ELECTRONICS Mass number (Atomic Weight) (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons in

the nucleus of an atom (i.e. A = P + N).

CRAFT CERTIFICATE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING The structure of an atom consists of nucleus which is positively charged
and orbits (energy levels) that comprises of electrons.
MODULE 1

UNIT 1: SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

Electronics is the branch of engineering which deals with current

conduction through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor.

Electronic device is that in which current flows through a vacuum or gas or

semiconductor. Some applications of electronics

 Rectification (is the process of converting ac power to dc power)

 Amplification (is the process of raising the strength of a weak signal) Nucleus is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons.
 Control of devices such as motors
Orbit is the region outside the nucleus of an atom through which electrons
 Generation of ac power from dc power (alternators) revolve
 Conversion of light into electricity (photo-electricity)
 Conversion of electricity into light Proton is a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom
while the neutron has the same mass as the proton, but has no charge.
Atomic Theory
Electrons are negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus
Atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. in different orbits or paths of an atom.

Element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler The number and arrangement of electrons in any orbit is determined by the
substances by chemical means. following rules:

Compound is a substance formed by chemically combining two or more (i) The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 𝟐𝒏𝟐 where n is the number
elements together. of the orbit.

First orbit contains 2 × 12 = 2 electrons

For example,
Periodic table is a tabular array of the chemical elements organized by

Second orbit contains 2 × 22 = 8 electrons Third orbit contains 2 × 32 =

atomic number.

Atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of 18 electrons.
an atom of that element. (ii) The last orbit cannot have more than 8 electrons.
NB: The number of protons of an atom equals the number of electrons of (iii) The last but one orbit cannot have more than 18 electrons.
the neutral atom.

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 Draw a structure of the atoms of the following elements Hydrogen, For example, consider a single lithium atom as shown in the figure (a)
Oxygen, Sodium, and Copper and show the composition of the nucleus and below and a lithium metal with 100 lithium atoms as shown in figure (b)
orbits of each atom. below.

Classification of Materials

The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence

electrons.

The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons i.e. the maximum
number of valence electrons can be 8.

The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus are
known as free electrons.

On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into

conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.

(i) A conductor is a substance which has a large number of free electrons and
conducts electric current. E.g. Most metals such as Copper, Aluminium, and
Iron. Usually, they have less than 4 valence electrons. Valence and Conduction Bands

Valence band is the band of energy occupied by the valence electrons. It is

(ii) An insulator is a substance which has practically no free electrons at
usually the highest occupied band.
ordinary temperature and do not conduct any electric current. E.g. Rubber,
plastic, sulphur, neon, etc. Usually, they have more than 4 valence Conduction band is the next higher permitted energy band after the valence
electrons. band. It may be empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band, the
(iii) A semiconductor is a substance which has very few free electrons at room electrons move freely and that’s why it is called conduction band.
temperature and they practically don’t conduct current at room temperature.
E.g. Silicon, Germanium, and Carbon. Usually, they have 4 valence Forbidden energy gap is the gap between the valence band and the
electrons. conduction band.

If a valance electron happens to absorb enough energy (for example from

heat energy or light), it jumps across the forbidden energy gap and enters
Energy Bands in Solids the conduction band (figure below) leaving a hole in the valence band. The
hole is filled by an electron from an adjacent atom in the valence band.
When energy level of same or slightly different energies in an element are
combined, they form an energy band. For simplicity, the electrons in each
energy band are assumed to have the same amount of energy.

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 In terms of energy bands, insulators can be defined as those materials which
have an empty conduction band and a filled valence band with a very wide
energy gap (of the order of several eV) separating the two.

In terms of energy bands, it means that insulators have:

 A full valence band

 An empty conduction band Types of Semiconductors There
 A large energy gap (of several eV) between them
are two types of semiconductors:
 At ordinary temperatures, the probability of electrons from full valence
band gaining sufficient energy so as to surmount energy gap and thus  Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
become available for conduction in the conduction band, is low.  Extrinsic or impure semiconductors
Figure (a) below shows the energy band diagram of an insulator, figure (b) Intrinsic Semiconductor
shows an energy band for conductors, and figure (c) shows the energy band
for semi-conductors. As shown in figure (b), conductors don’t have a An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor
forbidden gap and that the valence band and the conduction band overlaps material in its extremely pure form. Examples of such semiconductors are:
each other thus making electrons to flow freely from the valence band to the pure germanium and silicon.
conduction band.
The number of thermally-generated charge carriers per unit volume (i.e.
In terms of energy bands, it means that electrical conductors are those which
have overlapping valence and conduction bands. intrinsic carrier density) is given by: where N is
constant for a given semiconductor, Eg is the band gap energy in joules, k is
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials Boltzmann’s constant and T is the temperature in ºK.
which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence
band with a very narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the
two.

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 The trivalent doping atoms are known as acceptor atoms because it accepts
one electron from the pure germanium atom.

Covalent Bond

This is a type of bond that is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms.

Each atom in this type of bond contributes equal number of electrons for
sharing. For example, germanium atom; which has 4 valence electrons, can
bond covalently to 4 other germanium atoms as shown in figure (i) and (ii)
below. As seen in the figure below, the middle germanium atom is
surrounded by 4 other germanium atoms giving a total of 8 electrons in its
Extrinsic Semiconductor or Impure Semiconductor outermost energy level (orbit). A similar observation is made on the other
germanium atoms as they bond covalently to other 3 germanium atoms.
Extrinsic semiconductors are those semiconductors which some impurity or
doping agent has been added to it to improve its conductivity. During doping, the middle germanium atom will be replaced by a doping
agent (pentavalent or trivalent) to form an extrinsic semiconductor.
Doping is the addition of an impurity to a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor to
improve its electrical conductivity.

Types of extrinsic semiconductors

Depending on the doping agent, extrinsic semiconductors are sub-divided

into two classes:

 N-type semiconductors
 P-type semiconductors
Doping agents

The usual doping agents are:

 Pentavalent atoms: - these atoms have five valence electrons. E.g. arsenic,
phosphorus, antinomy, etc.
 Trivalent atoms: - these atoms have three valence electrons. E.g. gallium,
indium, aluminium, boron, etc.
N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
The pentavalent doping atoms are known as donor atoms because it
donates or contributes one electron to the conduction band of pure This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent impurity like
germanium atom. arsenic (As) is added to pure germanium crystal. Each arsenic atom forms
covalent bonds with the surrounding four germanium atoms with the help of
four of its five electrons. The fifth electron is free. Since several arsenic

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(As) atoms are added, several free electrons are produces and that helps in
electrical conductivity. Due to the presence of the free electrons (negatively
charged), the resulting semiconductor is of n-type.

NB: Silicon (Si) can be used in the place of Germanium (Ge) to produce the
same type of extrinsic semiconductor.

Majority and Minority Charge carriers

In p-type semiconductors, holes (which are positively charged) are the

majority charge carriers while electrons (negatively charged) are the
minority charge carriers.

