FOUNDATIONS

It’s the base onto which a building rests. The function of any foundation is to
safely sustain and transmit to the ground on which it rests the combined dead,
imposed and wind loads in such a manner as not to cause any settlement or other
movement which would impair the stability or cause damage to any part of the
building.

FUNCTIONS OF A FOUNDATION.

a) Distribute the loads evenly

b) Reduce load intensity
c) Provide a level surface onto which other structural members can be built
on.
d) Lateral stability
e) Safety against undermining or burrowing.
f) Protection against soil movement

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:
i. The foundations should be strong enough to sustain the dead and live
loads imposed onto it and transmit it to the subsoil safely without
impairing the stability of the building.
ii. They should be sufficiently deep to safeguard the structure against
damage caused by swelling or shrinkage of the subsoil.
iii. It should be located in such a way that its performance won’t be
affected by any future influence.
iv. It should be constructed with durable materials so as to last long.

TERMINOLOGIES:

 Topsoil: are soils below the surface being 300 mm deep

 Subsoil: are soils located immediately below the base of foundation.
 Backfill: materials excavated from site and if suitable used to fill in the
trench around the wall and foundation.
 Made ground: this is the excavated rocks or soils deposited for the
purpose of filling in depression or raising the site above natural level.
 Bearing pressure: pressure induced/produced on the ground by the load
 Bearing capacity: this is safe load per unit area which the soil can safely
carry.
METHODS OF IMPROVING SOIL BEARING CAPACITY:

1) Increasing the depth of the foundation: this is due to confining weight of

the overlying materials to the granular soil.
2) Compaction of soil: compaction increases the bearing capacity of soil and
reduces settlement.
3) Drainage of soil: water decreases the bearing capacity of soil. Draining it
results in decreased void ratio and improves the bearing capacity.
4) Confining the soil: reducing settlement due to lateral movement of loose
granular soil. Confining the soil increases the bearing capacity
5) Grouting: this method is used for loose gravels and fissured rocky strata
where cement grout or other chemicals are used to hold together the
granules.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS:

THERE ARE TWO CLASSES OF FOUNDATIONS:

1) Natural foundations: this is the base onto which the artificial foundation
rests.
2) Artificial foundations: these are the constructed foundations on the
natural foundations. They include; strip foundations, raft foundations, pad
foundation, pile foundation, pier foundations, caissons,e.t.c

Artificial Foundations are broadly classified into two main categories:

Shallow Foundations and Deep Foundations.

I. Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations are placed near the ground surface and used where the soil
at shallow depth has adequate load-bearing capacity.

a. STRIP FOUNDATION:

these are shallow foundation that are used to provide a continuous, level (or
sometimes stepped) strip of support to a linear structure such as a wall or
closely-spaced rows of columns built centrally above them.
It can also be described as a spread footing for a continuous wall.

Types of strip foundations:

A. Wide strip foundation

Wide strip foundations may be required where the soil is soft or of a low bearing
capacity, so as to spread the load over a larger area. Wide strip foundations will
typically require reinforcement.

B. Deep strip foundation:

Deep strip foundations may be necessary where soil with a suitable bearing
capacity is deeper. Deep strip foundation are usually dug out with mechanical
excavators which cuts a narrow trench that is backfilled with concrete up to
ground level. It reduces the cost of masonry wall and may remove the need for
timber supports for the trench.

C. Stepped foundation:

Where the natural surface of the ground is sloped, the most economical
solution may be a stepped foundation. In this case, the foundation takes the
form of a series of concrete horizontal steps following the slope of
the ground.

This helps to minimize the amount of excavation and below-ground wall

construction that would otherwise be required. Stepped foundations can also be
used to transition from deep foundations to shallow foundations, and at corners
and intersections.

Regularly stepping foundations also avoids abrupt and excessive changes in level
that could cause a weakness resulting in movement. Similarly, abrupt and
excessive changes in foundation depths should be avoided at corners and
intersections by the introduction of stepping.

Requirements for Stepped Foundations

i. The steps are arranged in short length at regular heights, usually a multiple
of the building unit courses.

ii. The overlap of the higher level to the lower level should not be less than
the thickness of the foundation and in no case less than 300mm.
DESIGN OF A SIMPLE STRIP FOUNDATION.

