Application Note 194

Fundamentals of an OTDR
By Jimmy Gagnon, Product Specialist, Optical Business Unit

To ensure quality of service (QoS), network constructors, service Reflection is key

providers and operators need to accurately pinpoint existing and
As previously examined, the OTDR provides a view of the link by
potential problems, making test and measurement equipment
reading the level of light that returns from the pulse which was sent.
vital. There are a number of test tools available that address the
Note that there are two types of light levels: a constant low level
different testing needs at various stages of the network, such as
created by the fiber called Rayleigh backscattering and a high-
fiber commissioning. Used to reveal the total loss, optical return
reflection peak at the connection points called Fresnel reflection.
loss (ORL) and the fiber length, such tests can be performed either
Rayleigh backscattering is used to calculate the level of attenuation
on a single fiber or on a complete network. Additionally, a closer
in the fiber as a function of distance (expressed in dB/km), which
examination of the different elements that make up the link under test
is shown by a straight slope in an OTDR trace. This phenomenon
may be required. Whether to characterize each component of the
comes from the natural reflection and absorption of impurities inside
link, to pinpoint a potential problem with the fiber or to find a fault on
optical fiber. When hit, some particles redirect the light in different
your network, the use of an optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR)
directions, creating both signal attenuation and backscattering.
is inevitable—from fiber network commissioning to troubleshooting
Higher wavelengths are less attenuated than shorter ones and,
and maintenance, an OTDR is the tool of choice. This application
therefore, require less power to travel over the same distance in a
note explores the fundamental OTDR principles that are key to
standard fiber. Figure 2 below illustrates Rayleigh backscattering.
understanding the specifications of this instrument.

WHAT IS AN OTDR?
The basics
An OTDR combines a laser source and a detector to provide an
inside view of the fiber link. The laser source sends a signal into
the fiber where the detector receives the light reflected from the
different elements of the link. This produces a trace on a graph made
in accordance with the signal received, and a post-analysis event
table that contains detailed information on each identified network
component is then generated. The signal sent is a short pulse that
carries a certain amount of energy. A clock then precisely calculates
the time of flight of the pulse, and time is converted into distance—
knowing the properties of this fiber. As the pulse travels along the
fiber, a small portion of the pulse’s energy returns to the detector Figure 2. Rayleigh backscattering
due to the reflection of the connections and the fiber itself. When the
pulse has entirely returned to the detector, another pulse is sent—until Rayleigh backscattering detects physical non-reflective events from
the acquisition time is complete. Therefore, many acquisitions will a sudden decrease in the signal level. It appears as a discontinuity in
be performed and averaged in a second to provide a clear picture the downward slope of the trace signal. This event is often caused
of the link’s components. After the acquisition has been completed, by fusion splices, macrobends or microbends in the fiber. To properly
signal processing is performed to calculate the distance, loss and discriminate a physical bend from a fusion splice in the fiber, a dual-
reflection of each event, in addition to calculating the total link length, wavelength test is required. Macrobends will typically display higher
total link loss, ORL and fiber attenuation. The main advantage of loss at higher wavelength, while a fusion splice loss level would be
using an OTDR is the single-ended test—requiring only one operator almost wavelength independent. Figure 3 illustrates dual-wavelength
and instrument to qualify the link or find a fault in a network. traces of different non-reflective events.
Figure 1 below illustrates the block diagram of an OTDR.

PULSE LASER DIRECTIONAL

SIGNAL PROCESSING AND GENERATOR COUPLER
TRACE ANALYSIS

- IOR OTDR PORT

- Pulse width
- Acquisition time
- Wavelength
- Distance range
- Helix factor

CONVERTER AMPLIFIER AVALANCHE

PHOTODIODE

DIGITAL
Figure 3. Raleigh backscattering drop from fusion splice (event 4) and
ANALOG
macrobend (event 5)

Figure 1. Block diagram of an OTDR

 Application Note 194

The second type of reflection used by an OTDR—Fresnel reflection— Event dead zone
detects physical events along the link. When the light hits an abrupt
The event dead zone is the minimum distance after a Fresnel
change in index of refraction (e.g., from glass to air) a higher amount
reflection where an OTDR can detect another event. In other words,
of light is reflected back, creating Fresnel reflection, which can
it is the minimum length of fiber needed between two reflective
be thousands of times bigger than the Rayleigh backscattering.
events. Still using the car example mentioned above, when your
Fresnel reflection is identifiable by the spikes in an OTDR trace.
eyes are blinded by another car, after a few seconds you could
Examples of such reflections are connectors, mechanical splices,
notice an object on the road without being able to properly identify
bulkheads, fiber breaks or opened connectors. Figure 4 below
it. In the case of an OTDR, the consecutive event is detected, but
illustrates different connections that create Fresnel reflections.
the loss cannot be measured (see Figure 5). The OTDR merges
the consecutive events and returns a global reflection and loss for
all merged events. To establish specifications, the most common
industry method is to measure the distance at -1.5 dB from each side
of the reflective peak (see Figure 6). Another method that measured
the distance from the beginning of the event until the reflection level
falls to -1.5 dB from its peak has also been used; this method returns
a longer dead zone, but it is not often used by manufacturers.

