Unit-I

Introduction to FACTS

1.1 FLOW OF POWER IN AN AC SYSTEM:

The power flow in AC systems is influenced by the topology of the network. Here are
key insights into how power flows in various topologies as discussed in the document:

a) Power Flow in Parallel Paths:

In a system where power flows through parallel paths, the flow is determined by
the impedances of each path. Power takes the path of least impedance, often leading to
unequal distribution of power among the paths, with the lower impedance path possibly
becoming overloaded. This imbalance in power flow can limit the total transfer capacity,
even if one of the paths is not fully utilized. The introduction of technologies like HVDC
(High-Voltage Direct Current) or FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) controllers
can alleviate this by controlling the power flow in individual lines to balance loads and
prevent overloading.
 b) Power Flow in Meshed Systems:
In meshed systems, where multiple generators send power to a load center via
several interconnected lines, power flows according to the relative impedances of the
various paths. In this type of system, power distribution becomes more complex, and
individual lines may be overloaded depending on the impedances. Series compensation
(e.g., with capacitors) can reduce the effective impedance and redirect power flows to
better utilize the network capacity.

For example:
Series Capacitors: These reduce the effective impedance of a line, increasing the amount
of power flowing through that line. This method allows power to be redistributed more
evenly across the network.
Series Inductors: In contrast to capacitors, these can be inserted to increase the impedance
of certain lines, reducing power flow through those lines and redistributing it elsewhere.

1.2 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLABLE PARAMETERS:

The relative importance of controllable parameters in AC systems is critical to
managing power flow, maintaining stability, and optimizing the capacity of transmission
networks. The document outlines the following key controllable parameters and their
relative significance:
a) Impedance (X) Control:
Controlling the series impedance of a transmission line is one of the most powerful
ways to regulate the current and power flow in an AC system. For example, using series
compensation techniques like Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) reduces the
effective impedance, which increases power transfer capability.
 Impact on Power Flow: When the transmission angle (δ) between two buses is not
large (typically the case in most AC systems), impedance control has a significant
effect on the active power flow.
Dynamic Stability: By dynamically adjusting the impedance, the system can respond
to changing load conditions and maintain power transfer without overloading specific
lines.

b) Voltage Magnitude (V) Control:

Controlling the voltage magnitude at the sending and receiving ends of a transmission
line (e.g., through Shunt Controllers like SVCs or Static Synchronous Compensators
(STATCOM)) can effectively regulate the reactive power flow.
Voltage Regulation: Adjusting the voltage magnitude helps stabilize the voltage profile
along the transmission line, which is critical for preventing voltage collapse during high-
load or contingency conditions. Voltage control also helps maintain the required voltage
levels for efficient power transfer.
Reactive Power Flow: Changes in voltage magnitude have a larger influence on reactive
power flow than on active power flow, making this parameter crucial for voltage stability
rather than for controlling active power directly.

c) Phase Angle (δ) Control:

The phase angle difference between the sending and receiving ends of a transmission
line (δ) is a direct indicator of the active power flow. Controlling this angle via devices such
as Phase Angle Regulators (PAR) or Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) allows fine-
tuning of the power flow between buses.
Active Power Control: When the angle is small, controlling the phase angle can effectively
manage the active power flow in a transmission system. It is particularly useful for
maintaining system stability and preventing large power swings between interconnected
regions.
Damping Oscillations: Modifying the phase angle can also help in damping power
oscillations, which improves the transient stability of the system following disturbances.

d) Series Voltage Injection:

Injecting a series voltage into the transmission line, especially when this voltage is in
quadrature with the current, can directly influence the power flow. Devices like Static
Synchronous Series Compensators (SSSC) are used to inject such voltages, altering the
current flow and enhancing the control of both active and reactive power.
Power Flow Control: Injecting a voltage in quadrature to the current influences active
power flow, while varying the phase angle and magnitude of the injected voltage can
influence both active and reactive power.
Enhanced Stability: Series voltage injection also enhances system stability by quickly
adjusting to changes in load conditions.

e) Combination of Series and Shunt Control

Using both series and shunt controllers together can offer comprehensive control over
both active and reactive power flows. This is the core principle behind devices like the
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), which can regulate voltage, impedance, and phase
angle simultaneously.
 Active and Reactive Power Management: This combination allows for independent
control of the active power flow (through series control) and reactive power flow (through
shunt control), offering greater flexibility and reliability in system operation.

