1

UNIT I SEED CHARACTERS  The embryo is an immature plant from which a new plant will
grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one cotyledon or
Seed: seed leaf in monocotyledons, two cotyledons in almost
all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms.
 Seed is defined as fertilized, matured ovule consisting of an
embryonic plant together with a store of food, all surrounded by  The radicle is the embryonic root.
a protective coat.  The plumule is the embryonic shoot.
 A seed (in some plants, referred to as a kernel) is a small
embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, Differences between seed and grain
usually with some stored food. It is the product of the
Sl.No Seed Grain
ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which
occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother 1 It should be a viable and Need not be a viable one
plant. vigorous one
2 It should be physically and Not so
genetically pure
3 Should satisfy minimum seed No such requirements
certification standards
4 It can be treated with pesticide It should never be treated
/fungicide to protect seed with any chemicals, since
against storage pests and fungi used for consumption
5 Respiration rate and other No such specifications
physiological and biological
processes should be kept at
low level during storage
6 Should be compulsorily No such condition in grain
certified production
7 It should satisfy all the quality Not considered
norms
8 Seed can be utilized as grain Grain never can be converted
provided if it is not treated into seed.
 A typical seed includes three basic parts: (1) embryo, (2) with poisonous chemicals
cotyledon(supply of nutrients for the embryo) and (3) a seed
coat.

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Difference between seed and grain production years. Seed acts as a vehicle for the superior genes to reach farmers. It
is also a carrier of bio technological innovations.
Sl.No Seed production Grain production
1. Planned programme –start with well planning not 2. A basic tool for secured food supply
demand forecasting ends with required
marketing Introduction of dwarf and high yielding varieties and hybrids of
different crops increased the productivity and led to potential
2 Authenticated source is required to Need not be
development.
raise a seed crop
3 Specific land and field requirements Not so
3. The principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable
4 Should be monitored for certification Not so production areas
standards and certified by the Agency
5 To be harvested at physiological Harvestable maturity The supply of good quality seeds of improved varieties suitable
maturity to these areas is one of the few important immediate contributions to
6 Proper post harvest technology Not so secure higher crop yields.
should be followed
4. A medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of
natural disaster
Importance and Characteristics
Widespread floods and droughts in various parts of the country and
Seed is the basic input in agriculture upon which other inputs elsewhere have focused attention on these recurrent crises and the
are applied. A good vigorous seed utilizes all the resources and realized accompanying threats of famine and starvation. This would provide
a reasonable out put to the grower. It is wealth to the farmer, it is the improved seeds in emergency periods to production areas for rapid
yesterday’s harvest and tomorrows hope. Good seed in good soil realize production of food grains.
good yield. It is a link between two generations.
 This would supply seeds to disaster regions for resowing, as no
Seed is: seed would normally be available in such regions.
Goal of seed technology
1. Carrier of new technology  Rapid multiplication
 Timely supply
The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties wisely
 Assured high quality seed
combined with other inputs significantly increases the yield levels. In
India cultivation of high yielding varieties increased the food  Reasonable price
production from 52 million to 180 million tons over a period of 40

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In brief the role of seed technology in Agriculture sector is timely 5. It should have good shape, size,colour, etc., according to
supply of quality seeds for reasonable price. specifications of variety
6. Should have high physical soundness &weight
Characteristics of good quality seed 7. It should posses high physiological vigour and stamina
1. It must be genetically pure 8. It should posses high longevity and shelf life
Breeder/Nucleus -100% 9. It should have optimum moisture content for storage
Foundation seed - 99.5% o long term storage - 8 % & below
Certified seed -99.0% o short term storage -10-13%
2. It should have the required level of physical purity for 10. It should have high market value
certification 11. It should be free from designated diseases
All crops - 98%
Carrot - 95% Propagation of plants
3. It should have high pure seed percentage
Bhendi - 99.0 % Reproduction refers to the process by which living organisms
give rise to the offspring of similar kind (species). In crop plants, the
Other crops - 98.0 %
mode of reproduction is of two types: viz.
4. It should be free from other crop seeds, expressed in number /kg 1) Sexual reproduction
2) Asexual reproduction
Crop Designated inseparable other crop seeds
Barley Wheat, oats & gram I. Sexual reproduction
Oats Wheat, gram & barley
Wheat Oats, gram & barley Propagation of plants through seeds.Multiplication of plants
through embryos which have developed by fusion of male and female
gametes is known as sexual reproduction. All the seed propagating
These are the plants of cultivated crops found in the seed field species belong to this group.
and whose seed are so similar to crop seed that is difficult to separate
them economically by mechanical means. Cause physical admixture Sporogenesis
with the crop seed only when these crop mature approximately at the
Production of microspores and megaspores is known as
same time when seed crop matures. sporogenesis. In anthers, microspores are formed through

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microsporogensis and in ovules, the megaspores are formed through

megasporogenesis.
Disadvantages
Microsporogenesis
 Seedling plants are not true to type to the mother plants due to
Microsporogenesis is the formation of microspores inside a heterozygous nature of fruit plants.
microsporangium (or pollen sac) by meiotic or reduction division. The  Seedling plants have long juvenile phase (6-10 years) and hence
formation of pollen grains from the microspores is termed flowering and fruiting commences very late.
microgametogenesis.  Sexually raised plants are generally tall and spreading type and
thus are cumbersome for carrying out various management
Megasporogenesis practices like pruning, spraying, harvesting etc.
 Seeds of many fruits are to be sown immediately after
A single sporophytic cell inside the ovule, which undergo extraction from the fruits as they lose their viability very soon
meiotic division to form haploid megaspore, is called megaspore e.g. cashew nut, jamun, jackfruit, citrus, mango and papaya.
mother cell (MMC) and the process is called megasporogenesis. In  Seedling plants usually produce fruits of inferior quality.
ovules, the megaspores are formed through megasporogenesis.
II. Asexual reproduction
Gametogenesis
Multiplication of plants without the fusion of male and female
The production of male and female gametes in the microspores gametes is known as asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction can
and megaspores is known as gametogenesis. occur either by vegetative plant parts or by vegetative embryos which
develop without sexual fusion (apomixis). Thus asexual reproduction
Advantages is of two types: viz. a) vegetative reproduction and b) apomixis.