In n-type semiconductor, electrons (negatively charged) are the majority

charge carriers while holes (positively charged) are the minority charge
P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
carriers.
This type of semiconductor is obtained when a trivalent impurity like
The figure below shown the minority and majority charge carriers in both p-
Gallium (Ga) is added to pure germanium crystal. In this case, the three
type and n-type semiconductors.
valence electrons of Gallium atom form covalent bonds with four
surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives
rise to a hole as shown in figure below. Since several Gallium atoms are
bonded with germanium atoms, several holes will be produced. Due to the
presence of the free holes (positively charged), the resulting semiconductor
is of p-type.

NB: Silicon (Si) can be used in the place of Germanium (Ge) to produce the
same type of extrinsic semiconductor.

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 P-N Junction

It is possible to manufacture a single piece of a semiconductor material half

of which is doped by P-type impurity and the other half by N-type impurity
as shown in the figure below. The plane dividing the two zones is called
junction.

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor,

the contact surface is called pn junction.
Formation of Depletion Layer

Initially, when both the P- and N-type materials are joined together (without
any external voltage applied) the excess electrons in the N-type and excess
holes in the P-type will get attracted to each other and gets recombined
where the formation of fixed ions (Donor ion and Acceptor ion) takes place
as shown in below picture. These fixed ions resists the flow of electrons or
holes through it which now acts as a barrier in between the two materials
(formation of barrier means the fixed ions diffuses into P and N regions).
Formation of pn junction The barrier which is now formed is called as Depletion region/layer.

One common method of making pn junction is called alloying.

In this method, a small block of indium (trivalent impurity) is placed on an

n-type germanium slab as shown in figure (i). The system is then heated to a
temperature of about 500ºC. The indium and some of the germanium melt
to form a small puddle of molten germanium-indium mixture as shown in
figure (ii). The temperature is then lowered and puddle begins to solidify.
The addition of indium overcomes the excess of electrons in the n-type
germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type region. As the process
goes on, the remaining molten mixture becomes increasingly rich in indium.
When all germanium has been re-deposited, the remaining material appears
as indium button which is frozen on to the outer surface of the crystallized
portion as shown in figure (iii). This button serves as a suitable base for
soldering on leads.

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 In this type of connected, the electrons will be attracted to the positive
terminal of the battery while the holes will be attracted to the negative
terminal of the battery. For this reason, the depletion layer increases and no
Forward Biased P-N Junction
current will flow through it. P-N Junction Diode
In this connection, the p-region of the semiconductor is connected to a
It is a two-terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either in Ge
positive terminal of a battery while the n-region of the semiconductor is
or Si crystal. Its circuit symbol is shown in figure (b) below. The P-type
connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
region is referred to as anode and while the N-type region is referred to as
the cathode.

In figure (b) below, arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of

current flow when forward-biased. It is the same direction in which hole
current flow takes place.

One of the commercial pn-junction diodes is also shown in the figure below.

In this type of connected, the electrons will be attracted to the side of holes
while the holes moves to the side of electrons. For this reason, the depletion
layer decreases and electric current starts to flow through the p-n junction.

Reverse Biased P-N Junction

A PN-junction diode allows current to flow in one direction (during forward
In this connection, the n-region of the semiconductor is connected to a bias) and block current when in reverse bias.
positive terminal of a battery while the p-region of the semiconductor is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

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V/I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode There are two types of electronic components; active electronic component,
and passive electronic component.
It is a graph showing the current (usually on the y-axis) and voltage (usually
on the x-axis) through a diode in both forward and reverse bias. The figure Active electronic components are those that rely on an external power
below shows the VI characteristics of a pn junction diode. source to function.
Examples are transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), diodes,
MOSFETs, JFETs, etc.

Passive electronic components are components that don’t need an external

power source to function. Examples are resistors, capacitors, inductors,
transformers, etc.

In this unit, we will discuss the construction, operation, characteristics, and

applications of some of these electronic components.

Resistors

Resistors are electronic components that are used to resist the flow of
electric current.
As shown in the figure above, when a diode is in the forward bias, the
voltage barrier of 0.3V (for Ge) or 0.7V (for Si) must be overcome before
The unit or resistance is the Ohm, Ω and resistor values may be seen quoted
the diode can allow electric current to flow through it. However, there is still
in terms of Ohms - Ω, thousands of Ohms or kilohms - kΩ and millions of
some little forward leakage current that can flow when the voltage is less
Ohms, megohms, MΩ. When written on circuits values like 10k may be
than 0.3V or 0.7V.
seen meaning 10 kilohm, or 10 kΩ. The Omega sign is often omitted and the
Similarly, when the diode is in reverse bias, current is blocked from flowing decimal point replaced by the multipler: e.g. 1R5 would be 1.5 Ohms, 100R
until when the applied voltage become equal or greater than the reverse is 100Ω, 4k7 is 4.7 kΩ, 2M2 is 2.2MΩ and so forth.
breakdown voltage. However, there is still some reverse leakage current that
The general circuit symbol of a resistor is as shown in the figure below
flows through the diode in reverse bias even when the applied voltage is
below the reverse breakdown voltage.

Behold the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode allows very high amount
of reverse current to flow that damages the diode. Therefore, care should be Or
taken when connecting a diode in the reverse bias.

UNIT 2: ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Some of the highly used electronic components today are resistors, The figure below shows a commercial fixed resistor
capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, triacs, thyristors (SCR), photo
conductive cells, photo diodes, light emitting diodes, liquid crystal display
(LCD), integrated circuits (IC), etc.
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 control; everything from volume controls on radios and sliders in audio
mixers to a host of areas where a variable resistance is required.

The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a variable resistor

Resistor Construction

Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. Most common,

modern resistors are made out of either a carbon, metal, or metal-oxide
film. In these resistors, a thin film of conductive (though still resistive)
material is wrapped in a helix around and covered by an insulating material.
Metallic connection leads are then attached to the end caps of the resistor as Types of fixed resistors
shown below.
There are various types of fixed resistors

Metal oxide film or Metal film resistors: - uses a metal film or metal oxide
to surround the ceramic rod. They are used for low power levels. used for
medium power applications.

Types of Resistors

There are two major types of resistors

Carbon film resistors: - uses a carbon film to surround the ceramic rod.
 Fixed resistors They are used for low power levels.
 Variable resistors
Fixed resistors are highly used in most electrical and electronic equipment
than the variable resistors.

Fixed resistors offer a fixed value of resistance to the flow of current.

Usually, the resistance value is set by the manufacturer. Wire wound resistors: - they consists of a high resistance wire wound on a
ceramic former. They are used for high power applications.
Variable resistors on the other hand have a variable resistance value. These
resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps onto the
main resistor element. This gives three connections to the component: two
connected to the fixed element, and the third is the slider. In this way the
component acts as a variable potential divider if all three connections are
used. Variable resistors and potentiometers are widely used for all forms of

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 Rheostat: - is a variable resistor which is used to control current.
Types of variable resistors

Potentiometers: - three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact

that forms an adjustable voltage divider.

The figure below shows the various types of potentiometers.

Thermistor: - is a type of variable resistor whose resistance value varies

with temperature

Light depended resistor (LDR): - these are resistors whose resistance value Applications of resistors
depends on light intensity.
 Resistors are used in high frequency instrument.
 Resistor is used in power control circuit.
 It is used in DC power supplies.
 Resistors are used in filter circuit networks.
 It is used in wave generators.
 Resistors are used in transmitters, modulators and demodulators.
 It is used in medical instrument.