1.3 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided into four categories:
a) Series Controllers
b) Shunt Controllers
c) Combined series-series Controllers
d) Combined series-shunt Controllers
Figure 1.3 shows the general symbol for a FACTS Controller: a thyristor arrow inside a
box.

Series Controllers:
Figure l.3 (b)] The series Controller could be a variable impedance, such as capacitor,
reactor, etc. In principle, all series Controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even a
variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series
voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the
series controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase
relationship will involve handling of real power as well.
Shunt Controllers:
[Figure 1.3(c)] As in the case of series controllers, the shunt controllers may be variable
impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt controllers
inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even a variable shunt impedance
connected to the line voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection
of current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line
voltage, the shunt Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other
phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Combined series-series Controllers:

[Figure 1.3(d)] This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are
controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multiline transmission system. Or it could be a
unified Controller, Figure 1.4(d), in which series Controllers provide independent series
reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the
power link. The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series Controller,
referred to as Interline Power Flow Controller, makes it possible to balance both the real
and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximize the utilization of the
transmission system. Note that the term "unified" here means that the dc terminals of all
Controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

Combined series-shunt Controllers:

[Figures 1.3(e) and 1.3(f)] This could be a combination of separate shunt and series
Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner [Figure 1.3(e)], or a Unified
Power Flow Controller with series and shunt elements [Figure 1.3(f)]. In principle,
combined shunt and series Controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of
the Controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the Controller.
However, when the shunt and series Controllers are unified, there can be a real power
exchange between the series and shunt Controllers via the power link.
 Unit-II
Static Shunt Compensators
2.1 Objective of Shunt Compensation:
Shunt compensation in AC power systems aims to improve the overall performance of the
transmission system by managing voltage stability, enhancing power transfer capability, and
improving system reliability. The objectives of shunt compensation as outlined in the
document include:
a) Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation:
Shunt compensation helps regulate the voltage at the midpoint of long transmission lines.
The longer the transmission line, the more likely it is for the voltage to drop below
acceptable levels due to reactive power losses.

Objective: To maintain voltage stability along the transmission line, especially at the
midpoint, ensuring that the line can transfer more power without excessive voltage drops.

b) End-of-Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage Instability

When power is transmitted over long distances, the voltage at the receiving end can drop
significantly, leading to voltage instability. Shunt compensators like Static VAR
Compensators (SVC) and STATCOMs are installed near the load (end of the line) to inject
reactive power and maintain voltage levels.

Objective: To prevent voltage collapse at the receiving end of the transmission line by
providing necessary reactive power support.

c) Improvement of Transient Stability

Shunt compensation improves the transient stability of the power system, especially after
disturbances such as faults or sudden load changes. By providing fast reactive power
support, shunt compensators can quickly restore voltage levels and prevent loss of
synchronism between generators.

Objective: To enhance the system’s transient stability by quickly restoring voltages after
disturbances and allowing the system to return to a stable operating point.

d) Power Oscillation Damping

Shunt compensators also play a crucial role in damping power oscillations. These
oscillations occur following disturbances like generator tripping or sudden load changes. If
left uncontrolled, they can lead to system instability. By adjusting the reactive power
injection dynamically, shunt compensators help reduce these oscillations.

Objective: To damp power oscillations and stabilize the power system following
disturbances.

e) Reactive Power Support to Improve Power Factor

Shunt compensators inject or absorb reactive power to improve the power factor of the
system, reducing losses and making the power transmission more efficient. This is
particularly important in heavily loaded systems where reactive power demand increases.

Objective: To optimize reactive power flow and improve the overall efficiency of the
power transmission system by reducing losses.
2.2 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR):
An elementary single-phase thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown in Fig.1a. It
consists of a fixed (usually air-core) reactor of inductance L, and a bidirectional thyristor valve
(or switch) sw. In a practical valve many thyristors (typically 10 to 20) are connected in series
to meet the required blocking voltage levels at a given power rating. The valve will
automatically block immediately after the ac current crosses zero, unless the gate signal is
reapplied. That is, the closure of the thyristor valve is delayed with respect to the peak of the
applied voltage in each half-cycle, and thus the duration of the current conduction intervals is
controlled.
This method of current control is illustrated separately for the positive and negative current
half-cycles in Fig.1b, where the applied voltage 𝑣 and the reactor current 𝑖𝐿(𝛼) , at zero delay
angle (switch fully closed) and at an arbitrary 𝛼 delay angle, are shown. When 𝛼 = 0, the
valve switch closes at the crest of the applied voltage and evidently the resulting current in the
reactor will be the same as that obtained in steady state with a permanently closed switch. When
𝜋
the gating of the valve is delayed by an angle 𝛼 (0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ ) with respect to the crest of the
2
voltage, the current in the reactor can be expressed with 𝑣 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 as follows:

