CHAPTER SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN, 1800- 1941

In the nineteenth century, several autonomous and semi-autonomous states existed at

different stages of socio-economic and political developments. The economic activities
ranged from hunting and gathering to a well-developed agriculture and trade. The political
organizations of some of the states were monarchical system in nature while some others
followed political systems of different kinds. Despite the independent existence of peoples
and states, they maintained strong economic, social and political relations with one another
that created strong interdependence in the region.

The territorial expansion of the late nineteenth century was made to control lucrative resource
bases and trade routes and thereby form a strong Ethiopian state. In South-Central part of
the country, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, and Gurage were autonomous and semiautonomous
political entities during this period. Economically, they depended largely on agriculture.
Local merchants were actively involved in local trade and to some extent in the long distance
trade.

The Gurage land was an important market and political center, and Soddo and Aymallel were
known for market centers. The Gurage had their own political organization and their leaders
held the titles of Abegaz or Azmatch who combined political and military authority. In the
second half of the 19thc, Qabena emerged as a strong political entity. It became a center of
Muslim revivalist movement to the northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by Muslim refugees
from Wollo, and with possible connections even with the Mahdist Sudan, Peoples and States
in South-Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia

The Gibe States

Towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, several monarchical states emerged among
the Mecha Oromo at the expense of the Gadaa system. Many factors accounted for the
transformation of the Gadaa system. For instance, the war leaders of the Gadaa system
(Abba-Dula) and powerful individuals usurped the power of the Gadaa government. They
accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on long distance trade and utilized the

1|Page
opportunity to establish hereditary leadership. This development especially took place among
the Oromo around Gibe, where the following five monarchical states emerged.

Limmu-Enarya: Limmu-Enarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was founded through
the incorporation of Enarya. After wars of several times against the rulers of Enarya, finally,
Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-Enarya. The Kingdom reached the
height of its power during the reign of Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo (1825-61).

Guma: Jilcha Abba Bal’oo of Chira killed Sarbaroda of Dagoye clan; began state formation
and succeeded by his son Oncho (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by Jawwe (1840-
1854).

Gomma: formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son Abba Manoo
(1829-1840) who occupied Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim scholars.

Jimma: The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55)
who formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors. The most famous
among the Jimma monarchs was Tullu /Abba Jifar II (ca. r.1875-1934). Apart from
agriculture and trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and smelting at
Dakkano and Kito, respectively.

Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to be formed. The process of state formation in Gera
was completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji (r.1835-38), a successful war leader who made
himself king. Gera enjoyed its prosperity under Abba Magal who had been converted to
Islam. As with other Gibe states, Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to preach Islam

The Leqa States

Several monarchical kingdoms evolved among the Mecha Oromo of Wallagga. A number of
Abba Dulas declared themselves moti (king) by controlling profitable trade routes and large
territories in the region west of the Gibe region. Among these, the Leqa states were the
prominent ones.

1. Leqa-Naqamte: was founded by Bakare Godana in 1840, and reached its height
under his successors Moroda and Kumsa. The latter were able to establish strong
monarchical state rich in trade and agriculture. Moti Kumsa (Dejazmach Gebre-
Egzi'abiher) was known for promoting handcraft work, gold washing, coffee planting
and game reserves/hunting. The Leqa-Naqamte rulers instituted a new administrative
2|Page
 structure and judicial hierarchy that replaced the Gadaa system known as sirna abba-
qoro (qoro system), and it seems kingship and was quite similar to feudal
administration in its reliance on land.
2. Leqa-Qellam: was located in south western Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and
became powerful under his son, Jote being centered at Gidami and controlling the
areas around Sayyo-Dambi Dollo.

Ilu

Chali Shono also known as Abba Bor set up the well consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor
in the early nineteenth century. It was one of the prosperous states in the region. Contrary
to the Gadaa values that had not requisitioned any kind of taxation, under monarchical
systems farmers were forced to pay crop tax.

Nilotic Sheikdoms

In the early nineteenth century, important Islamic centers emerged in the lower course of
the Abbay. A number of Shiekdoms such as Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul, Khomosha
and Guba were established through parallel imposition of Arabic-speaking Sudanese
mercantilists over Berta and Gumuz inhabitants in the western edge of Gojjam. The main
economic bases of the sheikdoms were agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade.

Among these sheikhdoms, Asosa reached its zenith under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan. Beni
Shangul under Abd al Rahman Khojale. Khomosha reached its zenith under Khojale
Muhammad Wad Mahmud. Similarly, Guba was established to the north of the Abbay
River along the Ethio-Sudanese border. The influence of Islam from the Sudan and cross
border trade was the main reasons for the rise of these states. The rich gold of the region
also attracted foreign powers like the Mahdists and Egyptians who attempted to control
the sheikdoms at different times.

Trade and Trade Routes

Following the revival of external trade in the Red Sea region, trade in south and
southwestern Ethiopia revived and peoples of various states meet each other through
several market centers such as Bonga, Hirmata, Saqa, Billo, Asandabo, Basso-Yajube,
Yifag, Darita, and Gondar, Chilga, Gallabat, Adwa, Asmara, Massawa, Tajura, Harar,
Zeila and Berbera, Then Ethiopian products were mostly sold in the Middle East.