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 It is used in instrumentation applications.
 Resistor is used in voltage regulators.
 It is used in feedback amplifiers.
Capacitors

Capacitors are the most widely used electronic components after resistors.
We find capacitors in televisions, computers, and all electronic circuits.

A capacitor is an electronic device that stores electric charge or electricity

when voltage is applied and releases stored electric charge whenever
required. Capacitor acts as a small battery that charges and discharges
rapidly.

Capacitance is the capacitors ability (capacity) to store an electrical charge Working of a capacitor Charging a capacitor
on its plates.
When no voltage is applied to the capacitor, the total number of electrons
Standard Units of Capacitance and protons in the each plate of the capacitor are equal thus making them
electrically neutral. When voltage is applied to the capacitor in such a way
that, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the left side plate of
Microfarad (μF)
the capacitor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
right side plate of the capacitor, the charging of capacitor takes place. In this
Nanofarad case, a large number of electrons start moving from the negative terminal of
Picofarad the battery through the conductive wire. When these electrons reach the
right side plate of the capacitor, they experience a high resistance from
dielectric material. As a result, a large number of electrons build up on the
right side plate of the capacitor. On the other hand, the electrons on the left
Construction of a capacitor side plate experience a strong attractive force from the positive terminal of
the battery leaving behind concentration of holes on the left plate. This
A capacitor is made of two electrically conductive plates placed close to constitutes a potential difference between the two plates. Also, an electric
each other, but they do not touch each other. These conductive plates are field develops between the two plates through the dielectric material as
normally made of materials such as aluminum, brass, or copper. The shown in the figure below. This way, the capacitor is said to be charged.
conductive plates of a capacitor is separated by a small distance. The empty
space between these plates is filled with a dielectric material such as air,
vacuum, glass, liquid, or solid (such as paper) as shown in the figure below.

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Discharging a capacitor

If the external voltage source connected to the capacitor is removed, the

capacitor remains charged. However, when the capacitor is connected to an The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a capacitor
electric device such as an electric bulb through a conductive wire, the
electrons trapped on the right side plate starts flowing through the circuit.
We know that electric current is the flow of charge carriers (free electrons).
Therefore, when the free electrons or electric current reaches the light bulb,
it glows with high intensity. The electrons that started flowing from the right
side plate through the conductive wire finally reach the left side plate and
fill the holes of the left side plate. As a result, the charge on the left side Types of capacitors
plate and right side plate starts decreasing. This decreases the intensity of
Capacitors are mainly grouped into
electric bulb, because the electric current flowing through the electric bulb
decreases. Finally, the charge stored on the left plate and the right plate is  Fixed capacitors
completely released. As a result, the bulb will turn off, because no electric
 Variable capacitors
current flows through the bulb. Thus, the charge stored on the left plate and
right plate of the capacitor is discharged. Fixed capacitor is a type of capacitor which provides fixed amount of
capacitance. They are classified into different types based on the dielectric
material used to construct them. The different types of fixed capacitors are:

Paper capacitor: - uses paper as the dielectric material to store charge.

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Plastic capacitor or plastic film capacitor: - uses plastic film as dielectric
material to store charge. Electrolytic capacitor: - is a type of capacitor which uses electrolyte as one
of its electrodes to achieve large capacitance. Electrolytic capacitors are
mainly used when high charge storage in small volume is required.

Ceramic capacitor: - uses ceramic material as dielectric to store charge.

They are the most widely used capacitors in the electronic circuits. These
capacitors are used when large charge storage and small physical size is
required. Variable capacitors are those whose capacitance can be varied. There are
two most common types of such capacitors named as a trimmer and rotor-
stator capacitors.

Mica capacitor: - they are used in the applications where high accuracy and
low capacitance change over the time is desired. These capacitors can work
efficiently at high frequencies.

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 Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as

follows:

Iron Core Inductor the core of this type of inductor is made of iron as
shown in the figure below.

Applications if capacitors

 Energy storage
 Pulsed power and weapons
 Power conditioning
 Power factor correction

 Suppression and coupling

 Sensing
 Oscillators Air Core Inductor refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other
Inductors nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have only air inside the windings
as shown below.
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic
circuits to store energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is
applied to it.

Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy.

The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and when we measure magnetic
circuits it is equivalent to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L. Iron Powder Inductor are those that are made of iron oxide core
The general circuit symbol of an inductor is shown in the figure below

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 Ferrite Core Inductor uses ferrite materials as core.

The construction of a p-n junction diode is similar to the construction of a p-

n junction explained in the previous topic.

Working of a diode

A P-N junction diode is one-way device offering low resistance when

forward-biased and behaving almost as an insulator when reverse-biased.
Hence, such diodes are mostly used as rectifiers i.e. for converting
Applications of inductors alternating current (ac) into direct current (dc).

 Used in tuning circuits A diode operates in two modes depending on its biasing condition
 Used to store energy in a device
 Used in induction motors Forward bias diode
 Used in transformers
When the anode of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of a
 Used in filters
battery and the cathode to the negative terminal of the battery, the diode is
 Used in power supply circuits as chokes (to choke ac current and allow only said to be forward bias. Due to forward bias, majority charge carriers in both
dc current to pass) regions gets repelled. That is, the holes in the P-type region gets repelled by
 Used in inductive sensors such as proximity sensors the positive charge of the battery while electrons in the N-type region gets
repelled by the negative charges of the battery. This decreases the width of
Diodes the depletion layer and eventually destroys it if the applied voltage is high
enough to overcome the barrier voltage. The result is that the electrons and
A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only holes can now cross the opposite sides and constitute the electric current
conducts current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified from the battery to flow through the diode from the P-type to the N-type
voltage level). region and back to the battery as shown in the figure below.

The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a diode and some of the
available diodes in the market.
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 In this mode, the diode works like an open switch.
In this mode, the diode works like a closed switch. V/I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode

It is a graph showing the current (usually on the y-axis) and voltage (usually
Reverse bias diode
on the x-axis) through a diode in both forward and reverse bias. The figure
below shows the VI characteristics of a pn junction diode.
When the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of a
battery and the cathode to the positive terminal of the battery, the diode is
said to be reverse bias. Due to reverse bias, majority charge carriers in both
regions gets attracted to the side of the battery terminals they are connected.
That is, the holes in the P-type region gets attracted by the negative charge
of the battery while electrons in the N-type region gets attracted by the
positive charges of the battery. This increases the width of the depletion
layer thus increasing the barrier voltage. The result is that the electrons and
holes cannot cross the opposite sides and constitute the electric current from
the battery to flow through the diode. In this mode, the diode is said to be
blocking the flow of current.