1 𝜔𝑡 𝑉
𝑖𝐿(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (sin 𝜔𝑡 − sin 𝛼) (1)
𝐿 𝛼 𝜔𝐿

Since the thyristor valve, by definition, opens as the current reaches zero, the above
𝑉
expression is valid for the interval 𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋 − 𝛼. In the equ (1), the term (sin 𝛼) is
𝜔𝐿
simply an 𝛼 dependent constant by which the sinusoidal current obtained at 𝛼 = 0 is offset,
shifted down for positive, and up for negative current half-cycles, as illustrated in Fig. 1(b).
Since the valve automatically turns off at the instant of current zero crossing this process
actually controls the conduction interval of the thyristor valve.

Thus, as the delay angle 𝛼 increases, the correspondingly increasing offset results in the
reduction of the conduction angle 𝜎 of the valve, and the consequent reduction of the reactor
𝜋 𝑉
current. At the maximum delay of 𝛼 = , the offset also reaches its maximum of , at which
2 𝜔𝐿
both the conduction angle and the reactor current become zero. It is evident that the magnitude
of the current in the reactor can be varied continuously by this method of delay angle control
from maximum (𝛼 = 0) to zero (𝛼 = 𝜋), as illustrated in Fig. 1(c), where the reactor current
2
𝑖𝐿(𝛼), together with its fundamental component 𝑖𝐿𝐹 (𝛼), are shown at various delay angles, 𝛼.
Note, however, that the adjustment of current in the reactor can take place only once in each
𝜋
half-cycle, in the zero to interval.
2
 Fig.1

The amplitude 𝐼𝐿𝐹 (𝛼), of the fundamental reactor current 𝑖𝐿𝐹 (𝛼) can be expressed as a
function of angle 𝛼:
𝑉 2 1
𝐼𝐿𝐹(𝛼) = (1 − 𝛼− sin 2𝛼) (2)
𝜔𝐿 𝜋 𝜋
Where V is the amplitude of the applied ac voltage, L is the inductance of the thyristor-
controlled reactor, and 𝜔 is the angular frequency of the applied voltage. It is clear from Fig.2
that the TCR can control the fundamental current continuously from zero (valve open) to a
maximum (valve closed) as if it was a variable reactive admittance. Thus, an effective reactive
admittance, 𝐵𝐿(𝛼), as a function of angle 𝛼, can be written as
1 2 1
𝐵𝐿(𝛼) = (1 − 𝛼− sin 2𝛼) (3)
𝜔𝐿 𝜋 𝜋
 Fig. 2

Fig. 3
In practice, the maximal magnitude of the applied voltage and that of the corresponding
current will be limited by the ratings of the power components (reactor and thyristor valve)
used. Thus, a practical TCR can be operated anywhere in a defined V-I area, the boundaries of
which are determined by its maximum attainable admittance, voltage, and current ratings, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.
2.3 Thyristor Switched Capacitor:
A single-phase thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in Fig.4. It consists of a capacitor,
a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a relatively small surge current limiting reactor. This
reactor is needed primarily to limit the surge current in the thyristor valve under abnormal
operating conditions. Under steady-state conditions, when the thyristor valve is closed and the

TSC branch is connected to a sinusoidal ac voltage source, 𝑣 = 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡, the current in the
branch is given by

Fig. 4
The amplitude of the voltage across the capacitor is

𝑛2
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉
𝑛2 − 1
The TSC branch can be disconnected ("switched out") at any current zero by prior
removal of the gate drive to the thyristor valve. At the current zero crossing, the capacitor
voltage is at its peak value. The disconnected capacitor stays charged to this voltage and,
consequently, the voltage across the nonconducting thyristor valve varies between zero and the
peak-to-peak value of the applied ac voltage, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
If the voltage across the disconnected capacitor remained unchanged, the TSC bank
could be switched in again, without any transient, at the appropriate peak of the applied ac
voltage, as illustrated for a positively and negatively charged capacitor in Fig.5 (a) and (b),
respectively. Normally, the capacitor bank is discharged after disconnection. Thus, the
reconnection of the capacitor may have to be executed at some residual capacitor voltage
 𝑛2
between zero and 𝑉 . This can be accomplished with the minimum possible transient
𝑛2−1
disturbance if the thyristor valve is turned on at those instants at which the capacitor residual
voltage and the applied ac voltage are equal, that is, when the voltage across the thyristor valve
is zero. Fig. 6 (a) and (b) illustrate the switching transients obtained with a fully and a partially
discharged capacitor. These transients are caused by the nonzero dv/dt at the instant of
switching. which, without the series reactor, would result in an instantaneous current of
𝑑𝑣
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶 in the capacitor.
𝑑𝑡