Figure 4. Fresnel reflections created by (1) mechanical splice, (2)

bulkhead and (3) opened connection

What are dead zones?

Fresnel reflections lead to an important OTDR specification
known as dead zones. There exist two types of dead zones: event
and attenuation. Both originate from Fresnel reflections and are
expressed in distance (meters) that vary according to the power
of those reflections. A dead zone is defined as the length of time
during which the detector is temporary blinded by a high amount Figure 5. Merged event from a long dead zone
of reflected light, until it recovers and can read light again—think
of when you drive a car at night and you cross another car in the
opposite direction; your eyes are blinded for a short period of time.
In the OTDR world, time is converted into distance; therefore, more
reflection causes the detector to take more time to recover, resulting
in a longer dead zone. Most manufacturers specify dead zones at
the shortest available pulse width and on a -45 dB reflection for
singlemode fibers and -35 dB for multimode fibers. For this reason,
it is important to read the specification sheet footnotes since
manufacturers use different testing conditions to measure the dead
zones—pay particular attention to the pulse width and the reflection
value. For instance, a -55 dB reflection for singlemode fiber provides
more optimistic specifications of a shorter dead zone than using -45
dB, simply because -55 dB is a lower reflection and the detector
recovers faster. Also, using different methods to calculate the Figure 6. Measuring event dead zone
distance could also return a shorter dead zone than what it really is.
The importance of having the shortest-possible event dead zone
allows the OTDR to detect closely spaced events in the link. For
example, testing in premises networks requires an OTDR with
short event dead zones since the patchcords that link the various
data centers are extremely short. If the dead zones are too long,
some connectors may be missed and will not be identified by the
technicians, which makes it harder to locate a potential problem.

© 2017 EXFO Inc. All rights reserved.

 Application Note 194

Attenuation dead zones Dynamic range

The attenuation dead zone is the minimum distance after a Fresnel An important OTDR parameter is the dynamic range. This parameter
reflection where an OTDR can accurately measure the loss reveals the maximum optical loss an OTDR can analyze from the
of a consecutive event. Still using the car example previously backscattering level at the OTDR port down to a specific noise level.
mentioned, after a longer time, your eyes will have recovered enough In other words, it is the maximum length of fiber that the longest
to identify and analyze the nature of the object on the road. As pulse can reach. Therefore, the bigger the dynamic range (in dB), the
illustrated in Figure 7 below, the detector has enough time to recover longer the distance reached. Evidently, the maximum distance varies
so that it can detect and measure the loss of the consecutive event. from one application to another since the loss of the link under test
The minimum required distance is measured from the beginning of a is different. Connectors, splices and splitters are some of the factors
reflective event until the reflection is back to 0.5 dB over the fiber’s that reduce the maximum length of an OTDR. Therefore, averaging
backscattering level, as illustrated in Figure 8. for a longer period of time and using the proper distance range is
the key to increasing the maximum measurable distance. Most of
the dynamic range specifications are given using the longest pulse
width at a three-minute averaging time, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) =
1 (averaged level of the root mean square (RMS) noise value). Once
again, note that it is important to read the footnotes of a specification
for detailed testing conditions.

A good rule of thumb is to choose an OTDR that has a dynamic

range that is 5 to 8 dB higher than the maximum loss that will be
encountered. For example, a singlemode OTDR with a dynamic
range of 35 dB has a usable dynamic range of approximately 30
dB. Assuming typical fiber attenuation of 0.20 dB/km at 1550 nm
and splices every 2 km (loss of 0.1 dB per splice), a unit such as this
one will be able to accurately certify distances of up to 120 km. The
maximum distance could be approximately calculated by dividing the
Figure 7. Attenuation dead zone attenuation of the fiber to the dynamic range of the OTDR. This helps
determine which dynamic range will enable the unit to reach the end
of the fiber. Keep in mind that the more loss there is in the network,
the more dynamic range will be required. Note that a high dynamic
range specified at 20 μs does not guarantee a high dynamic range at
short pulses—excessive trace filtration could artificially boost dynamic
range at all pulses at the cost of a bad fault-finding resolution.