As shown in the figure above, when a diode is in the forward bias, the
voltage barrier of 0.3V (for Ge) or 0.7V (for Si) must be overcome before
the diode can allow electric current to flow through it. However, there is still
some little forward leakage current that can flow when the voltage is less
than 0.3V or 0.7V.
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Similarly, when the diode is in reverse bias, current is blocked from flowing Types of diode
until when the applied voltage become equal or greater than the reverse
breakdown voltage. However, there is still some reverse leakage current that P-N junction diodes or rectifier dioded
flows through the diode in reverse bias even when the applied voltage is This is the basic diode formed with the interaction of p-type and n-type
below the reverse breakdown voltage. materials.
Behold the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode allows very high amount They are used mainly for rectification purposes.
of reverse current to flow that damages the diode. Therefore, care should be
taken when connecting a diode in the reverse bias. The figure below shows the diode and its circuit symbol.
Forward Characteristic

When the diode is forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased

from zero, hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning. It
is so because the external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier
voltage VB whose value is 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is
neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing
applied battery voltage. It is found that as little a voltage as 1.0 V produces Zener diodes
a forward current of about 50 mA. A burnout is likely to occur if forward
voltage is increased beyond a certain safe limit. It is the diode designed in such a way that it can operate in the reverse bias
mode.
Reverse Characteristic
The figure below shows a zener diode and its circuit symbol.
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carriers are blocked and only a
small current (due to minority carriers) flows through the diode. As the
reverse voltage is increased from zero, the reverse current very quickly
reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is also known as leakage
current. It is of the order of Nano-amperes (nA) for Si and microamperes
(µA) for Ge. The value of Io (or Is ) is independent of the applied reverse
voltage but depends on (a) temperature, (b) degree of doping and (c)
physical size of the junction. As seen from the V/I characteristic curve Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
above, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called break-down
voltage VBR (or Zener voltage Vz), the leakage current suddenly and sharply This is a type of diode that emits light when a forward current passes
through it.
increases, the curve indicating zero resistance at this point. Any further
increase in voltage is likely to produce burnout unless protected by a
current-limiting resistor.

When P-N junction diodes are employed primarily because of this

breakdown property as voltage regulators, they are called Zener diodes.
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Schottky diodes

These type of diodes are used for faster switching operations

Photo diode

This is the type of diode that allows current to flow through it when light is
shining on it and blocks the current when in the dark.

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 Applications of diodes

 Rectifiers
 Clipper Circuits
 Clamping Circuits
 Reverse Current Protection Circuits
 In Logic Gates
 Voltage Multipliers
 As a Switch
 Source isolation
 As voltage reference
 As a Light Source
 As a Light Sensor
Laser diode (LD)  A solar cell or Photo-Voltaic cell
 Protection against Surges
This is type of diode similar to the LED but it emits coherent light of high
intensity.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits

visible light when energized.

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 Construction of LED limiting resistor is connected in series with the LED as shown in the figure
(a) below. The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward current.
Broadly speaking, the LED structures can be divided into two categories: The amount of power output translated into light is directly proportional to
the forward current as shown in figure (b). It is evident from this figure that
1. Surface-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular greater the forward current, the greater the light output.
to the PN junction plane.

2. Edge-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the PN

junction plane

The figure below shows the construction of a surface-emitting LED. As seen

from this figure, an N-type layer is grown on a substrate and a P-type layer
is deposited on it by diffusion. Since carrier recombination takes place in
the P-layer, it is kept upper most. The metal anode connections are made
at the outer edges of the P-layer so as to allow more central surface area
for the light to escape. LEDs are manufactured with domed lenses in order Applications of LED
to lessen the reabsorption problem. A metal (gold) film is applied to the
bottom of the substrate for reflecting as much light as possible to the  LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems;
surface of the device and also to provide cathode connection. LEDs are  Used for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray
always encased in order to protect their delicate wires. tubes (CRT);
 Used in image sensing circuits used for ‘picturephone’;
 Used in the field of optical fibre communication systems
 Used in data links and remote controllers;
 Used in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and
numbers) or supplying input power to lasers or for entering information
into optical computer memories;  Used for numeric displays in hand-held
or pocket calculators

Liquid Crystals Display (LCD)

Working of LEDs
A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organic compound) which flows
The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon like a liquid at room temperature but whose molecular structure has some
PN junction diode. Typically the maximum forward voltage for LED is properties normally associated with solids (examples of such compounds
between 1.2 V and 3.2 V depending on the device. Reverse breakdown are: cholesteryl nonanoate and p-azoxyanisole).
voltage for an LED is of the order of 3 V to 10 V. For this reason, a current

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Construction of LCD

As shown in figure (a), a liquid crystal ‘cell’ consists of a thin layer (about 10
µm) of a liquid crystal sandwiched between two glass sheets with
transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces. With both glass
sheets transparent, the cell is known as transmittive type cell. When one
glass is transparent and the other has a reflective coating, the cell is called
reflective type. The LCD does not produce any illumination of its own. It, in
fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source
for its visual effect.
Applications of LCDs
Working of LCD

The two types of display available are known as (i) field-effect display and
 Field-effect LCDs are normally used in watches and portable instruments
where source of energy is a prime consideration.
(ii) dynamic scattering display. When field-effect display is energized, the
energized areas of the LCD absorb the incident light and, hence give  Thousands of tiny LCDs are used to form the picture elements (pixels) of
localized black display. When dynamic scattering display is energized, the the screen in one type of B & W pocket TV receiver.
molecules of energized area of the display become turbulent and scatter  Used in recent desk top LCD monitors.
light in all directions. Consequently, the activated areas take on a frosted  Used in note book computer display
glass appearance resulting in a silver display. Of course, the unenergized  Used in cellular phone display
areas remain translucent.
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
As shown in figure (b), a digit on an LCD has a segment appearance. For
example, if number 5 is required, the terminals 8, 2, 3, 6 and 5 would be A bipolar junction transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by
energized so that only these regions would be activated while the other sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of
opposite types.
areas would remain clear
Types of BJTs

There are two types of transistors, namely; n-p-n transistor and p-n-p
transistor

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by

a thin section of ptype as shown in figure (i) while a p-n-p transistor is
formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type as shown in
figure (ii).

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 A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The
section on one side is the emitter (E) and the section on the opposite side is
the collector (C). The middle section is called the base (B) and forms two
junctions between the emitter and collector.

(i) Emitter is the section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or
holes). It is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply a large
number of majority charge carriers. In figure (i) below, the emitter (p-type)
of pnp transistor is forward biased and supplies hole charges to its junction
The figure below shows a commercial transistor and its circuit symbol with the base. Similarly, in figure (ii), the emitter (n-type) of npn transistor
has a forward bias and supplies free electrons to its junction with the base.
(ii) Collector is thehe section on the other side that collects the charges. It is
always reverse biased. Its function is to remove charges from its junction
with the base. In figure (i), the collector (p-type) of pnp transistor has a
reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the output circuit.
Similarly, in figure (ii), the collector (n-type) of npn transistor has reverse
bias and receives electrons.
(iii) Base is the middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the
emitter and collector. The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing
low resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reverse
biased and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.