Fig. 5

Fig. 6
The conditions for 'transient-free" switching of a capacitor are summarized in Fig.7. As seen,
two simple rules cover all possible cases:
(1) if the residual capacitor voltage is lower than the peak ac voltage (Vc < V), then the correct
instant of switching is when the instantaneous ac voltage becomes equal to the capacitor
voltage; and
(2) if the residual capacitor voltage is equal to or higher than the peak ac voltage (Vc > V), then
the correct switching is at the peak of the ac voltage at which the thyristor valve voltage is
minimum.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8
 The current in the TSC branch varies linearly with the applied voltage according to the
admittance of the capacitor as illustrated by the V-I plot in Fig.8. The maximum applicable
voltage and the corresponding current are limited by the ratings of the TSC components
(capacitor and thyristor valve).

2.4 Fixed Capacitor – Thyristor Switched Reactor:

A basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently connected) capacitor with a
thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR) is shown functionally in Figure 9(a). The current in the
reactor is varied by the previously discussed method of firing delay angle control. The fixed
capacitor in practice is usually substituted, fully or partially, by a filter network that has the
necessary capacitive impedance at the fundamental frequency to generate the reactive power
required, but it provides a low impedance at selected frequencies to shunt the dominant
harmonics produced by the TCR.
The fixed capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor type var generator may be considered
essentially to consist of a variable reactor (controlled by delay angle a) and a fixed capacitor,
with an overall var demand versus var output characteristic as shown in Figure 9(b). As seen,
the constant capacitive var generation (Qc) of the fixed capacitor is opposed by the variable
var absorption (Q) of the thyristor-controlled reactor, to yield the total var output (Q)
required. At the maximum capacitive var output, the thyristor-controlled reactor is off (α:
900). To decrease the capacitive output, the current in the reactor is increased by decreasing
delay angle a. At zero var output, the capacitive and inductive currents become equal and
thus the capacitive and inductive vars cancel out. With a further decrease of angle α, the
inductive current becomes larger than the capacitive current, resulting in a net inductive var
output.

Fig. 9
 At zero delay angle, the thyristor-controlled reactor conducts current over the full 180 degree.
interval, resulting in maximum inductive var output that is equal to the difference between the vars
generated by the capacitor and those absorbed by the fully conducting reactor.

Fig. 10
Functional Control Scheme:
The Functional Control Scheme of the FC-TCR (Fixed Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled
Reactor) involves multiple control functions that enable dynamic reactive power compensation.

1. Synchronous Timing Circuit:

The first control function is the synchronous timing. It involves a phase-locked loop circuit
that synchronizes the control with the AC system voltage. This ensures the proper timing for
controlling the thyristor's firing angle based on the system voltage peaks. This timing is crucial, as
it ensures that the thyristor-controlled reactor operates in sync with the AC cycle, minimizing
potential issues during system disturbances.

2. Current (Admittance) to Delay Angle Converter:

The second function is the conversion of reactive current (admittance) to the firing angle
for the thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR). This is handled by circuits or algorithms that determine
the delay angle based on the desired current in the TCR. This conversion is achieved through real-
time implementation of the mathematical relationship between the reactor current amplitude and
the thyristor's firing delay angle. This can be done via analog function generators or digital look-
up tables.

3. Computation of Reactor Current:

The third function involves the computation of the required reactor current based on the
desired output current from the system. The control system calculates the difference between the
total requested current and the contribution from the fixed capacitor. If the requested current is
inductive, the system increases the TCR current, and if it's capacitive, the TCR current is reduced.

4. Thyristor Firing Pulse Generation:

The final function is the generation of the thyristor firing pulses. Once the necessary delay
angle is computed, the system triggers the thyristors using a firing pulse generator. This can be
done via magnetic coupling or through optical fibers to insulate the high potential of the thyristor
from the control system. The firing pulse timing determines the exact moment the reactor engages,
controlling the reactive power absorbed by the system.