3|Page
The export items were gold, ivory, rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax,
coffee, various spices and slaves. The southwestern regions were the main suppliers of
these items. Likewise, imported products included mirrors and ironware. The major
medium of exchange were salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries’ shells, beads,
pieces of cotton cloth (abujadi), Maria Theresa Thalers (MTT), etc.

For internal trade, amole was the major important commodity and source of wealth. It
was mined in the Afar plains bordering eastern Tigray where it was also suitably shaped
for transportation. Maria Theresa Thalers was a coin introduced to the Horn of African
region at the end of the eighteenth century. Diverse peoples of different ethnic and
religious background were involved in the trade. At each market center, local peoples
were active traders. However, Muslim merchants were the most dominant that traveled
from interior to the coast. Among these were northern Muslim merchants (Jabarti) and
Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala. Similarly, the
Argoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were active merchants in the trade between Harar
and the northern Somali coast.

The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

During the nineteenth century, several states that emerged in the region were involved in
territorial competition not only to extend control over resources but also for state
building. State building remained an agenda of several powerful individuals and groups
that arose in the nineteenth century. The difference was the level of their strength and
ambition, and their relations with foreign powers. The making of the modern Ethiopian
state went through two distinct phases. The first one involved unifying different regions
and peoples in north and north central parts of Ethiopia. The second phase involved
territorial expansion into the southern parts of the country.

The Process of Territorial Unification

A leading figure in the overall process of territorial unification was Kasa Hailu of Quara
who later became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia. After a series of human and material
losses at the several battle fields, Kasa ended the period of Zemene Mesafint. Kasa’s
mission to create a unified state goes back to his time when he was a shifta. He started his
career by assisting his half−brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in the war against the Egyptians at
Wad Kaltabu in 1837.

4|Page
As he acquired military and political strength as well as experiences, he started
mobilizing his own army in the area and fought battles in his own right. In 1848, Kasa
fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki. Kasa’s forces lost the battle
because of the Egyptians’ superior military organization, discipline and better arms.
Then, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the importance of modern army. On the other
hand, Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area and became a major concern to the Warra-
Sheh (Yejju) ruling house. As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage
arrangement with Mentwab, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he was appointed the governor
of Quara.

However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege Menen,
and hence, he resumed his shiftnet resulting in a series of battles. Accordingly, Kasa
defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde at Gur Amba in 1852, Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and
Belew, the four dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali, at Gorgora Bichign in 1853, Ras Ali at
Ayshal in 1853 and Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at Deresge Mariam in 1855.

After defeating the major regional lords one after another, he was anointed by Abune
Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam in 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros
II (1855-1868), King of Kings of Ethiopia. He wanted to create a strong central
government by appointing individuals both hereditary and non-hereditary who would be
totally accountable to him. However, he faced resistance soon after he came to power.
After the inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in several regions such as in Gojjam,
Simen, Wag and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray.

Externally, he was involved in serious diplomatic crises following the imprisonment of a

handful of Britons and other Europeans. As a result, the British Parliament sent an
expeditionary force to free those prisoners and punish the emperor. In a battle that took
place at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on April 13, 1868. Following
the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of Shewa. Gobeze took
state power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868−71).

However, he was defeated at the battle of Assam in 1871 and Kasa Mircha became
Emperor Yohannes IV in 1872, sustained state building project with an approach that
differed from that of Tewodros. Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to introduce a
decentralized system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal

5|Page
of autonomy. A good example of this was his recognition of Menilek as Negus of Shewa
in 1878 by the Liche agreement. Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of
Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881. He succeeded in
achieving the unity of the predominately Christian provinces including Wag and Lasta,
Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and including the Mereb
Milash. Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC as
well as effect religious unity in the country as a whole.

In this regard, he presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878) where Tewahdo was
declared the only doctrine of the EOC. This was followed by the conversion of Muslims
and adherents of other religions into Orthodox Christianity. Accordingly, some of Wollo
Muslims were converted into Christianity, and the others were acted as Christians in day
time and Muslim at the night, the rest were fled to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan.
Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and the
Mahdists at different times. He lost his life fighting the Mahdists at Metemma in 1889.

Although the Emperor had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, rivalry for
power split the monarch's camp and thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for
the imperial throne. As a result, the throne was assumed by Negus Menelik of Shewa who
became Emperor Menelik II (1889-1913). Territorial Expansion Emperor Tewodros II,
Emperor Yohannes IV and others made state building mission and struggled their ways.
Yet, the most successful was Menilek of Shewa. The access to modern firearms, control
of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military muscle as well as the
determination of his generals counted for his successes. The process of territorial
expansion by Menilek can be discussed in three phases as follows:

1. When he was king of Shewa (1865-89).

2. From 1889-96 and
3. The aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).

Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha
Oromo territories after controlling local leaders notably Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e
of Gullale, Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and others. Meanwhile, other
Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde,
DejjachBalchaSafo (Abba Nefso) and others worked towards the formation of the modern
Ethiopian state. In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to

6|Page
Menilek because of their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of
Shewa, and for fear of their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo.

