Interference of Light Waves - Physics" by Bozeman Science: This video
provides a clear explanation of interference of light waves, including
constructive and destructive interference, and how to calculate the
resulting intensity of the interference pattern. Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V5dxYoikjKs
▪ "Young's Double Slit Experiment" by Veritasium: This video demonstrates
Young's double slit experiment, which is a classic demonstration of
interference of light waves, and explains the concept of interference,
wave-particle duality, and the mathematical formula for the interference
pattern. Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iuv6hY6zsd0
▪ "Single Slit Diffraction" by Michel van Biezen: This video explains the
concept of diffraction of light waves through a single slit, including the
resulting diffraction pattern, and how to calculate the angular position of
the minima and maxima. Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvRS7bJH70A
▪ "Diffraction Grating" by Doc Physics: This video explains the concept of
diffraction gratings, which are devices used to split light into its
component colors, and how to calculate the angular position of the
diffracted orders. Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CuiYZhKj8g4
▪ "Michelson Interferometer" by Khan Academy: This video explains the
concept of Michelson interferometers, which are devices used to measure

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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very small distances, and how they use interference of light waves to
create interference fringes that can be used to measure distances. Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qApX9Kj6z04

Here are some tips for solving problems related to interference and diffraction:

1. Draw diagrams: It's important to have a clear visual understanding of the setup and the path of
the light waves. Draw diagrams to help you visualize the setup, the distances involved, and the
paths of the light waves.
2. Understand the concept of superposition: In both interference and diffraction, multiple waves
interfere with each other. Understand the concept of superposition and how it affects the
amplitude and phase of the resulting wave.
3. Use the appropriate equations: There are different equations that apply to different types of
interference and diffraction problems. For example, for double-slit interference, you would use
the equation d sin θ = m λ, where d is the distance between the slits, θ is the angle of the
fringes, m is the order of the fringe, and λ is the wavelength of the light.
4. Pay attention to units: Make sure that all the units are consistent throughout the problem. This is
especially important when dealing with wavelength and distance measurements.
5. Practice with sample problems: The best way to get comfortable with solving interference and
diffraction problems is to practice with sample problems. Look for practice problems in
textbooks or online resources and work through them step-by-step.

By following these tips, you can approach interference and diffraction problems with confidence and
successfully solve them.

Here are 4 practical examples of interference and diffraction:

Young's double-slit experiment: In this experiment, light is shone through two slits and produces an
interference pattern on a screen. This demonstrates the wave nature of light and the principle of
superposition.

Diffraction gratings: These are devices that contain a large number of parallel slits or lines that diffract
light in a specific pattern. They are used in spectroscopy to analyze the wavelengths of light and identify
the chemical composition of materials.

Thin-film interference: When light is reflected off a thin film, such as a soap bubble or an oil slick on
water, interference occurs between the reflected light waves. This produces a spectrum of colors, known
as thin-film interference colors.

Holograms: Holograms are created by recording interference patterns between two light waves. When a
hologram is illuminated by a coherent light source, such as a laser, it produces a three-dimensional image
that appears to float in space.

These examples demonstrate the practical applications of interference and diffraction in fields such as
optics, spectroscopy, and imaging.

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.
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References
▪ Walker, Halliday and Resnick (2014). Fundamental of Physics, 10th Ed.
(Extended), John Wiley & Sons, USA.
▪ Giancoli, Douglas C. Physics: Principles with Applications 7th Edition
▪ Nolan, Peter J. Fundamentals of College Physics
▪ Tipler, Paul A. Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th Edition
▪ Young, Hugh D & Freedman, Roger A. University Physics 15th Edition
▪ Serway, Raymond A & Jewett Jr., John W. Physics for Scientists and
Engineers with Modern Physics 9th Edition

This Bridge Physics module is originally written by Dr. Phoebe Nicole G. Perez and revised by Dr. Giovanni M. Malapit.