 Propagation by seeds is simple and easy. Vegetative reproduction refers to multiplication of plants by
 Seedling plants are long lived, productive and have greater means of various vegetative plant parts. Vegetative reproduction is
tolerance to adverse soil and climatic conditions and diseases. again of two types: viz. i) natural vegetative reproduction and ii)
 Seed propagation makes feasible to propagate plants like papaya artificial vegetative reproduction.
and coconut in which asexual means of propagation is not
common. Natural vegetative reproduction
 Hybrids can only be developed by sexual means.
 Seed is the source for production of rootstocks for asexual In nature, multiplication of certain plants occurs by underground
propagation. stems, sub aerial stems, roots and bulbils. In some crop species,
 Seeds, if stored properly can be kept for longer duration /period underground stems give rise to new plants. Underground stems are of
for future use.

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four types: viz. rhizome, tuber, corm and bulb. The examples of plants  Plants in which seed setting does not take place (e.g. pineapple
which reproduce by means of underground stems are given below: and banana), asexual propagation serves as a substitute
for sexual propagation.
Rhizome: Turmeric, Ginger  Using asexual methods, desirable characters of a mother plant
Tuber: Potato can be multiplied easily.
Bulb: Garlic, onion  It is possible to convert a non-productive local variety into
productive improved variety by using asexual methods.
Sub aerial stems include runner, sucker, stolon, etc. These stems lead  It is possible to grow several varieties on one plant or change
to vegetative reproduction in mint, strawberry, banana, etc. variety of existing plant by top working.

Disadvantages

Artificial vegetative reproduction  Asexual propagated plants have shorter life-span.

 Sometimes asexual propagation disseminates diseases
Multiplication of plants by vegetative parts through artificial  Technical skill is required.
method is known as artificial vegetative reproduction. Such
reproduction occurs by cuttings of stem and roots, and by layering and Apomixis
grafting. Examples of such reproduction are given below:
Apomixis refers to the development of seed without sexual
Stem cuttings: Sugarcane, grapes, roses, etc. fusion (fertilization). In apomixis embryo develops without
Root cuttings: Sweet potato fertilization. Thus apomixis is an asexual means of
Layering and grafting are used in fruit and ornamental crops. reproduction. Apomixis is found in many crop species. Reproduction
in some species occurs only by apomixis. This apomixis is termed
Advantages as obligate apomixis. But in some species sexual reproduction also
occurs in addition to apomixis. Such apomixis is known as facultative
 Asexually propagated plants are true to type to their mother apomixis.
plants.
 Asexually propagated plants have short juvenile phase and bear There are four types of apomixis: viz.
flowers and fruits in the early age (3-4 years) than seedling
plants. 1) Parthenogenesis, 2) apogamy, 3) apospory and 4) adventive
 The vegetatively propagated plants are smaller in structure and embryony.
hence management operations like spraying, pruning and
harvesting etc. become easy. 1. Parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis refers to development of embryo
from the egg cell without fertilization.

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2. Apogamy. The origin of embryo from either synergids or antipodal Pollination

cells of the embryosac is called as apogamy.
Floral biology
3. Apospory. In apospory, first diploid cell of ovule lying outside the
embryosac develops into another embryosac without reduction. The Flower is a reproductive organ bearing pistil, stamen and usually sepals
embryo then develops directly from the diploid egg cell without and petals. Male part of a flower is androecium consisting of anther
fertilization. sac, anthers and pollen grains. Female part is gynoecium consisting of
ovary, style and stigma.
4. Adventive embryony. The development of embryo directly from
the diploid cells of ovule lying outside the embryosac belonging to The flower is said to be perfect, when they contain both male and
either nucellus or integuments is referred to as adventive embryony. female parts. A flower with both functional male and female is called
as bisexual or hermaphrodite. Sometimes male or
female mature slightly atdifferent times.

If male matures first it is called as protandry, if female – protogyny.

The important events involved in seed development and maturation

include

1. Pollination
2. Fertilization
3. Development of the fertilized ovule by
a. Cell division
b. Accumulation of reserve food material and
c. Dehydration.

Imperfect flowers have either male (staminate flower) or female

(pistillate flower) part. Such flowers are called asunisexual flowers.

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When male and female flowers occur in same plant is at different times), herkogamy (where the structure of male and
called monoecious, if male flower and female flowers occur in female sex organs proves a barrier to self pollination) and
different plants – dioceious. heterostyly (where flowers are of different types depending on
the length of the style and stigma and pollination occurs only
Pollinating agents: between 2 dissimilar types).
Abiotic agents:  The majority of angiosperms bear chasmogamous flowers i.e.,
1. Wind- Anemophily flowers do not open before pollination. In some plants, flowers
2. Water- Hydrophily do not open at all such flowers is called cleistogamous, and this
Biotic agents: is the most efficient floral adaptation for promoting self-
1. Insect- Entomophily pollination.
2. Birds- Ornithophily
 The important self-pollinated crops are wheat, rice, barely,

Cross pollination:
Fertilization:
 If they are transfer of pollen to the stigma of another
 Seeds usually developed from the fertilized flower for which flower, cross-pollination or allogamy is said to have occurred.
pollination (transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma) is pre  Cross-pollination is ensured in plants which bear unisexual
requisite. flowers.
 For successful fertilization viable pollen and receptive stigma  Maize, rye, forage legumes and vegetables like carrot,
are two pre requisites. cauliflower and onion.
 The mature anthers dehisce and release pollen grains (haploid
microspores). Often cross pollinated:

Self pollination:  In many self pollinating species, cross pollination may

occur up to 5% or even reach to 30%, such species are
 When pollen grains are transferred from an anther to the stigma referred as often cross pollinating species. Examples –
of the same flower the process is called self-pollination or cotton, sorghum, tobacco, safflower etc.
autogamy.
 Self-pollination occurs in those plants where bisexual flowers
achieve anther dehiscence and stigma receptivity Mode of pollination and
simultaneously. Examples of crop plants
reproduction
 In bisexual flowers also self-pollination may be prevented by Self Pollinated Crops Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Chickpea, Pea,
self-sterility, dichogamy (maturation of male and female organs Cowpea, Lentil, Green gram, Black gram,