Contrary, the western Gurage led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, which had elements of
Hadiya-Gurage coalition, strongly resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their
resistance in 1888. Menilek's territorial expansions to western and southwestern regions
were concluded through both forceful and peaceful submissions. Ras Adal Tesema was
already in control of Horro Guduru until 1882, when he was defeated at Embabo by
Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana.

After the Battle of Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem and Jimma Abba Jifar
submitted to Menilek peacefully who promised them to recognize and maintain their
autonomy. Meanwhile, others were attempted to resist, however, later they were defeated.
In the Gibe region, Guma and Gomma resisted but defeated. Also, Ras Tesemma
Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba Bor into the imperial state after fighting with
Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila. Of all the campaigns Nigus Menelik conducted before he
became emperor, perhaps, the most sustained bloody wars were those of against the Arsi
Oromo. Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated Menilek's force, however later on Ras Darge
Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo at the battle of Azule in 1886.

In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against Emir

Abdullahi of Harari and Bakar Ware of the ItuHumbanna. Yet, the resisting forces were
defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo in 1887. This was followed by the
appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael as governor of the province
by Emperor Menilek II. The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also
contributed to Menelik’s territorial expansion to parts of southern Ethiopia. Accordingly,
Menilek's army occupied Dawuro, Konta and Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively.

From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and
Wolayta. In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor Menilek and many notables such as Ras
Mikael of Wollo, Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach
Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of Jimma participated. Wolayta's
resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was defeated in 1894 in
which large number of people lost their lives.

7|Page
This was followed by the incorporation of Gedeo, Borana and Konso into the imperial
state. Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Beni-Shangul, and Gambella after the battle of
Adwa. The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in
terms of human cost. In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to
Menilek's army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis. Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the
Battle of Fadogno in 1897/98.

This was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew also controlled
Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella around this time. The process of territorial expansion
was consummated with the singing of boundary agreements with the neighboring colonial
powers that continued until 1908. Most of these treaties were signed after the victory of
Adwa. After Menelik, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary state
continued by abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of the 20th century. In
the process, Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el was defeated),
Begemedir (after the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930),
Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in 1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen
(Haile Sillassie I).

Modernization Attempts

Several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in European technologies, Emperor

Tewodros was well aware of the importance of European technologies than his
predecessors. For this purpose, he attempted to approach Europeans for the introduction
of western science and technologies in order to put Ethiopia “on an equal footing with
European powers.” As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative
and socio-economic reform measures. He introduced military titles, like Yasr, Yamsa,
and Yeshi Aleqa. Also he tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the
Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army.

Furthermore, he tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre Tabor)
with the help of European missionaries and artisans. At Gafat, about 35 cannons were
produced of which the biggest one was known as “Sebastopol." He also tried to build a
small navy in Lake Tana. The administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on the
centralization of power and securing financial base. He introduced a policy of “general
pacification”, warning everyone should return to his lawful avocation, the merchant to

8|Page
his store, and the farmer to his plough. He tried to separate church and the monarchy. He
reduced the church land and the number of priests and deacons that brought him into
conflict with the EOC which precipitated his downfall.

In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction of Ethiopia’s first

embryonic road network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. He also
attempted to put an end to the slave trade. Other reform attempts include land reform and
banning of polygamy. He wrote letters after letters to different foreign powers including
to Queen Victoria using Amharic language. However, his reforms were not fully
materialized because of internal oppositions and external challenges.

Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several important reforms and innovations.
Among these, he was the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who served as
his representative in London. He hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an
Italian construction worker to assist his modernization efforts of the country.
Furthermore, he sent some individuals abroad for modern education. He was also the first
to introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox replacing traditional inoculation. His
reign also witnessed extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.

Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse elements. The post
Adwa period was marked by the establishment of a postal service and
telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph system, the beginning of construction of
railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa, the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia)
and the introduction of paper money. In terms of administration, the emperor introduced
European style ministerial system/ministers in 1907.

Accordingly, he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice), Azazh

Metaferia Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond MulugetaYigezu
(Minister of Finance), Fitawurari HabteGiorgis Dinagde (Minister of War), Negadras
Hailegiorgis Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations), and Tsehafe-
Tizaz Gebreselase Welde Aregay (Minister of Pen) His reign also witnessed the opening
of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel), (Menilek II School in 1908) and the foundation of
Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 and Russian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in
1910.

9|Page
Later on, when Menelik knew of unable to rule for long time, he designated and
eventually proclaimed Lij Iyasu and Ras Tesemma Nadew as heir to the throne and
regent, respectively. During his short stay in power, Lij Iyasu (1913-16) also took several
reform measures such as:

1. The banning of the Quragna system.

2. Amend Leba Shay, a customary mode of detection of criminals.
3. Introduced municipal police called Tirnbulle.
4. He introduced a policy of auditing of government accounts, and he tried to integrate
Ethiopian Muslims into the administration structure.
5. Introduced flourmill that functioned mechanically and private industrial enterprises
like sawmill a grinding-mill, a tannery, a soap-factory, etc.