The V-l operating area of the FC-TCR var generator is defined by the maximum attainable
capacitive and inductive admittances and by the voltage and current ratings of the major power
components (capacitor, reactor, and thyristor valve), as illustrated in Figure 11. The ratings of the
power components are derived from application requirements.

Fig. 11
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM):

Static var generators generate or absorb controllable reactive power (var) by

synchronously switching capacitor and reactor banks "in" and "out" of the network. Switching
power converters can generate/absorb reactive power without the use of ac capacitors or
reactors. These (dc to ac or ac to ac) converters are operated as voltage and current sources and
they produce reactive power essentially without reactive energy storage components by
circulating alternating current among the phases of the ac system. Functionally, from the
standpoint of reactive power generation, their operation is similar to that of an ideal
synchronous machine whose reactive power output is varied by excitation control. Because of
these similarities with a rotating synchronous generator, they are termed Static Synchronous
Generators (SSGs). when an SSG is operated without an energy source, and with appropriate
controls to function as a shunt-connected reactive compensator, it is termed, analogously to the
rotating synchronous compensator, a Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM).

Fig. 12
The reactive current l drawn by the synchronous compensator is determined by the magnitude
of the system voltage V, that of the internal voltage E, and the total circuit reactance
(synchronous machine reactance plus transformer leakage reactance plus system short-circuit
reactance) X:
The corresponding reactive power X Q exchanged can be expressed as follows:

By controlling the excitation of the machine, and hence the amplitude E of its internal
voltage relative to the amplitude V of the system voltage, the reactive power flow can be
controlled. Increasing E above V (i.e., operating over-excited) results in a leading current,
that is, the machine is "seen" as a capacitor by the ac system. Decreasing E below V (i.e.,
operating under- excited) produces a lagging current, that is, the machine is 'seen" as a reactor
(inductor) by theac system.
The basic voltage-sourced converter scheme for reactive power generation is shown
schematically, in the form of a single-line diagram, in Fig.12. From a dc input voltage source,
provided by the charged capacitor Cs, the converter produces a set of controllable three-phase
output voltages with the frequency of the ac power system. Each output voltage is in phase
with, and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage via a relatively small (0.1-0.15 p.u.)
tie reactance. By varying the amplitude of the output voltages produced, the reactive power
exchange between the converter and the ac system can be controlled in a manner similar to that
of the rotating synchronous machine. That is, if the amplitude of the output voltage is increased
above that of the ac system voltage, then the current flows through the tie reactance from the
converter to the ac system, and the converter generates reactive (capacitive) power for the ac
system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased below that of the ac system, then
the reactive current flows from the ac system to the converter, and the converter absorbs
reactive (inductive) power. If the amplitude of the output voltage is equal to that of the ac
system voltage, the reactive power exchange is zero.
In a practical converter, the semiconductor switches are not lossless, and therefore the
energy stored in the dc capacitor would be used up by the internal losses. However, these losses
can be supplied from the ac system by making the output voltages of the converter lag the ac
system voltages by a small angle. In this way the converter absorbs a small amount of real
power from the ac system to replenish its internal losses and keep the' capacitor voltage at the
desired level.

Fig. 13
 A static (var) generator converter comprises a large number of gate-controlled
semiconductor power switches (GTO thyristors). The gating commands for these devices are
generated by the internal converter control in response to the demand for reactive and/or real
power reference signal(s). The reference signals are provided by the external or system control,
from operator instructions and system variables, which determine the functional operation of
the STATCOM. The main function of the internal control, is to operate the converter power
switches so as to produce a synchronous output voltage waveform that forces the reactive (and
real) power exchange required.
As illustrated schematically in Fig. 13, the internal control achieves this by computing the
magnitude and phase angle of the required output voltage from 𝐼𝑄𝑅𝑒𝑓, provided by the external
control and generating a set of coordinated timing waveforms, which determines the on and
off periods of each switch in the converter corresponding to the wanted output voltage. These
timing waveforms have a defined phase relationship between them, determined by the
converter pulse number, the method used for constructing the output voltage waveform, and
the required angular phase relationship between the three outputs (normally 120 degrees).
The magnitude and angle of the output voltage are those internal parameters which
determine the real and reactive current the converter draws from, and thereby the real and
reactive power it exchanges with the ac system. If the converter is restricted for reactive power
exchange, i.e., it is strictly operated as a static var generator, then the reference input to the
internal control is the required reactive current. From this the internal control derives the
necessary magnitude and angle for the converter output voltage to establish the required dc
voltage on the dc capacitor since the magnitude of the ac output voltage is directly proportional
to the dc capacitor voltage. Because of this proportionality, the reactive output current, as one
approach, can be controlled indirectly via controlling the dc capacitor voltage, as another
approach, directly by the internal voltage control mechanism (e.g., PWM) of the converter in
which case the dc voltage is kept constant (by the control of the angle).