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Soybean, Common bean, Moth bean, A). Mass selection

Linseed, Sesame, Sunhemp, Chillies,
Brinjal, Tomato, Okra, Peanut, Potato, etc.  Large number of plants of similar phenotype are selected and
their seeds are mixed to constitute a variety.
Corn, Pearlmillet, Rye, Alfalfa, Radish,  Individual desired plants are selected on the basis of mixed
Cabbage, Sunflower, Sugarbeet, Castor, population.
Cross Pollinated Crops Spinach, Onion, Garlic, Turnip, Squash,  In mass selection, seeds are collected from desirable individuals
Muskmelon, Watermelon, Cucumber, in a population, and the next generation is sown from the stock
Pumpkin, Carrot, Coconut, Papaya, of mixed seed.
Sugarcane, Coffee, Cocoa, Tea, Apple,  This procedure, sometimes referred to as phenotypic selection,
Pears, Peaches, Cherries, grapes, Almond is based on how each individual looks.
Strawberries, Pine apple, Banana, Cashew,  Mass selection has been used widely to improve old varieties,
Cassava, Rubber, etc. varieties that have been passed down from one generation of
farmers to the next over long periods.
 Eliminate undesirable types by destroying them in the field.
The results are similar whether superior plants are saved or
Often Cross Pollinated Sorghum, Cotton, Pigeonpea, Tobacco. inferior plants are eliminated
Crops  Seeds of the better plants become the planting stock for the next
season.

Breeding methods

1. Introduction:

It is referred to transposition of crop plants from the place of

their cultivation to such areas where they were never grown earlier.

1. Selection:

The process which favours survival and further propagation of

some plants having more desirable characters than other is called
selection.

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selections are superior in yielding ability and other aspects of

performance.
 Any progeny superior to an existing variety is then released as a
new “pure-line” variety. Much of the success of this method
they provided a rich source of superior pure-line varieties, some
of which are still represented among commercial varieties.
 Characteristics of purelines 1. All the plants within a pureline
have the same genotype 2. The variation within a pureline is
environmental and non-heritable 3. Purelines are stable

Pure line selection Mass selection

The new variety is a pureline The new variety is a mixture of
purelines.
The new variety is highly The variety has genetic
uniform. In fact, the variation variation of quantitative
within a pureline variety is characters, although it is
purely environmental. relatively uniform in general
appearance.
The selected plants are Progeny test is generally not
B). Pure-line selection subjected to progeny test. carried out.
The variety is generally the best The variety is inferior to the
 Development of new variety through identification and isolation pureline present in the original best pureline because most of
of a single best plant progeny from mixed population of self population. The pureline the purelines included in it will
pollinated variety. selection brings about the be inferior to the best pureline
 Pure-line selection generally involves three more or less distinct greatest improvement over the
steps original variety.
 (1) numerous superior appearing plants are selected from a Generally, a pureline variety is Usually the variety has a wider
genetically variable population expected to have narrower adaptation and greater stability
 (2) progenies of the individual plant selections are grown and adaptation and lower stability in than a pureline variety.
evaluated by simple observation, frequently over a period of performance than a mixture of
several years purelines.
 (3) when selection can no longer be made on the basis of The plants are selected for the The selected plants have to be
observation alone, extensive trials are undertaken, involving desirability. It is not necessary similar in phenotype since their
careful measurements to determined whether the remaining they should have a similar seeds are mixed to make up the

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phenotype. new variety. Hybridization means the mating or crossing of two plants or
It is more demanding because If a large number of plants are lines of dissimilar genotypes.
careful progeny tests and yield selected, expensive yield trials  The object of hybridization is to combine desirable genes found
trials have to be conducted are not necessary. Thus, it is in two or more different varieties and to produce pure-breeding
less demanding on the breeder. progeny superior in many respects to the parental types.
 Genes, however, are always in the company of other genes in a
collection called a genotype.
 The seeds as well as the progeny resulting from the
hybridization are known as hybrid or F1. The progeny of F1
obtained by self or inter mating of F1 plants and the subsequent
generations are called segregating generations. Today
hybridization is the most common method of crop improvement
and the majority of the crop varieties have originated from
hybridization.
 One of the objectives of hybridization is to create genetic
variation. Two genotypically different plants are crossed
together to obtain F1 generation. F1 is advanced to generate F2
generation.
 Aims of hybridization: 1. To transfer of one or few qualitative
characters. 2. Improvement in one or more quantitative
character. 3. F1 Hybrid as variety.

Procedure of hybridization:

1. Choice of parents: One of the parents involved in crosses should

be a well-adapted and proven variety in the area. The other variety
should be having the character that are absent in this variety.
C). Hybridization Combining ability of the parents serves as useful guides in the
selection of parents, which produce superior F1 and F2.
 Method of producing new crop varieties in which two or more
plants of different genotype crossed together that result progeny 2. Evaluation of parents: Parents are evaluated for their combining
called hybrid. ability.
 Natural variability in self-pollinated population is exhausted
during selection, for further improvements new genetic
variability has to be created by crossing two different pure lines.