During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916- 1930), there were
several modernization attempts in broader scope. They had different views towards
western culture. Because of his close link with foreigners, Ras Teferi had keen interest to
modernization by which he wanted to boost the country’s image on the international
stage. This was marked by the entry of Ethiopia into the League of Nations and his grand
tour to Europe in 1923 and 1924, respectively. Some remarkable reforms based on
European model took place following his coronation as Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930.

Some of the reforms were the centralization of the government, promulgation of

Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931, establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with
the help of Belgian military mission and the opening of Ethiopia’s first Military Academy
at Holeta by the help of a Swedish military mission in 1934.

Agriculture and Land Tenure System

After the nineteenth century territorial expansion, the Imperial government followed
different policies of land administration in areas that were peacefully submitted and
resisted. The former relatively enjoyed self-administration but were subjected to pay qurt-
gibir (fixed tax). The latter were forced to pay tribute. The system led to the creation of
classes like landlords, ballabat, gabbar and tenants. The landholders were largely
government agents while the local populations were reduced in time into gabbar and later
tenants.

10 | P a g e
 Slavery and Slave Trade

Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most slaves in Ethiopia
were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the Middle East and the
Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports. During the
nineteenth century, in some parts of Ethiopia, slaves were required for agricultural works,
in the army and as sources of revenue through selling into slavery. Thus, several regional
and local rulers enslaved people for these purposes. Slaves were traded as commodities in
local and international markets.

Manufacturing

There were age-old indigenous ways of producing/making tools in Ethiopia and the Horn.
For instance, different items like furniture, dresses and food including local drinks, were
produced and processed by using traditional techniques involving manual labor. Later on,
the beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the post-Adwa period
was followed by the coming of many expatriates with modern manufacturing. Then,
Holeta Grain Mill, Massawa Salt Processing, cement factories, wood and clay workshops,
tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, breweries, tobacco processing
plants and grain mills were established.

Urbanization

The period from the early nineteenth century to 194l marked the evolution of towns. The
expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early nineteenth century
transformed old markets and socio-political centers into towns in Ethiopia and the Horn.
In addition, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa as of 1917
was followed by the evolution of several fast growing towns like Dire Dawa, Adama,
Bishoftu, Metahara & others. On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts
of the region evolved into towns. In the late 19thc, in southern Ethiopia, a number of
towns emerged when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable locations in
order to maintain control of the occupied provinces. The presence of the governors and
soldiers made such areas permanent areas of politico-economic and religious activities.

11 | P a g e
 External Relations

Beginning from the early 1800s, regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and
signed treaties. External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed more elaborate
and oriented towards obtaining western technology and military support to defend foreign
aggression. As with his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV tried to create strong
relations with Europeans. The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were the
restoration of the lost territories, the delimitation of boundaries and the defense of the
sovereignty of the state against the threat and interference by foreign powers.

When he confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve through negotiation
than war. War was his last choice as he fought with Egypt in 1875/76 and Mahdist Sudan
in 1889. One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes concluded was Hewett /Adwa
Treaty. It was a treaty signed between the Emperor and the British Rear Admiral William
Hewett on behalf of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa. The purpose was to safely evacuate
Egyptian troops through Ethiopia who were trapped by the Mahdist troops along the
EthioSudanese border. In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was
to freely use Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms.

Based on the agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian
troops through his territory. Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. However, Britain secretly
transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885. One consequence of the treaty
was Mahdist determination to avenge Yohannes that led to the battle of Metemma on 9
March 1889 which claimed his death.

In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek II was
more successful through maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period.
While he was king of Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later
helped him to acquire military equipment. Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its
climax with the signing of the Wuchale Treaty. It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli
and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia
and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of Italy.

The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages. The
Italian version of Article III indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to legitimize its
further expansion towards the Mereb River. However, Article XVII has major difference

12 | P a g e
in the two language versions. While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could
optionally conduct its foreign affairs through Italy, the Italian version indicates that
Menilek’s foreign contacts must be through the agency of Italy. As a result, based on the
Italian version of Article XVII, Italy announced that all foreign powers had to deal with
Ethiopia only through Italy.

European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim except Russia. In January 1890,
the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its colony. This resulted in official
abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty in 1893 and Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha
Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach Hagos Tafari, began to fight against the
Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek. This finally led to the Battle of Adwa,
where the latter became victorious. After the victory of Adwa, different foreign countries
opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations on official basis.

Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

The Battle of Dabarki

Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848. Although
the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military imbalance particularly, the
modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a lesson to modernize his
military force, acquire modern technologies. This later initiated him to widen his vision
and mission when he became emperor.

The Battle of Maqdela

It was made between Tewodros II and Sir Robert Napier of Britain when Tewodros
imprisoned Captain Cameron and other Europeans following his unanswered letter to
obtain help against foreign threats. Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdela in 1868. This
was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of manuscripts, religious and
secular artifacts including his crown by the British.