Naming of transistor terminals Some Facts about the Transistor

(i) The transistor has three regions; emitter, base and collector. The base is
A transistor has three terminals/leads namely; emitter, base, and collector. much thinner than the emitter while collector is wider than both as shown

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 in the figure below. However, for the sake of convenience, it is customary to
show emitter and collector to be of equal size.
(ii) The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and
very thin so as to pass most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the
collector. The collector is moderately doped.
(iii) The transistor has two p-n junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction
between emitter and base may be called emitter-base diode or simply the
emitter diode. The junction between the base and collector may be called
collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
(iv) The emitter diode is always forward biased whereas collector diode is
always reverse biased.
(v) The resistance of emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared
to collector diode (reverse biased). Therefore, forward bias applied to the Working of PNP transistor
emitter diode is generally very small whereas reverse bias on the collector
diode is much higher. The figure below shows the basic connection of a PNP transistor. The
forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base.
This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these holes cross into n-type base,
they tend to combine with the electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and
very thin, only a few holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons to
constitute the base current IB. The remainder (more than 95%) cross into the
collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the
entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

Working of NPN transistor

The figure below shows an npn transistor with forward bias to emitter-base
junction and reverse bias to collector-base junction. The forward bias causes
the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes
the emitter current IE. As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they
tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin,
therefore, only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with holes to
constitute base current IB. The remainder (more than 95%) cross over into
the collector region to constitute collector current IC. In this way, almost the
entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

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 Figure (i) below shows the circuit symbol of an NPN transistor while figure  Common collector connection method
(ii) shows the circuit symbol of a PNP transistor.
Common base connection

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and
output is taken from collector and base. Here, base of the transistor is
common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common
base connection.

Emitter Current amplification factor (α) is the ratio of output current to

input current. In a common base

At constant VCB

From the circuits shown above, it is evident that the emitter current is equal
to the sum of the base current and collector current.

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

Transistor Connection Methods

There are three methods of connecting a transistor;

 Common base connection method

 Common emitter connection method Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

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 Solution

For silicon transistor, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉 while for germanium transistor, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 =
0.3𝑉

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop,

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐵

Assume the transistor to be of silicon (𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉).

3. For the common base circuit shown in the figure below, determine IC and VCB.

Example

and the current amplification factor ∝.

1. In a common base connection, IE = 1mA, IC = 0.95mA. Calculate the value of IB

Solution

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

1 × 10−3 = 9.5 × 10−3 + 𝐼𝐵 Solution

Thus 𝐼𝐵 = 1 × 10−3 − 9.5 × 10−4 = 5 × 10−5 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

Considering the input circuit,

thus,

2. In a common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the

emitter current is 1mA, determine the value of base current.

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Common emitter connection 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and Substitute 𝐼𝐵 in equation (ii) to get
output is taken from collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is
common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common
emitter connection as shown in the figures below.
This is the highly used transistor biasing method because of its large current But 𝐼𝐸 from equation (i) is
gain and high voltage and power gains. It has a high input impedance too
which is good for amplification purposes.

Substitute 𝐼𝐸 into equation (iii) to get

Simplifies to

Base current amplification factor (β) is the ratio of output current (IC) to the Assignment
input current (IB). Show that

From the equation

Page 26 of 47
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit (loop),

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

From equation

Common collector connection 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector and → 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶

Substitute 𝐼𝐵 in equation (i) to get

output is taken from emitter and collector. Here, collector of the transistor
is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common
collector connection as shown in the figures below.

This is a rarely used transistor biasing method. Although it has high current
From equation (ii), make 𝐼𝐶 the subject and substitute it in equation (iii)
gain, its voltage gain is low (less than 1).

𝐼𝐶 =∝ 𝐼𝐸

Transistor Load line analysis

Current amplification factor (𝛾) is the ratio of output current (IE) to the Load line is a line joining the saturation point to the cut-off point of a
input current (IB). transistor.

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Saturation point is the point when the transistor is fully on. At this point, Cut-off point
the transistor acts as a closed switch.
At cut-off, the transistor is fully open (acts like an open circuit). Thus there
Cut-off point is the point when the transistor is fully off. At this point, the is no current through the transistor at this point, that is .
transistor acts as an open switch.
Thus equation (i) becomes
Operating point (Q) is the point that gives the values of IC and VCE when no
signal is applied to the input circuit of the transistor.
The load line is thus drawn as shown in figure (ii) above. From the figure,
point A is the saturation-point while point B is the cut-off point.

To get the operating point, the value of is found using

equation (i) also. As seen in figure (ii) above, the operating points varies
depending on the base current . This is true because depends on
.

Example

In the circuit diagram shown in the figure below, if VCC = 12V and RC = 6 kΩ,
draw the d.c. load line. What will be the Q point if zero signal base current
is 20µA and β = 50?
To get the cut-off and saturation points, we use the output circuit loop and
apply the Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Saturation point

At saturation, the transistor is fully closed (acts like a conductor/wire). Thus

there is no voltage drop across the transistor at this point, that is
.

Thus equation (i) becomes

Solution

At saturation

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 Transistor Biasing Methods

Biasing is the process of providing dc voltage which helps in the

functioning of the circuit.

There are four basic transistor biasing methods:

At cut-off point  Base resistor method

 Emitter bias method
 Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
Operating point Q is, we find and
 Voltage-divider bias

Base resistor method

In this method, a high resistance RB (several hundred kΩ) is connected

between the base and +ve end of supply for npn transistor and between
base and negative end of supply for pnp transistor as shown in the figure
below.
To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸, we substitute 𝐼𝐶 in the equation 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

12 = (1 × 10−3 × 6 × 103) + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 6𝑉

The operating point is thus 6V, 1mA.

The dc load line and the operating point Q are shown in the figure below

Page 29 of 47
 Circuit analysis

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit (loop),

Solution

i. Considering the input circuit loop

Example

The figure below shows biasing with base resistor method.

(i) Determine the collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE.

Neglect small baseemitter voltage. Given that β = 50.
(ii) If RB in this circuit is changed to 50 kΩ, find the new operating point

To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 we use the output circuit

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

9 = 1 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 9 − (1 × 10−3 × 2 × 103) = 7𝑉

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The operating point is 7V, 1mA

ii. To get the new operating point we repeat the above steps

𝐼𝐶 = 50 × 0.04 × 10−3 = 2𝑚𝐴

To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 we use the output circuit

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Circuit analysis

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop

9 = 2 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 9 − (2 × 10−3 × 2 × 103) = 5𝑉

The new operating point is 5V, 2mA

Assignment

Draw the dc load line and show the two operating points for the above
circuit
Thus . Substitute it in equation (i) to get
Emitter bias method
This circuit differs from base-bias circuit in two important respects. First, it
uses two separate dc voltage sources; one positive (+ VCC) and the other
negative (– VEE). Normally, the two supply voltages will be equal. For
example, if VCC = + 20V (dc), then VEE = – 20V (dc). Secondly, there is a
resistor RE in the emitter circuit.

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But
Circuit Analysis
Thus
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Applying Kirchhoff’s law at the output circuit loop

Voltage Divider Bias Method

But
This is the most widely used method of providing biasing and stabilization
Biasing with Collector Feedback to a transistor.
Resistor
In this method, two resistances R1 and R2 are connected across the supply
In this method, one end of RB is connected to the base and the other end to voltage VCC and provide biasing. The emitter resistance RE provides
the collector as shown in the figure below. stabilization.

The name ‘‘voltage divider’’ comes from the voltage divider formed by R1
and R2. The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base emitter
junction. This causes the base current and hence collector current flow in
the zero signal conditions.

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 Reasons why silicon is highly used semiconductor material compared to
germanium

 It has a low leakage current at room temperature

 It has low variation of leakage current with temperature
 It has a wide range of working temperature
 It has a high PIV (peak inverse voltage) ratings

Field Effect Transistors (FET)

FETs are voltage controlled devices unlike BJTs which are current
controlled devices.