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3. Emasculation: The removal of stamens/anther without affecting of the entire parent off spring relationship is maintained and
the female reproductive organs, hand emasculation is mostly known as pedigree record. The pedigree may be defined as a
followed. description of the ancestor of an individual and it generally
goes back to some distant ancestor. So, each progeny in every
4. Bagging: Immediately after emasculation the flowers are generation can be traced back to the F2 plant from which it is
enclosed in suitable bags to prevent cross pollination. originated.
 This method used for selection from segregating
5. Tagging: The emasculated flowers are tied with a thread. The population of crosses in self-pollinated crops. It is used
information on date of emasculation, date of pollination, names of for combination or transgressive breeding.
female and male parents are recorded in the tag with pencil. The
name of the female parent is written first then male parent. Procedure:
1. Hybridization: The selected parents are crossed to produce
6. Pollination: Mature fertile and viable pollen from the male
parent should be placed on receptive stigma of emasculated flowers a simple / complex cross (F1 seed)
to bring about fertilization. Pollen grain is collected, allowed for 2. F1 generation: F1 seeds are space planted to each produces
dehiscence and pollination is carried out with camel hair brush. maximum number of F2 seed. 15-30 F1plants are sufficient
to produce good F2 populations.
7. Harvesting and storing of F1 seeds: The crossed heads/pods 3. F2 generation: 200-10000 plants are space planted and 100-
should be harvested and threshed. The seeds should be dried and 500 plants are selected and their seeds are harvested
properly stored to protect them from storage pests. separately. He should select as many as F2 plants as he can
handle efficiently. The selection depends on skill of the
8. Rising the F1 generation: Identify the selfed seeds in the F1 breeder and his ability to judge to select F2 which produce
generation by using dominant marker gene. Larger F1 population is good progeny.
desirable, because both the genes are present in heterozygous 4. F3 generation: Individual plant progeny are space planted.
condition. Individual plant with desirable characters from superior
progenies is selected.
9. Selfing: To avoid cross pollination and to ensure self-pollination. 5. F4 generation: Individual plants progenies are space planted
In often cross-pollinated crops, they are bagged to prevent cross desirable pants are selected undesirable progenies are rejected.
pollination. Progenies are compared visually and more plants are selected
from superior progenies. Selection of desirable plants from
D). Pedigree breeding superior progenies selection is practiced within / between
family.
 In pedigree method individual plants are selected from F2 and 6. F5 generation: Many families have reached homozygous and
their progenies are tested in subsequent generations. A record
may be harvested in bulk. The breeder has to assess the

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yielding potential of progenies, 25-100 progenies are advanced

and tested in preliminary yield trial.
7. F6 generation: Multi row plots and evaluated visually
progenies harvested bulk and they have become homozygous.
8. F7 generation: Preliminary yield trail with replication to
identify the superior progenies. Progenies are evaluated for
other component character 2-5 outstanding lines superior to
check are advanced to multi location testing.
9. F8 –F10 generation: Replicated yield trial at several
locations. They are tested for yield as well as for
resistance.
10. F11 generation: Seed multiplication and release.

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E). The bulk-population method weak and inferior progenies are rejected and 100-300 individual
plant progenies with desirable characters.
 It differs from the pedigree method primarily in the handling of  F9 generation: Preliminary yield trial with standard check, yield
generations following hybridization. The F2 generation is sown and quality parameter is taken for selection.
at normal commercial planting rates in a large plot.  F10---F12 generations: Replicated yield trails are conducted.
 At maturity the crop is harvested in mass, and the seeds are used Yield and its component characters are evaluated along with
to establish the next generation in a similar plot. the check. Superior progenies are released as variety
 No record of ancestry is kept.  F13 generation: Seed multiplication of the newly released variety
 During the period of bulk propagation natural selection tends to and distribution to farmers.
eliminate plants having poor survival value.
 Two types of artificial selection also are often applied: (1) F). Backcrossing
destruction of plants that carry undesirable major genes and (2)
mass techniques such as harvesting when only part of the seeds  A Crossing between a F1 hybrid or its segregating generation
are mature to select for early maturing plants or the use of with one of its parents is known as Back cross. The hybrid and
screens to select for increased seed size. its progenies in the subsequent generations are repeatedly back
 Single plant selections are then made and evaluated in the same crossed to one of their parents. As a result, the genotype of back
way as in the pedigree method of breeding. cross progeny becomes increasingly similar to that parent to
 The chief advantage of the bulk population method is that it whom the back crosses are made. At the end of 6-8 back
allows the breeder to handle very large numbers of individuals crosses, the progeny would be almost identical with the parent
inexpensively. involved in back crossing.
 Often an outstanding variety can be improved by transferring to
Steps: it some specific desirable character that it lacks.
 This can be accomplished by first crossing a plant of the
 Hybridization: Parents are selected and crossed superior variety to a plant of the donor variety,
 F1 generation: F1 is space planted more than 200 F1 plants  which carries the trait in question, and then mating the progeny
back to a plant having the genotype of the superior parent. This
 F2-F6 Generation: Planted at commercial seed rate, spacing and process is called backcrossing.
harvested as bulk, during this period. Frequency of population  After five or six backcrosses the progeny will be hybrid for the
changes due to outbreak of disease or pest. character being transferred but like the superior parent for all
 F7 generation: 50000 plants are space planted about 1000-5000 other genes.
plants with phenotype is selected and the seeds are harvested
separately. Objective:
 F8 generation: Individual plant progenies are single/multi row
plants, since progenies are homozygous and harvested in bulk  To improve one or two specific defects of a high yielding

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variety and a well-adapted variety with desirable character. Mass selection

 The characters lacking in this variety are transferred to it from a
 Mass selection in cross-pollinated species takes the same form
donor parent without changing the genotype of this variety as in self-pollinated species; i.e., a large number of superior
appearing plants are selected and harvested in bulk and the seed
except for the genes being transformed. used to produce the next generation.
 Mass selection has proved to be very effective in improving
G). Hybrid varieties qualitative characters, and, applied over many generations, it is
also capable of improving quantitative characters, including
 The development of hybrid varieties differs from hybridization. yield, despite the low heritability of such characters.
 The F1 hybrid of crosses between different genotypes is often  Mass selection has long been a major method of breeding
much more vigorous than its parents. cross-pollinated species, especially in the economically less
 This hybrid vigour, or heterosis (Superiority of F hybrid over it important species.
parents), can be manifested in many ways, including increased
rate of growth, greater uniformity, earlier flowering, and Hybrid varieties
increased yield, the last being of greatest importance in
agriculture.  They are the first generation from crosses between two pure
lines, inbreds, open pollinated varieties of other populations that
1. Single cross: Cross between two pureline or inbreds (A x B) are genetically not similar.
2. Double cross: (A x B) x (C x D)
3. Three way cross: (A x B) x C Kinds of hybrids

Cross pollinated crops  Single cross hybrids (A x B) Crossing two inbreeds or pure
lines.
The most important methods of breeding cross-pollinated  Three-way cross hybrid (A x B) x C
species are (1) mass selection; (2) development of hybrid varieties; and  A cross between a single cross hybrid and an inbred.
(3) development of synthetic varieties.  Double cross hybrid (A x B) x (C x D) cross between two Fls.