The Battles of Gundet and Gura

In the nineteenth century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa
with the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. Following this, Colonel Arendrup
and Arakel Bey led 2,000 well-armed troops through Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV

13 | P a g e
and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and encountered the Egyptians at the Battle
of Gundet in 1875. Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their army to invade
Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura in
1876.

The Battle of Dogali

With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic
and commercial importance. One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of
Africa was Italy. Italy began to penetrate into northern Ethiopia. Subsequently, the Italian
forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb Milash region. However, they
were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula Engida, Yohannes’s famous
general and right hand man.

The Battle of Metemma

The Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that lasted
from 1885 to 1889. When Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the
Italian advance to Mereb Milash, he heard the Mahadist advance up to Gondar with
massive destruction of churches and monasteries. Even though Yohannes ordered Nigus
Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists, Nigus Menelik and Nigus
Teklehaimanot conspired against the emperor and they fought with the half heart, instead
of directly facing the Mahdists.

Then, in 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.
Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions and acrimonies among rulers
would result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples. Among others, Maqdela and
Metemma are very good testimonies.

The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath

The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia
and Italian forces. To meet their colonial intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb River
and arrived at Adigrat and proceeded to Emba-Alage. Then, following Emperor
Menelik’s proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of
the country gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo). People marched to the front
irrespective of gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian

14 | P a g e
aggression. The force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Emba
Alage and forced them to retreat to Mekelle. In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras
Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle.

A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war
generals like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Negus Takla-
Haymanot and others encountered the Italians at Adwa. The result of this battle was a
decisive victory for Ethiopians but a huge blow to the Italians which doomed their
colonial ambition over Ethiopia. At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed,
1,500 wounded and 3,000 were captured.

On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed.
Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis
Ababa that was signed on October 26, 1896. A number of powers of the time (including
Italy, France, Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others)
also recognized the independence of Ethiopia and opened their legations in Addis Ababa.
The heroic national campaign, cooperation and common successes of peoples of Ethiopia
had a positive implication for success and national integration.

The victory has witnessed independence and national pride. It has thus become a source
of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black race in general. Furthermore, the victory
of Ethiopians at Adwa has had an enduring legacy in the relations between freedom
fighters and colonizing powers. The victory of black people on white colonizers initiated
entire Africans fighting against colonialism. The well-known Pan Africanist, Marcus
Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement with the success of
Ethiopians. He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and Ethiopianism
became a symbol of anti-colonial movements

Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance

Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their expansionist colonial
policy in Northeast Africa for a short time. However, they were just waiting the right time
to fulfill their interests in any possible way. Italy eventually got its ideological strength in
1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists were determined
to restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s shameful
scar at Adwa.

15 | P a g e
To achieve their goal, Italians followed two policies as it was the case before the Battle of
Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’. The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the
unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo.
This responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea (1928-1930).
The Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the policy of
‘rapprochement’.

Then, Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against
Ethiopia was only searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal
incident. The Walwal Incident in 1934 was the result of the post-Awa boundary
agreement limitations: lack of demarcation on the ground and lack of effective
administrative control in the frontier regions. However, the Italians refused to give back
Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby. Thus, this
situation gave birth to the so called Walwal Incident. Then, even though it was Italy who
started the war, they demanded unreasonable apology and reparation from Ethiopia.

Then, Ethiopia which refused to accept Italy’s demand took the matter to the League of
Nations and a period of diplomatic wrangling followed to resolve the dispute.
Consequently, in 1935 the Italians waged their aggression via two major fronts: the
northern and the southern Front. The war was started in the northern Front when the
Italians crossed the Mereb River in 1935 and launched a three pronged invasion and
controlled Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle.

In 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through three fronts. Ras Emiru
Haile-Selassie led the western front, Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire
northern front) and Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu
(War Minister) led the eastern front. Despite the decisive battles at Shire, Timben and
Amba Aradom, the Ethiopian troops were unable to resist well organized and equipped
Italian Arms. Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life, Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum narrowly
escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem. On the western front, the Ethiopian army
under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the advancing force of the Italians.

Finally, at the last battle in Maychew on 31 March 1936, the Ethiopian army along with
the Kebur Zebegna put strong resistance against the Italians under the command of the
Emperor. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from gunpowder and air bombardment

16 | P a g e
 during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April
1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.

The Southern Front was better equipped and well led. Ras Desta Damtew (in the south)
and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops
in this Front. The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the fighting in the Southern
Front was larger than the North, which slowed their advance to the center; Badoglio
entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even crossed Harar. On 2 May 1936, the Emperor
fled the country and three days later the Italians entered Addis Ababa.

The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and
Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI). The newly formed Italian East Africa had six
administrative regional divisions that replaced former international boundaries. The six
administrative capitals were Asmara, Gondar, Jimma, Harar, Mogadishu and Addis
Ababa (later changed to Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.

The Italian administrative control was largely confined to urban areas due to the strong
patriotic resistance. Thus; their legacy was also largely reflected in the towns than the
rural areas, which were actually out of the Italian effective rule. Generally, the legacy of
the Italian rule can be summarized in the following brief points:

 Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa,
Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
 The introduction of urban facilities.
 Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words)
 The consolidation of cash economy Road construction and development of motor
transport
 The sense of division, etc.