Also, unlike BJTs whereby current conduction was by two types of charge
carriers (electrons and holes), in FETs the current conduction is by only one
Circuit Analysis type of charge carrier (either electrons or holes).

Types of FETs
The biasing voltage across R2 is given by
 Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop  Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop A junction field effect transistor (JFET) is a three terminal semiconductor

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸𝑅𝐸 But 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶

device in which current conduction is by one type of carrier i.e., electrons or
holes.

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝑅𝐸

There are two types of JFETs names P-channel JFET and N-channel
JFET.
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶(𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸) Construction of a JFET
Applications of bipolar junction transistors A JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two p-n
junctions at the sides as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting
 Used as amplifiers channel for the charge carriers. If the bar is of ntype, it is called n-channel
 Used as a switch JFET as shown in figure (i) and if the bar is of p-type, it is called a pchannel
JFET as shown in figure (ii). The two p-n junctions forming diodes are
 Used in impedance marching circuits
connected internally and a common terminal called gate (G) is taken out.
Silicon versus Germanium Other terminals are source (S) and drain (D) taken out from the bar as
shown.
Although both silicon and germanium are used in semiconductor devices.
Page 33 of 47
 at the sides of the bar establish depletion layers. The electrons will flow
from source to drain through a channel between the depletion layers. The
size of these layers determines the width of the channel and hence the
current conduction through the bar.

When a reverse voltage VGS is applied between the gate and source as shown
in figure (ii), the width of the depletion layers is increased. This reduces the
width of conducting channel, thereby increasing the resistance of n-type bar.
Consequently, the current from source to drain is decreased. On the other
hand, if the reverse voltage on the gate is decreased, the width of the
depletion layers also decreases. This increases the width of the conducting
channel and hence source to drain current.

A JFET has three terminals namely Gate (G), Source (S), and Drain (D).

JFET polarities

Regardless of the type of JFET, the voltage between the gate and source is
such that the gate is reverse biased as shown in figure (i) and (ii) below.
This is the normal way of JFET connection.

Schematic (circuit) symbol of a JFET

The figure below shows the circuit symbols of the two types of JFETs.

Working of a JFET

When a voltage VDS is applied between drain and source terminals and
voltage on the gate (VGS) is zero as shown in figure (i), the two p-n junctions
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 The D-MOSFET can be operated in both the depletion-mode and the
enhancement-mode. For this reason, a D-MOSFET is sometimes called
depletion/enhancement MOSFET. Types of D-MOSFET

 N-channel D-MOSFET  P-channel D-MOSFET

Enhancement-type MOSFET or E-MOSFET.

The E-MOSFET can be operated only in enhancement-mode.

Types of E-MOSFET

 N-channel E-MOSFET
 P-channel E-MOSFET
Construction of D-MOSFET

It consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing a n-type or p-type

substrate at right hand side as shown in below. The bar forms the
conducting channel for the charge carriers. If the bar is of n-type, it is called
n-channel D-MOSFET as shown in figure below and if the bar is of ptype, it
is called a p-channel D-MOSFET. The gate terminal is deposited on a thin
layer of silicon (IV) oxide which is deposited at one side (left hand side) of
the channel. Other terminals are source (S) and drain (D) taken out from the
bar as shown. The substrate is internally connected to the source terminal.
Applications of JFET

 Used as a switch
 Used as an amplifier
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

Unlike a JFET that can only work in the depletion mode only (reducing the
width of the conduction channel), a MOSFET can be operated in two
modes, that is, the depletion mode (decreasing the width of the conduction
channel) and the enhancement mode (increasing the width of the conduction
channel).
Construction of E-MOSFET
Types of MOSFETs
It consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar (channel) containing a n-type or
i. Depletion-type MOSFET or D-MOSFET. p-type substrate at right hand side that extends across the channel thus
dividing the channel into two parts as shown in below. The bar forms the

Page 35 of 47
conducting channel for the charge carriers. If the bar is of n-type, it is called
n-channel E-MOSFET as shown in figure below and if the bar is of p-type,
it is called a p-channel E-MOSFET. The gate terminal is deposited on a thin
layer of silicon (IV) oxide which is deposited at one side (left hand side) of
the channel. Other terminals are source (S) and drain
(D) taken out from the bar as shown. The substrate is internally connected to
the source terminal.

Circuit symbol of the types of MOSFETs

Figure (i) below shows a n-channel E-MOSFET while figure (ii) shows a p-
channel E-MOSFET.

Page 36 of 47
Operation of D-MOSFET Depletion Mode

Considering the circuit shown below, the current is initially flowing through
the n-channel from the drain to the source. When the gate source voltage
(VGG) is increased, the gate terminal become negatively charged thus
repelling the electrons in the n-channel. The repelled electrons leaves behind
holes near the gate terminal and the p-layer grows towards the gate terminal.
As more gate source voltage is applied, the p-layer (substrate) eventually
cuts the channel in two parts thus depleting the flow of electrons (current)
through the channel.

Operation of E-MOSFET

This type of MOSFET only operates in the enhancement mode.

Initially when there is no gate source voltage applied at the gate, no current
that can flow through the channel of the MOSFET. When a positive gate
source voltage (VGS) is applied, electrons gets attracted from the n-channel
to fill the holes in the p-substrate near the gate terminal and current starts to
flow through the n-channel. As more gate voltage is applied, more electrons
gets attracted to the gate terminal leading to decreasing in the length of the
p-substrate. Consequently, the current through the channel increases
Enhancement Mode (conduction of the n-channel is enhanced).

Considering the circuit shown below, the current is initially flowing through
the n-channel from the drain to the source. When the gate source voltage
(VGG) is increased, the gate terminal become positively charged thus
attracting the electrons in the n-channel. The attracted electrons increases
the concentration of electrons near the gate terminal thus diffuse into the p-
layer (substrate) to fill the holes. As a result, the substrate (p-layer)
decreases and thus increases (enhances) the n-channel and consequently
increases the current through the channel.

Applications of MOSFTETs

 Used in switching circuits

Page 37 of 47
 Used in power control circuits
 Used in amplifier circuits
 Used in DC motor drives
Values and ratings of electronic components

Resistor colour codes

We can determine the value of a resistor using its colour code or using an
ohmmeter (or a multimeter).

Here, we will determine the value or size of a resistor using its color code. A
resistor (fixed) has different colour bands printed on its body like the one
shown in the figure below. To measure the resistance of a resistor using a
multimeter, the appropriate ohmmeter scale is selected and the two leads
(red and black leads) of the multimeter connected to the two ends of the
resistor. The value of the resistance will be displayed on the screen of the
multimeter.

The colour bands and their corresponding values are shown in the table Depending on the size of the transistor, it can have three, four, five or six
below. colour bands. The last one two colour bands are for tolerance and
temperature coefficients respectively.