Since the settlement of the structure occurs during its working life, the design
loading to be considered when calculating the size of the base should be taken as
the for the serviceability limit.

The calculations for the strip foundation depend on the load bearing capacity of
the soil and the pressure of the load to be supported.

b. PAD/ISOLATED FOUNDATION

o Supports individual columns.

o Typically square, rectangular, or circular.

o Used when columns are spaced far apart.

Pad foundations are used to support an individual point load such as a structural
column. They may be circular, square or rectangular

This is a foundation used to support and transmit loads from piers and columns.
The most economical plan is a square but if the columns are close to the site
boundary it may be necessary to use a rectangular plan shape of equivalent area.

The isolated concrete pad foundation are spread in the base of an excavation on
which piers/column of bricks or concrete are raised to ground level to support
reinforced concrete ground beams off which the walls are raised.
 c. COMBINED FOOTING:

o Supports two or more columns when they are close together.

o Can be rectangular or trapezoidal to distribute loads evenly.

d. RAFT FOUNDATION/MAT FOUNDATION:

o Large slab covering the entire footprint of the building.

o Used when the soil bearing capacity is low or loads are high to distribute
weight uniformly.

These consists of a raft of a reinforced concrete under the whole of the building
designed to transmit the load of the building to the subsoil beneath the raft. This
foundation covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all walls and
columns.

Raft foundation is actually a thick concrete slab resting on a large area of soil
reinforced with steel, supporting columns or walls and transfer loads from the
structure to the soil. Usually, mat foundation is spread over the entire area of
the structure it is supporting.
Raft foundation is generally used to support structures like residential or
commercial buildings where soil condition is poor, storage tanks, silos, foundations
for heavy industrial equipment etc.

Raft foundation is preferred when-

 The soil has a low bearing capacity.

 Load of the structure has to be distributed over a large area.
 Individual or any other foundation area would approximately cover 50% of
the total ground area beneath the structure.
 The columns or walls are placed so closely that the individual footings would
overlap.
 Stress on soil needs to be reduced.
 There is a possibility of differential settlement in case individual footing
is used.
 When soil strata are unpredictable and contain pockets of compressible
soil.
 Basement is to be constructed.
 Any other type of footing cannot be used advantageously.

Types of Raft Foundation;

1. Flate plate mat

2. Plate thickened under the column
3. Two-way beam and slab Raft
4. Plate raft with pedestals
5. Plied raft
 6. Rigid Frame Mat or Cellular Raft Foundation

DEEP FOUNDATIONS: these foundations include pile foundation, pier

foundations, caissons foundation or well foundation. Pile is the most used among
them. They are used when the soil at shallow depth is not strong enough to support
the structure. They transfer the load to deeper, more stable soil or rock layers.

A. PILE FOUNDATION:

This type of foundation is used when:

 The load of the superstructure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.

 The top soil has poor bearing capacity.
 The subsoil water level is high so that pumping of water from open trenches
for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical.
 There is a large fluctuation in subsoil water level.
 When the site is on the sea shore or a river bed. The top soil is of expansive
nature.
 Canal or deep drainage lines exist near foundations.
 There is danger of scouring action of water.

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF PILE FOUNDATION.

 Classification based on function or use of a pile. I.e. end bearing pile,

friction pile, compaction pile, anchor pile, sheet pile etc.
 Classification based on materials and composition i.e. concrete pile, timber
pile, steel pile, composite pile etc.

TYPES OF PILES:

 Bored or replacement piles: this concrete correctly poured into holes in

the ground at measured intervals.
 Driven or displacement piles: these are piles that are hammered into soft
ground at spaced intervals.

Shot bored piled foundation: these are used for small houses and light weight
framed buildings constructed on soils that expand and contract with changes in
the moisture content e.g. clay and black cotton. These kind of foundations aren’t
suitable for use on rock, flint, or sites with many roots because the hole must be
straight and consistent in diameter

2. PILE FOUNDATION:

o Large-diameter vertical shafts drilled into the ground.

o Often used in bridges or heavy structures where large concentrated loads

are expected.

3. CAISSON (Drilled Shaft):

o Similar to piers but often larger in diameter and sunk to great depths.

o Used in underwater construction (e.g., bridge piers).

4. WELL FOUNDATION:

o A specialized type of foundation used in rivers or coastal areas.

o Typically used for bridges or docks.

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