The Patriotic Resistance Movement

The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather, the
Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways. Among others, the patriots gave those
hard times largely in rural areas. They continuously harassed them. Ethiopian patriots

17 | P a g e
continued their resistance in almost all regions and by all ethnic groups of the empire with
varying degree of intensification. The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the war
itself. The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19
February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a
bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him
seriously and killing some others.

This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black Shirts; who chopped off heads,
burnt down houses with their inhabitants and disemboweled thousands in Addis Ababa.
According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000 Ethiopians of different ages, classes
and sex were killed in three days’ campaign. Special targets were educated Ethiopians, the
EOC also became a target. The elimination of the intelligentsia was to create 'the missing
generation' in Ethiopia's intellectual and political history.

This Fascist terror marked the transition from the conventional patriotic resistance to guerrilla
warfare that could eventually weaken the enemy forces. Different guerrilla units kept the
Italian troops under constant harassment. As the Fascist regime became intolerable to
Ethiopians, there were women who led their own army in the guerrilla wars, like Woizero
Lekyelesh Beyan, Woizero Kebedech Seyoum. Although it lacked coordination, patriotic
resistance to Italian rule took place in the country in numerous forms and tenacity. There was
no unified command structure.

Some patriots of the time were:

1. Colonel Abdisa Aga 10. Colonel Belay Haile-ab

2. Ras Amoraw Wubneh 11. Zeray Dires
3. Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke 12. Major Matias Gemeda
4. Lij Haile Mariam Mamo 13. Colonel Jagama Kello
5. Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha 14. Captain Yosef Nesibu
6. Ras Abebe Aregay 15. W/o Sinidu Gebru
7. Dejjazmach Abbai Kahsay 16. Blatta Takele Woldehawaryat
8. Dejjazmach Habte Mariam 17. Bekele Woya
9. W/o Shewareged Gedle 18. Dejjach Geresu Duki, and etc.

However the existence of collaborators (Bandas) in some ways handicapped the patriotic
resistance. Also patriotic resistance was divided and that there was no one national

18 | P a g e
organization to coordinate the activities of the many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts
of the country. In addition to this, some guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one another
than attacking the declared enemy. Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a
persistent resistance against Italian fascism, until suddenly they got external support from
Britain in 1941.

Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated with World War II, when Italy declared
war on France and Britain on 10 June 1940. Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of
Germany in the hope of securing outside support; the internationalization of the conflict was
a good opportunity and the emperor’s requests for assistance were finally answered by the
British government .Then, British launched a three pronged attack on the Italians. In the
north, General William Platt led the forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea.

In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor from the
Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon force.
General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The advances were rapid largely due to the
demoralization that the patriots had caused among the Italians. Emperor Haile-Selassie
entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941, exactly five years after Italian entry.

19 | P a g e
 CHAPTER SEVEN

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–

1995 Post-1941

Imperial Period

Ethiopia and Britain: the British considered Ethiopia Occupied Enemy Territory
Administration (OETA). Then, Britain began to act as the protectorate of Ethiopia in every
aspect until 1944.

Ethiopia and the U.S.A: Following the Second World War, two super-powers, the Soviet
Union and the United States emerged. Then, Haile-Selassie I turned towards the United
States as a powerful ally than Britain. American interest in the region began to grow
especially after they acquired a communication base in Asmara known as Radio Marina
(Qagnew) from the Italians. Later on, following several agreements, USA became Ethiopia’s
alley through providing education, public health, military support and others.

Socio-Economic Developments

During this time, the government attempted to enhance the productivity of small farmers
through launching comprehensive agricultural package programs. Like the Chilalo
Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) and Wolayta Agricultural Development Unit
(WADU). The major objective of the package programs was demonstrating the effectiveness
and efficiency of agricultural packages to pave the way for subsequent nationwide emulation
of the intensive package approach.

Since the 1950s, the government formulated strategic plans for economic development and
this came in a series of five-year plans. The First Five Year Plan (1957-1961) targeted the
development of infrastructure. The Second (1962-1967) turned towards mining,
manufacturing and electricity. The Plan also mentioned major constraints to the development
of the agricultural sector, although in very general terms. The Third (1968-1972) gave
priority to large scale agricultural development and ‘bringing higher living standard’.

However, much of Ethiopia remained traditional with a low living standard and Ethiopia was
a least developed country in global terms. While the manufacturing sector contributed less
than five percent of the national income, industrialization was spatially limited in the capital

20 | P a g e
and its vicinity in addition only to Asmara and Dire Dawa. The manufacturing sector only
produced light consumer goods. Moreover, industrial investment was also primarily of
foreign origin. Above all, the absence of meaningful land reform constrained the forces of
production in the countryside where the majority of the population lived.