For a 3-band or 4-band resistor

The first two bands always denote the first two digits of the
resistance value in ohms. On a three or four-band resistor, the
third band represents the multiplier (power of 10). The fourth
color band signifies tolerance. Keep in mind that if this band is
Page 38 of 47
absent and you are looking at a three-band resistor, the default Determine the resistance of resistors with the following colour bands.
tolerance is ±20%.
 Yellow,Violet, Orange, Silver
 Brown, Black, Black, Gold
 Red, Red, Gold
 Blue, Grey, White, Yellow, Silver, Black

Capacitance of a capacitor

To measure the capacitance of a capacitor using a multimeter, the knob is

adjusted to the capacitance section and the two multimeter leads connected
to the two terminals of the capacitor.

We can also determine the value of the capacitance by reading it from the
Resistance value is 10 × 10 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 10000 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 10
3 writings (code) on the body of the capacitor.
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ± 5% For electrolytic capacitors, their capacitance value and voltage ratings are
written on the paper enclosing the capacitor body as shown in the figure
For 5 or 6 Band Resistors
below. The value of the capacitance is expressed in µF.

Note: 1 µF = 10−6 𝐹
Resistors with high precision have an extra color band to indicate a third
significant digit. If your resistor has five or six color bands, the third band
becomes this additional digit of the resistance value along with bands one
In the figure below, the capacitance of the capacitor is 150µF, the maximum
and two. Everything else shifts to the right, making the fourth color band
voltage rating is 400V, and the maximum temperature that the capacitor can
the multiplier and the fifth band the tolerance. A six-band indicates the
withstand is 1050C.
reliability, or the temperature coefficient (ppm/K) specification. Using
brown, the most common sixth band color, as an example, every
temperature change of 10°C changes the resistance value by 0.1%.

Resistance value 152 × 106𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 152 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ± 0.1%

Assignment:

Page 39 of 47
 Assignment

Determine the capacitance of the following capacitors. Leave your answer

in farads (F).

For ceramic capacitors like the one shown in the figure below, to get the
capacitance of the capacitor, we take the first two digits on the capacitor
body to be the first two figures of the capacitance. The third digit on the
capacitor body is called the multiplier and is usually written as the power of
10 and it is multiplied to the first two figures obtained previously. The letter
written together with the number on the capacitor body is used to indicate
the tolerance of the capacitor. If the number is two digits, the multiplier is
assumed to be zero. The tolerances corresponding to the respective letters
are shown in the table in the figure below. The value is expressed in Pico
Farads (pF).

Note: 1 pF = 10−12 𝐹
UNIT 3: POWER SUPPLIES

10 × 104𝑝𝐹
For example, the value of the capacitance of the capacitor shown below is
In this topic, we will discuss the construction and operation of DC power
supplies.

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Most of the electronic devices and circuits require a dc source for their 1. Transformer
operation. Dry cells and batteries are one form of dc source. They have the
Its job is either to step up or (mostly) step down the ac supply voltage to
advantage of being portable and ripple-free. However, their voltages are
suit the requirement of the solid-state electronic devices and circuits fed by
low, they need frequent replacement and are expensive as compared to
the dc power supply. It also provides isolation from the supply line–an
conventional dc power supplies. Since the most convenient and economical
important safety consideration.
source of power is the domestic ac supply, it is advantageous to convert
this alternating voltage (usually, 220 V rms) to dc voltage (usually smaller in 2. Rectifier
value).
It is a circuit which employs one or more diodes to convert ac voltage into
This process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification pulsating dc voltage.
and is accomplished with the help of a rectifier, filter, and voltage
regulator circuit. These elements put together constitute dc power supply. 3. Filter
There are two types of dc power supplies: unregulated dc power supply, The function of this circuit element is to remove the fluctuations or
and regulated dc power supply. pulsations (called ripples) present in the output voltage supplied by the
rectifier. Of course, no filter can, in practice, gives an output voltage as
Unregulated Power Supply
ripple-free as that of a dc battery but it approaches it so closely that the
An unregulated power supply is one whose dc terminal voltage is affected power supply performs as well.
significantly by the amount of load. As the load draws more current, the dc
terminal voltage becomes less. 4. Voltage Regulator

Regulated Power Supply Its main function is to keep the terminal voltage of the dc supply constant

even when (i) Ac input voltage to the transformer varies (deviations from
It is that dc power supply whose terminal voltage remains almost constant
regardless of the amount of current drawn from it. An unregulated supply 220 V are common); or
can be converted into a regulated power supply by adding a voltage
regulating circuit to it. (ii) The load varies.

The figure below shows a basic block diagram of a regulated dc power Usually, Zener diodes and transistors are used for voltage regulation
supply purposes. Again, it is impossible to get 100% constant voltage but minor
variations are acceptable for most of the jobs.

5. Voltage Divider

Its function is to provide different dc-voltages needed by different

electronic circuits. It consists of a number of resistors connected in series
A typical dc power supply consists of five stages as shown in Fig. 55.1. across the output terminals of the voltage regulator. Obviously, it
eliminates the necessity of providing separate dc power supplies to
different electronic circuits working on different dc levels.
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Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac power to dc power.

Rectification is the process of converting ac power to dc power.

Single-phase half-wave rectifier

Working

During the positive half-cycle of the input ac voltage, the diode D is

The figure above shows a full-wave center-tapped rectifier circuit. During
forward-biased (ON) and conducts. While conducting, the diode acts as a
the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, M is positive while N is
short-circuit so that circuit current flows and hence, positive halfcycle of
negative w.r.t G. For this reason, the diodes D1 is forward bias while D2 is
the input ac voltage is dropped across RL. During the negative input half-
reverse bias. Load current will flow through the D1. During the negative
cycle, the diode is reverse-biased (OFF) and so, does not conduct i.e. there
half cycle of the supply voltage, N is positive while M is negative w.r.t G,
is no current flow. Hence, there is no voltage drop across RL. For this
thus D2 is forward bias while D1 is reverse bias. The load current now flows
reason, the negative half cycle of the supply voltage is not part of the
through D2.
output voltage. It constitutes the output voltage VL as shown in figure (b).
Waveform of the load voltage is also shown in figure (b). It consists of The waveforms for the input and output voltages are similar to those of a
halfwave rectified sinusoids of peak value VLM. full-wave bridge rectifier shown below.

Advantages of full-wave bridge rectifier

It requires only two diodes unlike the bridge rectifier which requires four
diodes.
(ii) As during each half-cycle of ac input only one diode conducts, the voltage
drop in the internal resistance is low compared to that of bridge rectifier.

Disadvantages of full-wave center-tap rectifier

It is difficult to locate the center tap on the secondary winding.

Single-phase full-wave rectifier
(ii) The dc output is small as each diode utilizes only one-half of the
The full-wave rectifier circuit can be made from a center tap transformer transformer secondary voltage.
and two diodes or a normal transformer and bridge circuit of four diodes. (iii) The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage
Working NB. The peak inverse voltage, PIV = 2Vsm
Full-wave center-tap (mid-point) rectifier Full-wave Bridge rectifier

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 Working (ii) As during each half-cycle of ac input two diodes conducts in series, the
voltage drop in the internal resistance is high compared to that of center-
This circuit consist of a transformer without center tap and four diodes as
tap rectifier.
shown in the figure below.
Filter Circuits
During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, M is positive w.r.t N. Thus,
diodes D1, D3 are forward bias while diodes D2, D4 are reverse bias. Load As shown in the above waveforms, for full-wave and half-wave rectifiers,
current flows through D1 and D3. During the negative half cycle of the there is oscillating factor which is not needed by dc components operated
supply voltage, N is positive w.r.t M and thus diodes D2, D4 are forward by the dc supply. Therefore, smoothing or filtering is needed to remove
bias while diodes D1, D3 are reverse bias. The load current now flows (reduce) the ripple effect and regulation to stabilize the output voltage.
through D2 and D4. The waveforms of the input and output voltage are
shown in figure (b) below. A shown in the output voltage waveforms, A filter circuit is a device which removes the ac component of rectifier
voltage appear across the load (current flows through the load) in both half output but allows the dc component to reach the load.
cycles and that is why it is known as full-wave rectifier. A filter circuit is generally a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).