Since cross-pollinated species are naturally hybrid Methods

(heterozygous) for many traits and lose vigour as they become purebred
(homozygous), a goal of each of these breeding methods is to preserve 1. Hand emasculation and dusting - Cotton, Tomato, Chillies,
or restore heterozygosity. Bhendi
2. Use of male sterile lines
a) Cytoplasmic male sterility – ornamentals

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b) Genic male sterility - Redgram, Castor.  Mutation with distinct morphological changes in phenotypic
c) Cytoplasmic - genic male sterility Jowar, Bajra, Rice changes are called macro mutation.
3. Use of self in compatibility  Mutation with invisible phenotypic changes are called micro
mutation.
By planting cross compatible lines hybrids are produced. Here
both are hybrids. Mutagens:

Synthetic varieties Anything that causes a mutation called mutagen (a change in the
DNA of a cell).
 A synthetic variety is developed by intercrossing in all possible
combinations a number of inbred line superior combining There are three main types of mutagens: physical, chemical, and
ability and mixed their seeds in equal quantity is referred biological.
synthetic variety.
Physical Mutagens
Composite varieties
Physical mutagens include various types of radiation, viz X-
 It is produced by mixing seeds of phenotypically outstanding rays, gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, and ultra violet
lines and encouraging open pollination to produce crosses in all rays. A brief description of these mutagens is presented below:
possible combinations among mixed lines. The lines used to
produce a composite are rarely tested for combining' ability. So, Commonly used physical mutagens (radiations), their properties
the yield of composite varieties cannot be predicted easily. and mode of action.
 Variety developed by mixing the seed of various genotype
which are similar height, seed size, colour etc., Type of Radiation Main properties
MUTATION BREEDING X – rays S.I., penetrating and non-particulate
Gamma rays S.I., very penetrating and Non-particulate
 The process of mutation breeding involves inducing mutations Alpha Particles D.I., particulate, less penetrating and positively
artificially through use of chemicals or radiations (like gamma charged.
radiations) and selecting plants that have the desirable character Beta Rays Particles S.I., particulate, more penetrating than alpha
as a source in breeding. particles and negatively charged.
 Mutation refers to sudden heritable change in the phenotype of Ultra Violet Rays Non-ionizing, low penetrating
an individual/plant.
 The term mutation breeding coined by Hugo de veries. Note: particulate refers to particle emitting property DI = Densely
ionizing, SI = Sparsely ionizing.

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CHEMICAL MUTAGENS mutagen and are space planted. In general, the number of treated
seeds is so adjusted as to give rise to 500 fertile M1 plants at the
Procedure for chemical mutagenesis
harvest. Care should be taken to avoid outcrossing; this can be
The chemical mutagens can be divided into four groups, viz. 1)
alkylating agents, 2) base analogues, 3) acridine dyes, and 4) others. A achieved either by planting the M1 population in isolation or by
brief description of some commonly used chemicals of these groups is bagging the inflorescence of M1 plants or even the whole M1 plants.
presented below.
M1 plants will be chimeras for the mutations present in
Some commonly used chemical mutagens and their mode of action heterozygous state. About 20 to 25 seeds from each M1 spike are

Group of mutagen Name of chemical harvested separately to raise the M2 progeny rows.
4. Alkylating Agents Ethyl methane Sulphonate 2. M2 generation: About 2,000 progeny rows are grown. Careful
(EMS)
Methyl Methane and regular observations are made on the M2 rows. But only distinct
Sulphonate (MMS)
mutations are detected in M2 because the observations are based on
Ethyl Ethane Sulphonate
(EES) single plants. All the plants in M2 rows suspected of containing
new mutations are harvested separately to raise individual plant
progenies in M3. if the mutant is distinct, it is selected for
2 Amino purine
5. Base Analogues multiplication and testing. However, most of the mutations will be
Acriflavin, Proflavin useless for crop improvement. Only 1-3 per cent of M2 rows may be
expected to have beneficial mutations.
6. Acridine Dyes 3. M3 generation: Progeny rows from individual selected plants
Nitrous Acid
Hydroxylamine are grown in M3. Poor and inferior mutant rows are eliminated. If
Sodium Azide
the mutant progenies are homogeneous, two or more M3 progenies
7. Others
containing the same mutation may be bulked. Mutant M3 rows are
1. M1 generation: Several hundred seeds are treated with a
harvested in bulk for a preliminary yield trial in M4.

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4. M4 generation: A preliminary yield trial is conducted with a Autopolyploid:

Euploidy is more commonly known as ployploidy. When all
suitable check, and promising mutant lines are selected for replicated
the genomes present in a polyploid species are identical, it is known
multilocation trials. as 'autopolyploid'. In case of allopolyploids, two or more distinct
5. M5-M7 generations: Replicated multilocation yield trials are genomes.
Allopolyploidy:
conducted. The out-standing line may be released as a new variety.
Allopolyploids have genomes from two or more species.
The low yielding mutant lines, however, should be retained for use Several of our crop plants are allopolyploids.
in hybridization programmes. Application in crop improvement
1. Aneuploids are useful in studies on the effects of loss or gains of
Polyploidy breeding:
an entire chromosome or a chromosome are on the phenotype of an
Polyploidy refers to the presence of three or more sets of individual.
chromosomes in a single organism (Polyploidy refers to more than 2. Aneuploids are useful in locating a linkage group and a gene to a
two set of chromosomes). The somatic chromosome number of any particulars chromosome.
species, whether diploid or polyploidy, is designated as 2n, and the 3. Study of Aneuploids has shown the homeology between A, B and
chromosome number of gametes is denoted as n. An individual D genomes of wheat.
carrying the gametic chromosome number, n, is known as haploid. A 4. Aneuploids are useful in identifying the chromosomes involved in
monoploid, on the other hand, has the basic chromosome number, translocations.
x. In a diploid species, n = x, one x constitutes a genome or 5. They are useful in the production of substitution lines. It is useful
chromosome complement. for transfer of genes carried by specific chromosomes of a variety
Aneuploidy: The change in chromosome number may involve once into another one.
or few chromosomes of the genome. This is known as aneuploidy.
Nullisonic - One chromosome pair missing - 2n-2 Seed legislations
Monosonic - One chromosome missing - 2n-1
Double monosomic- One chrosome from each of two different pairs  Seed Act 1966
missing- 2n-1-1  Seed Rules 1968
Trisonic - 2n+1  The Seeds (Amendment) Rules, 1973
Euploidy: Numerical change in entire genome.  The Seeds (Amendment) Rules, 1974
 The Seeds (Amendment) Rules, 1981
 Seed (control ) order, 1983