Consolidation of Autocracy

The post-liberation period witnessed the climax of the emperor’s power. Emperor embarked
on consolidating his power. This was made possible through the bureaucratization of
government, the building of a national army and a centralized fiscal system. In order to fill-in
the expanding bureaucracy, education was promoted at both school and college levels. While
primary schools had already been established prior to 1935, secondary schools were opened
in the post 1941 period. The Haile-Selassie I Secondary School, founded in 1943, and the
General Wingate School, established in 1946, became the two most popular and prestigious
secondary schools.

A significant number of the educated elites in the 1950s attended either of these two schools.
In 1950, the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) was inaugurated. This was
followed by the Engineering and Building College in Addis Ababa, the College of
Agriculture in Alamaya (Hararghe), and the Public Health College in Gondar. These various
colleges were brought together to form the HaileSelassie I University in 1961 which again
was re-named Addis Ababa University after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1974.

In 1955, Haile-Selassie promulgated a new constitution, revising the first constitution issued
in 1931. More than its predecessor, the 1955 revised constitution provided the basis for the
consolidation of absolutism in Ethiopia. About 36 articles of the constitution dealt with the
question of imperial succession and the emperor’s privileges. It states that the Emperor’s
personality as sacred, his dignity inviolable and his power indisputable. Oppositions and the
Downfall of the Monarchical Regime Various sectors of the society opposed the imperial rule
before the 1974 Revolution broke out.

Before the 1960s opposition to the regime took in the form of plots and conspiracies. After
the 1960 Coup d’état, however, oppositions gained wider mass support and came out more
open. Some leaders of the resistance movement against fascist rule were opposed to the
restoration of the emperor to the throne for he fled the country when it needed him most
whereas others wished for a republican government. Such misgivings combined with the

21 | P a g e
privileges and rewards accorded to exiles and people who served the colonial administration
exacerbated the resentment against the monarchy leading to rebellions. The most notable
personalities who were resented with Emperor’s deeds were Dejazmach Belay Zeleke and
Blatta Takele Wolde Hawaryat.

The most serious challenge to the emperor’s authority came in 1960 in the form of a coup
attempt. The abortive Coup d'etat of 1960 was led by the Neway brothers, Brigadier General
Mengistu and Girmame. Girmame attended Haile-Sellasie I Secondary School, and then the
University of Wisconsin where he received his B.A and M.A. Degrees from Columbia.
Girmame was also president of Ethiopian Students Association during his stay in the USA.
Upon his return to Ethiopia, Girmame became the president of a clandestine alumni
association of his former school.

As governor of Wolayta, Girmame’s activities were alarming to the regime. He monitored

police activities, introduced a settlement program in which he distributed government
holdings to landless peasants and ordered written tenancy agreements. He was then
summoned back to Addis Ababa for explanation. However, unable to criticize Girmame’s
intentions HaileSelassie sent him to Jijiga where he continued as radical reformer. He
oversaw the digging of new wells while improving the old, set up clinics, schools etc. But his
actions were not liked by the regime which convinced Girmame of the need for change.

Together with his brother General Mengistu Neway, the head of the Imperial Bodyguard, and
others the two brothers started detaining ministers and other members of the nobility when
the emperor was on state visit in Brazil. They also took over the radio station and spoke about
the backwardness of the country than other newly independent African states. The crown
prince Asfawosen was said to be a salaried constitutional monarch. However, it was not
successful due to the army and the air force refused to side with the rebels.

Peasants Rebellion

The Woyane Rebellion

The first peasant resistance against imperial rule took place in Tigray, known in history as the
Woyane rebellion. The term Woyane means 'revolt' in Tigrigna language. The causes for
Woyane Rebellion were inequality, corruption administrative inefficiency and the 1942 land
decree which forced peasants to pay tax arrears whose collection was problematic. The rebel

22 | P a g e
leader was Blatta Haile-Mariam Reda. Initially, they were victorious, but later on in 1943, the
imperial army under the command of Abebe Aregay with the support of the British Royal Air
Force crushed the rebellion.

The Yejju Rebellion

Following their appeal against land alienation was ignored by the government. Yejju
Rebellion occurred three times (1948, 1950 and 1970) With the leadership of the individuals
like Qegnazmach Melaku Taye, Unda Mohammed and later Ali Dullatti in the forefront.
Finally the rising was suppressed by the local militia.

The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion

It was caused by oppressive taxation, economic hardship, social inequality and

discrimination. In 1950, a revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and Mecha districts
led by people like Dejach Abere Yimam however were subdued by the combined forces of
the army, police and nech lebash by the end of 1968.

Gumuz Rebellion

The root causes were administrative injustice, land and taxation policies of the imperial
regime. Aba Tone sided with the local people began open clash when tax collectors with the
backing of the police force attempted to force the people pay land taxes. But Aba Tone and
his followers were outgunned and outnumbered and thus, the government was able to put
down the uprising.

The Gedeo Peasant Rebellion

As in many parts of rural Ethiopia, the major source of peasant discontent in Gedeo was land
alienation. Then peasants refused to pay erbo (1/4 of agricultural produce payable to
landlords), armed themselves with traditional weapons like spears, swords and arrows and
clashed with the imperial army at Michille in 1960.