NB: A capacitor passes ac readily but does not pass dc at all while on the
other hand, an inductor opposes ac but allows dc to pass through it.

Types of Filter Circuits

The most commonly used filter circuits are

 Capacitor filter,
 Choke input filter
 Capacitor input filter or π-filter.

Advantages of full-wave bridge rectifier Capacitor Filter

It consists of a capacitor C placed across the rectifier output in parallel with

(i) The need for center-tapped transformer is eliminated.
load RL.
(ii) The output is twice that of the center-tap circuit for the same secondary
voltage. (iii) The PIV is one-half that of the center-tap circuit (for same
dc output).

Disadvantages of full-wave bridge rectifier

(i) It requires four diodes.

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Operation component passes through the choke on its way to load. This results in the
reduced pulsations at terminal 3. At terminal 3, the rectifier output
The pulsating direct voltage of the rectifier is applied across the capacitor.
contains dc component and the remaining part of ac component which has
As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies
managed to pass through the choke. Now, the low reactance of filter
current to the load. At the end of quarter cycle [Point A in figure (iii)], the
capacitor bypasses the ac component but prevents the dc component to
capacitor is charged to the peak value Vm of the rectifier voltage. Now, the
flow through it. Therefore, only dc component reaches the load.
rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As this occurs, the capacitor discharges
through the load and voltage across it (i.e. across parallel combination of R- Capacitor input filter or π-filter
C) decreases as shown by the line AB in figure (iii). The voltage across load
The figure below shows a typical capacitor input filter or π-filter. It consists
will decrease only slightly because immediately the next voltage peak
of a filter capacitor C1 connected across the rectifier output, a choke L in
comes and recharges the capacitor. This process is repeated again and
series and another filter capacitor C2 connected across the load. Only one
again and the output voltage waveform becomes ABCDEFG.
filter section is shown but several identical sections are often used to
NB: The capacitor filter circuit is extremely popular because of its low cost, improve the smoothing action.
small size, little weight and good characteristics. For small load currents
(say upto 50 mA), this type of filter is preferred. It is commonly used in
transistor radio battery eliminators.

Choke input filter

The figure below shows a typical choke input filter circuit. It consists of a
choke L connected in series with the rectifier output and a filter capacitor C
across the load. Only a single filter section is shown, but several identical
sections are often used to reduce the pulsations as effectively as possible.

Operation

The pulsating output from the rectifier is applied across the input terminals
(i.e. terminals 1 and 2) of the filter. The filtering action of the three
components C1, L and C2 of this filter is described below

(a) The filter capacitor C1 offers low reactance to ac component of

rectifier output while it offers infinite reactance to the dc component.
Operation Therefore, capacitor C1 bypasses an appreciable amount of ac component
while the dc component continues its journey to the choke L.
The pulsating output of the rectifier is applied across terminals 1 and 2 of
the filter circuit. The choke offers high opposition to the passage of ac (b) The choke L offers high reactance to the ac component but it
component but negligible opposition to the dc component. The result is offers almost zero reactance to the dc component. Therefore, it allows the
that most of the ac component appears across the choke while whole of dc
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dc component to flow through it, while the un-bypassed ac component is  Half-wave voltage doubler,
blocked.  Full-wave voltage doubler,
 Voltage tripler,
(c) The filter capacitor C2 bypasses the ac component which the
choke has failed to block. Therefore, only dc component appears across the  Voltage quadrupler
load and that is what we desire. We can use diodes and capacitors to build voltage multipliers.
The figures below shows simple circuits of how the filter circuits are For example, a voltage doubler will provide a dc output that is twice the
incorporated to the rectifier circuit. peak input ac voltage, a voltage tripler will provide a dc output that is three
times the peak input ac voltage and so on.

While voltage multipliers provide dc output that is much greater than the
peak input ac voltage, there is no power amplification and law of
conservation of energy holds good. When a voltage multiplier increases the
peak input voltage by a factor n, the peak input current is decreased by
approximately the same factor.

Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

Voltage Multipliers

A voltage multiplier is a circuit which produces a greater dc output voltage Operation

than ac input voltage to the rectifiers.
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (not D2)
Multipliers are required in many circuit applications where it is necessary to and charges C1 to peak value of secondary voltage (V m) with the polarity
have high voltages with low currents as for electron accelerating purposes as shown in figure (a). During the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts (not D1)
in a cathode-ray tube (CRT). and charges C2. The voltage across C2 is the sum of peak supply voltage
and the voltage across C1 (C1 will be discharging to C2). At this point the
We will consider the following circuits:
voltage across the capacitor C2 and hence across the load will be twice that
at the secondary coil of the transformer. During the next positive half-
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cycle, D2 is open and C2 will discharge through the load while C1 charges Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Circuits
to peak voltage and the above process is repeated for the subsequent half
cycles.

Note: This circuit has very poor regulation and its ripple content is also
high. This circuit has a common connection between the line and load
(which a full-wave doubler does not have). Full-Wave Voltage Doubler

Operation

During the first positive half-cycle, C1 charges to Vm as diode D1 conducts.

During negative half-cycle, C2 is charged through D2 to 2Vm (i.e. to the
Operation sum of voltage across C1 and peak input voltage Vm).
During the second positive half-cycle, D3 conduct and voltage across C2
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (but not D2) charges C3 to same voltage 2Vm (C1 cannot charge C3 because it is shorted
and charges capacitor C1 to the peak voltage Vm with the polarity as by D1). During the negative half-cycle, diodes D2 and D4 conduct allowing
shown. During the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts (but not D1) charging C3 to charge C4 to the same peak voltage 2Vm. If is seen from Fig. 55.34
C2 to Vm. As far as the load is concerned, voltages across C1 and C2 are in that voltage across C2 is 2V m, across C1 and C3 is 3V m and across C2 and
series-aiding. If there is a load connected across the output (across the two C4 is 4V m. If additional diodes and capacitors are used, each capacitor
capacitors), then load voltage VL = 2Vm as shown in figure (a). would be charged to a peak voltage of 2Vm.

When voltage is taken across diode D3, its value would be triple that of the
supply (tripler) and if voltage is taken across diode d4, its value would be
four times that of the supply (quadrupler).

Note: The basic idea in a voltage multiplier is to charge each capacitor to

the peak input a.c. voltage and to arrange the capacitors so that their
stored voltages will add.

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Voltage Stabilization

In many electronic applications, it is desired that the output voltage should

remain constant regardless of the variations in the input voltage or load. In
order to ensure this, a voltage stabilizing device, called voltage stabilizer is
used.

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