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 New seed policy, 1988 4. The bags or packets containing seeds for sale must have
 New seed policy, 2002 specifications fixed for that particular seed. These labels are of
different colours for different seeds for the convenience of
Seed act-1966 buying farmers:
The Seeds Act, 1966 [29th December, 1966] An Act to provide
for regulating the quality of certain seeds for sale, and for matters i. Breeder's seed - Yellow colour
ii. Foundation seed - White colour
connected therewith.
iii. Certified seed - Blue colour
Guidelines to Farmers 1. The labels must contain following information on them.
The Seed Act 1966 was passed by the Indian Parliament on i. Seed - Name and variety
29 December 1966 and it came into force from 2nd October, 1969. In
th
ii. Lot number
addition, Seed Regulation Order was also passed in December 1983. iii. Physical purity (in percent) and germination ( in percent)
The sole objective of this Act and Order has been to ensure that the iv. Date of testing
Indian farmers get good quality seeds of important crops. Important v. Weight of the seed in the bag/packet
provisions and guidelines for the farmers are given below: vi. Seed class/category.
vii. Expiry date/viability period
1. The Act is applicable for the seeds notified by the Central viii. Name and address of seed producer.
Government from time to time. ix. Signature of the Officer of seed certification agency.
2. Seed quality is regulated at two stages viz. Seed production and
seed certification. For this purpose, seed testing laboratories and
seed certification agencies are to be established in each state.
Care by farmers:
Sale of Seeds:
Farmers should take following care while purchasing the seeds.
1. Any institution, agency, company or individual wishing to do
business in seeds must obtain necessary permission for buying 1. They should buy required seed from the authorized Licence
and selling seeds. Without permission such business cannot be holders only.
carried out. 2. While buying the seed they should see carefully all the entries
2. Licence holder must keep all seeds notified by the Central Govt. on the label particularly germination, percentage, date of seed
for sale. test, etc.
3. The seeds to be sold to farmers must satisfy the minimum 3. They should ensure that the label is duly signed by the officer of
quality standards of physical purity and germination percentage Seed Certification agency.
fixed under the Seed Act.

UNIT-I V.Suja M.Sc., (Agri.)

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4. If there are two or more bags of seed, the seed from them should There is a provision to set up a central seed laboratory and state
be sown separately without mixing. seed laboratory to discharge functions under section 4(1) and 4(2) of
5. The seed should be sown when there is optimum moisture and the Seed Act.
the date of sowing should be recorded.
(d) Seed Analysts
6. If there is any complaint about the quality of seed, the matter
should be reported to Seed Inspector or to Agricultural
State Government could appoint the Seed Analysts through
Development Officer of ZillaParishad of the concerned district.
There is a committee at each district which actually visits the notification in the Official Gazette under Section 12 of the Seed Act
plots of complaining farmers, sees condition of the plot and (e) Seed Inspectors
verifies the receipts and the label or tag. If the committee feels
that the seed was not of genuine quality and the complaint was The State Government, under section 13 of the Act may appoint
real, then the suitable action is taken against both seed producer such a person as it thinks fit, having prescribed qualification through
and the dealer or shopkeeper. If there is financial loss to the notification, as a Seed Inspector and define the areas within which he
farmer, he can approach the District Consumer Forum for shall exercise jurisdiction for enforcing the seed law.
compensation. (f)Penalty
(a) Power to notify the varieties If any person, contravenes any provision of the Act or Rule, or
prevents a seed inspector from taking sample under this Act or prevents
New varieties evolved by the State Agricultural Universities and
a Seed Inspector from exercising any other power conferred on him
ICAR institutes are notified and released /notified respectively under
could be punished under section 19 of the act with a fine of five
section 5 of the seeds act
hundred rupees for the first offence.
(b) Labelling provision
(g) Seed certification
Minimum limits for germination, physical purity and genetic
The object of the seed certification is to maintain and make
purity of varieties / hybrids for crops have been prescribed and notified
available to the public through certification high quality propagating
for labelling seeds of notified kind / varieties under section 6(a) of the
material of notified kind / varieties so grown and distributed as to
Seeds Act. Size of the label, colour of the label and content of the label
ensure genetic identity and genetic purity.
were also notified
(c)Seed Testing