The Bale Peasant Rebellion

The Bale peasant uprising that lasted from 1963 to 1970 presented the most serious challenge
to the Ethiopian government. The causes of the uprising were multifaceted and led by the
individuals like Wako Gutu. The indigenous peasants largely became tenants on their own

23 | P a g e
land after the introduction of the qalad that initiated land measurement in 1951. They also
suffered from high taxation, religious and ethnic antagonism. The predominantly Muslim
population resented due to political and cultural domination by Christian settlers. Further, the
government of Somalia extended material and moral support to the rebels as part of its
strategy of reestablishing a “Greater Somalia”. However, it was ended when popular leaders
surrendered to government forces.

The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)

Although the Ethiopian student movement started within the university, students had turned
into a radical opposition and were already marching on the streets from 1965 onwards and by
1968; it was spreading to high schools. Furthermore, the rejection of tenancy reform bill in
1964 aggravated students’ protest in the following years demanding “Land to the Tiller”. The
1960 coup and rebellion prior to that sharpened the students’ ideology as well as students’
increased awareness of the country’s socio-economic and political conditions which they
learned from scholarship students from different parts of Africa. In addition to this, the
Ethiopian university service played great role

In 1964 the emergence of a radical group of students with MarxistLeninist known as “the
Crocodiles” marked the increased militancy of the students. Side by side with the
radicalization of the movement, students formed several unions in and outside the country.
For instance, the Main Campus Student Union (MCSU), and the University Student Union of
Addis Ababa (USUAA) with its paper Tagel (Struggle) were established. Outside the
country, students were organized under the Ethiopian Students Union in North America
(ESUNA) with its paper called Challenge and the Ethiopian Students Union in Europe
(ESUE) with its paper Tateq (Gird yourself) in the USA and Europe.

Then, the questions of ‘’Land to the Tillers’’, ‘’education for all’’ and the equality of nations
and nationalities of Ethiopia wide spread throughout the country. In addition, Wollo Famine,
the disappointment of soldiers regarding bad living condition, the Ethiopian teachers
association (ETA) protest against the implementation of an education reform program known
as Sector Review, which they deemed was disadvantageous for the poor and biased against
them as well as taxi drivers protest contributed to the down fall of Imperial regime. 138
Factors contributed to the downfall of Imperial regime.

24 | P a g e
The basic causes include widespread poverty, inequality, and lack of political representation
for the majority of the population. Additionally, the regime's failure to address land reform
and modernization further exacerbated these issues. The immediate causes for the downfall of
Emperor Haile Selassie's regime include the 1973 oil crisis, which led to economic instability
and increased dissent among the population. Furthermore, the government's repressive
measures and human rights abuses, as well as its failure to effectively respond to famine and
drought, further eroded the regime's legitimacy. These combined factors ultimately led to
widespread discontent and opposition, culminating in the overthrow of Emperor Haile
Selassie's regime in 1974.

The Derg Regime (1974-1991)

The Derg was officially formed on June 28 1974 when it held its first meeting at the
headquarters of the Fourth Division. “Derg” a Ge’ez word for “Committee” was the shorter
name given to the Coordinating Committee of representatives from various military units: the
Armed Forces, the Police and the Territorial Army. Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam of the
Third Division of Hararghe, and the vice-chairman, Major Atnafu Abate of the Fourth
Division were key figures in this committee. The Derg tried to define its ideology and
declared the motto, “Ethiopia Tikdem” (“Ethiopia First”), “Yaleminim Dem” (“Without any
bloodshed”). Finally, on September 12, 1974, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was deposed and
detained at the Fourth Division headquarters. The Derg then proclaimed itself the Provisional
Military Administrative Council (PMAC) and assumed full powers. Then, Derg began to kill
individuals whom the Derg considered obstacle for the intended reform.

Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform

The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamentally transforming the country. In
1974, what was called the Edget Behibiret Zemecha (Development through cooperation
campaign) was inaugurated. In this campaign, all high school and university students and
their teachers were to be sent to the countryside to help transform the life of peasants through
programs such as literacy campaigns and the implementation of the awaited land reform
proclamation. To appease any opposition, the Derg changed its slogan of “Ethiopia First” to
“Ethiopian Socialism”. It also adopted slogans like Ethiopian unity or death, revolutionary
motherland or death, produce while fighting or Fight while producing and etc.

25 | P a g e
In 1975 banks and insurance companies were nationalized, the Derg made a radical land
reform proclamation which abolished all private land ownership and set the upper limit on
family holdings at ten hectares. It also nationalized all urban lands and extra houses. In April
1976, PMAC proclaimed National Democratic Revolution Program and set up the
Provisional Office for Mass Organization and Affairs (POMOA) with the objective of
organizing and raising the political consciousness of the masses. The campaigns showed
Derg’s belief in mass mobilization to achieve a cause. There was the “Green Campaign” of
1978 aimed at bringing about rapid economic development, the literacy campaign aimed at
irradiating illiteracy, and the “Red Star Campaign” of 1982 that aimed at solving the Eritrean
problem.

26 | P a g e