PULSE WIDTH
What is pulse width?
The pulse width is actually the time during which the laser is on. As
we know, time is converted into distance so that the pulse width has
a length. In an OTDR, the pulse carries the energy required to create
the backreflection for link characterization. The shorter the pulse, the
Figure 8. Measuring attenuation dead zone less energy it carries and the shorter the distance it travels due to
the loss along the link (i.e., attenuation, connectors, splices, etc.). A
long pulse carries much more energy for use in extremely long fibers.
Importance of dead zones Figure 9 below illustrates the pulse width as a function of time.
Short attenuation dead zones enable the OTDR not only to detect
a consecutive event but also to return the loss of closely spaced Power
events. For instance, the loss of a short patchcord within a network
can now be known, which helps technicians to have a clear picture
of what is inside the link.

Dead zones are also influenced by another factor: the pulse width.
Specifications use the shortest pulse width in order to provide the carried energy carried energy
shortest dead zones. However, dead zones are not always the same
length; they stretch as the pulse width increases. Using the longest short pulse long pulse Time
possible pulse width results in extremely long dead zones, yet this short dead zone long dead zone
has a different use, as will be examined further on. low energy high energy

Figure 9. Short pulse vs. long pulse

© 2017 EXFO Inc. All rights reserved.

 Application Note 194

If the pulse is too short, it loses its energy before the fiber end, A B
causing the backscattering level to become low to the point where
the information is lost at the noise floor level. This results in an
inability to reach the end of the fiber. Therefore, it is not possible to
measure the complete link since the returned end of fiber distance is
much shorter than the actual length of the fiber. Another symptom is
when the trace becomes too noisy near the fiber end; the OTDR can
no longer proceed with the signal analysis and the measurements
may be faulty.

Dealing with pulse width

When the trace becomes noisy, there are two easy ways to obtain
a cleaner trace. First, the acquisition time can be increased, which
results in a considerable improvement (increase) in SNR, while
maintaining the good resolution of the short pulse. However,
A
increasing the averaging time has its limits, as it does not improve B
SNR indefinitely. If the trace is still not sufficiently smooth, then we
move on to the second method, which is to use the next available
higher pulse (more energy). However, keep in mind that dead zones
extend along with the pulse width. Fortunately, most OTDRs on the
market have an Auto mode that selects the most appropriate pulse
width for the fiber under test; this option is very convenient when
the length or loss of the fiber under test is unknown and will provide
the best trade-off for a single pulse width acquisition.

When characterizing a network or a fiber, it is critical to select the

right pulse width for the link under test. Short pulse width, short
dead zone and low power are used to test short links where events
are closely spaced, while a long pulse width, long dead zone and
high power are used to reach further distances for longer networks
or high-loss networks. However, an optimal characterization of each
Figure 10. Resolution vs. fault-finding efficiency: (a) 5-meter resolution
element of a link would involve taking multiple traces, selecting the
(higher resolution). (b) 15-meter resolution (lower resolution)
right pulse for each section of a link and analyzing the link from
multiple traces (at the expense of higher testing time, more complex
post-processing analysis and trace file management). As illustrated above, having a high number of points results in a
higher resolution (short distance between points), which is the
ultimate condition for finding faults.
Sampling resolution and sampling points
The ability for an OTDR to pinpoint the right distance of an event
relies on a combination of different parameters—among them are the CONCLUSION
sampling resolution and the sampling points. Sampling resolution There are numerous OTDR models available on the market that
is defined as “the minimum distance between two consecutive address different test and measurement needs—from basic
sampling points acquired by the instrument”. This parameter is fault finders to advanced instruments. To make the right choice,
crucial, as it defines the ultimate distance accuracy and fault-finding fundamental parameters must be considered when purchasing an
capability of the OTDR. Depending on the selected pulse width OTDR, since selecting a unit only based on overall performance and
and distance range, this value could vary from 4 cm up to a few price will lead to problems if the model selected is inappropriate for
meters. Consequently, there must be a high number of sampling the application. An OTDR has complex specifications, and most of
points taken during an acquisition to maintain the best possible them entail trade-offs. A solid understanding of these parameters
resolution. Figures 10a and 10b illustrate the role that high resolution and how to verify them will help buyers make the right choice for
plays in fault-finding: their needs—maximizing productivity and cost efficiency.

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APNOTE194.2AN © 2017 EXFO Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in Canada 17/03