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SEED (CONTROL) ORDER, 1983 The state government may appoint such number of persons as it
thinks necessary to be inspector and define the area of such Inspector
Background of the case jurisdiction through notification in the official gazette.
The ministry of civil supply through an order dated 24.4.1983
had declared the seed for sowing or planting of food crops, fruits, Time limit for analysis of samples by Seed testing lab
vegetables, cattle fodder and jute to be essential commodities in Time limit for analysis of samples by seed testing lab and
exercise of power conferred by Section 2(a) (viii) of Essential suspension / cancellation of license may be done by Licensing authority
Commodities Act, 1955. It was followed by the issue of seed (control) after giving an opportunity of being heard to the holder of license,
order dated 30thDecember 1983 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. suspend or cancel the license on grounds of mis-representation of a
of Agriculture and Cooperation in exercise of powers contained in material particular or contravention in provision of the order.
section 3 of Essential Commodities Act, which deals with Central
Governments power to control, and regulate production, supply and Suspension / Cancellation of licence
distribution of essential commodities. The Licensing authority may after giving an opportunity of
being heard to the holder of licence, suspend or cancel the licence on
Gist of the Seed (Control) Order 1983. grounds of mis-representation of material particular or contravention in
provision of the Order.
Issue of licence to dealers
All persons carrying on the business of selling, exporting and Appeal
importing seeds will be required to carry on the business in accordance The state government may specify authority for hearing the
with terms and conditions of licence granted to him for which dealer appeals against suspension / cancellation under this order and the
make an application in duplicate in Form 'A' together with a fee of decision of such authority shall be final.
Rs.50/- for licence to licensing authority unless the State Government Any person aggrieved by an order of refusal to grant or amend
by notification exempts such class of dealers in such areas and subject or renew the licence for sale, export / import of seed may within 60
to such conditions as may be specified in the notification. days from the date of Order appeal to the designated authority in the
manner prescribed in the Order.

Renewal of licence
A holder of licence shall be eligible for renewal upon an Miscellaneous
application being made in the prescribed form 'C' (in duplicate) together The licencing authority may on receipt of request in writing
with a fees of rupees twenty before the expiry of licence or at the most together with Rs.10/- from amend the licence of such dealer.
within a month of date of expiry of license for which additional fee of Every seed dealer is expected to maintain such books, accounts
Rs.25/- is required to be paid. and records to this business in order and submit monthly return of his
business for the preceding months in Form 'D' to the licencing authority
Appointing of licensing authority by 5th day of every month.

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Farmers Rights a. Inspect as frequently as may be required by certification agency all

places used for growing, storage or sale of any seed of any notified
1. The traditional rights of farmers to save, use, exchange, share kind or variety;
and sell propagated material / seed.
 The farmers will be entitled for suitable compensation from the b. Satisfy himself that the conditions of the certificates / labels are
breeder of the protected variety or sellers in the event of failure being observed;
in the stated performance of protected variety. c. Procure and send for analysis, if necessary, samples of any seeds,
which he has reason to suspect, are being produced, stocked or sold
or exhibited for sale in contravention of the provisions of the Act or
SEED INSPECTION OR SEED LAW ENFORECEMENT the Rules;
The responsibility for enforcing various provisions regarding d. Investigate any complaint, which may be made to him in writing in
regulation of sale of seeds of notified kinds / varieties rest with the seed respect of any contravention of the provisions of the Act or the
inspectors. Rules;
The State Government may, by notification in the official e. Maintain a record of all inspections made and action taken by him
gazette, appoint such persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed in the performance of his duties including the taking of samples and
qualifications to be Seed Inspectors and define the areas within which the seizure of stocks and to submit copies of such records to the
they shall exercise jurisdiction. Director of Agriculture or the certification agency;
Every Seed Inspector shall be deemed to be a public servant f. When so authorized by the State Government, to detain imported
within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860) containers which he has reason to suspect contain seeds, the import
and shall be officially subordinate to such authority as the State of which is prohibited, except and in accordance with the provisions
Government may specify in this behalf. of the Act and the Rules;
g. Institute prosecution in respect of breaches of the Act and the Rules;
and
Qualification of seed Inspectors h. Perform such other duties as may be entrusted to him by the
A person shall not be qualified for appointment as Seed competent authority from time to time.
Inspector unless he is a graduate in agriculture of a university
recognized for the purpose by the government and has had not less than Powers of seed inspectors
one year’s experience in seed production or seed development or seed 1. To take samples of seed of any notified kind / variety from any
analysis or testing in seed testing laboratory. person selling such seed, or purchaser or consignee and to send
such samples for analysis to the seed analyst notified for the area;
2. To enter and search, at all the reasonable times, with such
Duties of seed inspectors assistance, if any, as he considers necessary, any place in which he
In addition to the duties specified by the Act the Seed Inspector has reason to believe that an offence under this Act has been or is
shall being committed and order in writing the person in possession of
any seed in respect of which the offence has been or is being

UNIT-I V.Suja M.Sc., (Agri.)

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committed, not to dispose of any stock of such seed for a specific committee and National Seeds Corporation Limited. They should also
period not exceeding thirty days, or unless the alleged offence is carry the necessary equipment and supplies with them while on duty.
such that the defect may be removed by the possessor of the seed,
seize the stock of such seed; New seed policy (1988)
3. To examine any record, register, document or any other material
object found in any place mentioned in clause (2) and seize the The Government of India evolved a New seed policy implemented
same, if he has reason to believe that it may furnish evidence of the from October 1,1988.
commission of an offence punishable under this Act; and exercise  The policy laid special emphasis on
such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the  Import of high quality of seeds
purposes of this Act or any Rule made there under;  A time bound programme to modernize plant quarantine
4. On demand to pay the cost of seed, calculated at the rate at which facilities
such seed is usually sold to the public to the person whom the same  Effective implementation of procedures for quarantine /post
is taken. entry quarantine
5. To break –open any container in which any seed of any notified  Incentives to encourage the domestic industry
kind or variety may be contained, or to break-open the door of any
premises where any such seed may be kept for sale. 1. Bulk import of seeds of coarse cereals, pulses and oil seeds may
Provided that the power to break-open the door shall be replace (or) displace the local productions.
exercised only after the owner or any other person in occupation of 2. Transfer of technology may not be actual one, because due to
the premises, if he is present therein, refuses to open the door on bulk import of seeds or import of technology, instead we can
being called upon to do so. import the germplasm of superior variety if any and could
6. Where the seed inspector takes any action under clause (a) of sub be developed locally to meet the demand (i.e.,) incorporate
section (1), he shall, as far as possible, call not less than two the advantages of exotic variety to the local types(or) even
persons to be present at the time when such action is taken, and take direct multiplication's after adaptive trials.
their signatures on a memorandum to be prepared in the prescribed 3. As we have superior varieties of international standard (e.g.)
form and manner. Maize, Sorghum, Bajra, or even in oil seeds like groundnut etc.,
7. The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, shall, so 4. Import of flower seeds could be encouraged in order to earn
as may be, apply to any search or seizure under this section as they foreign exchange through export of flowers and it can be
apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant imported under (OGL) open general license. But there is a fear
issued under section 98 of the said code. of introduction of new pest and diseases as they are coming
without post entry quarantine checkup.
Procedure of Seed Law Enforcement Strengthening of quarantine
Seed Inspectors should strictly follow the prescribed procedure
of seed inspection for carrying out the enforcement work as described  Since, 1st October 1988 only bulk imports of seeds were under
in ‘ A handbook of seed inspectors’ published by central seed taken without any progress either in the strengthening of
quarantine facilities.

UNIT-I V.Suja M.Sc., (Agri.)

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Threat of pest and disease National Seed Policy, 2002

 Introduction of new pest and disease would pose a new problem Provide intellectual property protection to new varieties; user this sector
due to bulk import due to lack of post entry quarantine. To into planned development; protect the interest of farmers and encourage
avoid this threat, the imported seeds should be subjected to conservation of agro-biodiversity.
testing and it should be done by one person from ICAR. Entry
 The Seed Act 1966, seed control order 1983 and New Policy on
of exotic variety without proper field testing may change the
disease pattern if that particular strain is becoming susceptible Seeds Development, 1988, from the basis of promotion and
to existing pathogens. regulation of the Indian Seed Industry.

Genetic erosion The important constrains were

 Non existence of National Seed Policy.
 It is another danger, due to introduction of similar strains there  IPR laws.
is a danger of genetic uniformity and eliminates local diversified  Restrictions and licenses on seed exports and imports.
strains which leads to problem of non-availability of improved  Lack of incentives for the public and private seed sectors of the
strains if there is any out break of disease. country.
Incentives to domestic seed industry  India later developed the national seed policy in 2002.The
main objectives are the provision of an appropriate climate for
 Indigenous seed production / seed industry will be affected the seed industry to utilize available and prospective
because of the entry of multi nation diseases. Since the policy is opportunities, safe guarding of the interests of Indian farmers
allowing indiscriminate bulk imports through private sectors at and the conservation of agrobiodiversity.
the same time the import duty on seeds has been reduced to 15
per cent. Import duty on advanced machines and equipment 1. Varietal Development
used in seed production or processing has also been reduced and 2. Seed Production.
interest on post shipment credit has also been slashed down to 3. Quality Assurance.
help importers. Income tax rebate and deduction are available to 4. Seed Distribution and Marketing.
the tax paying units on the revenue expenditure or in house 5. Infrastructure facilities.
research and development. Incentives are also being provided to 6. Transgenic plant varieties.
seeds located in backward areas and growth centres. 7. Import of seeds and planting materials.
8. Export of seeds.
9. Promotion of Domestic Seed.
10. Strengthening of monitoring systems.

1. Varietal development

UNIT-I V.Suja M.Sc., (Agri.)

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Farmers Rights: Farmers can save use, exchange, share of or 4. Seed Distribution and Marketing
sell seeds of protected variety but not under the brand name
 Researchers Rights: Seed/planting material of protected  National Seed Grid will be established as a data base on seed
varieties can be used for research and breeding new varieties. requirement, production, distribution and farmers preference.
 Breeders Rights: Benefit a rising out of use of varieties upon  Access to finance from commercial banks will be facilitated.
commercialization of seeds of new variety will be shared with  Availability of high quality seed will be ensured through
respective breeder. improved distribution system and efficient marketing set up.
 Community Rights: Benefit sharing with Farmers / Village 5. Infrastructure facilities
communities will be ensured for contributing in evaluation of
plant variety upon registration.  National seed research and training centre (NSRTC) will be set
2. Seed production up.
 Seed processing and storage facilities will be augmented.
 India seed programme will adheres to generation system of  Computerized National Seed Grid will be established to provide
multiplication namely nucleus, breeder, foundation and certified information on seed marketing.
seed. 6. Transgenic Plant Varieties
 Public seed sector will be restructured and will continue to have
free access to breeder seed, while Private Seed Sector will have  All GM crops will be tested for environment and bio safety
conditional access. Seed village scheme will be facilitated to before commercial release as per EPA (1986)
upgrade the quality of farmers saved seeds.  Seeds of GM crops will be imported only through NBPGR as
 Seed Replacement will be raised progressively, National Seed per the EPA (1986)
Map will be prepared to identity potential areas of seed  Required infrastructure will be developed for testing,
production, seed banks will be established with cold storage identification and evaluation of transgenic planting material.
facilities, seed minikits will be supplied for popularizing new
varieties and will Seed Crop Insurance will be encouraged. 7. Import of seeds and planting material

3. Quality Assurance  Provision will be made to make available best planting material
from any where in the world to Indian farmers without any
 New Seed Act will be enacted. compromise on quarantine requirements.
 National Seed Board will be established as apex body in place 8. Export of seeds
of existing Central Seed Committee to implement New Seed
Act.  Long term policy will be evolved to exploit varied agro climatic
 National Seeds Register will be maintained varieties will be condition of India and strong seed production system, to raise
registered based on "Value for cultivation and Usage”. seed export from present level of less than 1% to 10% by 2020.
 Farmers will retain rights to save, use, exchange, share or sell  Seed export promotion zones will be established and
seeds of any variety but not under the brand name. strengthened.

UNIT-I V.Suja M.Sc., (Agri.)

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 Data Bank on International Market will be created.

9. Promotion of Domestic Seed
Industry

 It will be facilitated by providing incentives to domestic seed

industry, financial support through NABARD, commercial and
co- operative banks, considering tax rebate/concessions for
R&D, reduction of import duty on machines and equipments
used for seed production and encouragement of membership in
national and inter national organization related to seed.
10. Strengthening of monitoring systems:

 Strengthening of Department of Agricultural and Co-operation

(DAC) which will supervise the implementation of National
Seed Policy.
 National Seed Policy will be vital in doubling food production
of India.

UNIT-I V.Suja M.Sc., (Agri.)