Fig. 14

The V-I operating area of this var generator is limited only by the maximum voltage
current ratings of the converter, as illustrated in Fig.14
 UNIT-III
Static Series Compensators

3.1 Objectives of Series Compensation:

Series compensation in power systems is a technique used to enhance the performance of
transmission lines. It involves placing a capacitor or other compensating devices in series with
the transmission line, modifying the line's electrical characteristics. The main objectives of
series compensation are:
a) Increase Power Transfer Capability
Series compensation reduces the net impedance of the transmission line, allowing more
power to be transmitted over the same line. This is particularly important in long
transmission lines, where high line impedance limits power transfer.
b) Improve Voltage Stability
By reducing the voltage drop along the transmission line, series compensation helps
maintain voltage stability across the system. It supports better voltage regulation,
especially under heavy loading conditions, reducing the risk of voltage collapse.
c) Enhance Power System Stability
Series compensation increases the synchronizing torque between generators and loads,
improving system stability. It helps the system withstand disturbances, such as faults or
sudden load changes, without losing synchronism.
d) Reduce Transmission Line Losses
With series compensation reducing the overall line impedance, the current required to
transmit a given amount of power decreases. This leads to lower I²R losses in the
transmission line, increasing system efficiency.
e) Optimize Power Flow Distribution
Series compensation helps redistribute power flows in parallel transmission lines. This
balancing effect improves the utilization of transmission assets, prevents overloading of
certain lines, and enhances overall system performance.
f) Improve Transient Stability
By reducing the impedance and increasing the power transfer capability, series
compensation enables the system to recover more quickly from transient disturbances (e.g.,
short circuits), improving the system’s transient stability margin.

3.2 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

The basic circuit arrangement of the thyristor-switched series capacitor is shown in Fig.
15. It consists of a number of capacitors, each shunted by an appropriately rated bypass valve
composed of a string of reverse parallel connected thyristors, in series. the degree of series
compensation is controlled in a step-like manner by increasing or decreasing the number of
series capacitors inserted. A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed by turning
on the corresponding thyristor valve.

Fig. 15
A thyristor valve turns off when the current crosses zero. Thus, a capacitor can be
inserted into the line by the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the line current. Since
the insertion takes place at line current zero, a full half-cycle of the line current will charge the
capacitor from zero to maximum and the successive, opposite polarity half-cycle of the line
current will discharge it from this maximum to zero, as illustrated in Fig. 16.
 Fig. 16
The TSSC can control the degree of series compensation by either inserting or
bypassing series capacitors but it cannot change the natural characteristic of the classical series
capacitor compensated line. This means that a sufficiently high degree of TSSC compensation
could cause sub-synchronous resonance just as well as an ordinary capacitor. Therefore, the
pure TSSC scheme of Fig.17 would not be used in critical applications where a high degree of
compensation is required and the danger of sub-synchronous resonance is present.
The basic V-I characteristic of the TSSC with four series connected compensator
modules operated to control the compensating voltage is shown in Fig. 17(a).

(a) (b)

Fig. 17
(a) Voltage Compensation Mode: In this mode, the reactance of the capacitor banks is
chosen so as to produce, on the average, the rated compensating voltage, 𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑋𝐶𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛, in the face of decreasing line current over a defined interval 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝐼 ≤ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥.
As the current 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 is increased toward 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥, the capacitor banks are progressively
bypassed by the related thyristor valves to reduce the overall capacitive reactance in a
step-like manner and thereby maintain the compensating voltage with increasing line
current.
(b) Impedance Compensation Mode: In this mode, the TSSC is applied to maintain the
maximum rated compensating reactance at any line current up to the rated maximum,
as illustrated in Fig. 17(b). In this compensation mode the capacitive impedance is
chosen so as to provide the maximum series compensation at rated current, 4𝑋𝐶 =
𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥, that the TSSC can vary in a step-like manner by bypassing one or more
capacitor banks.
The maximum rated line current and corresponding capacitor voltage are design values for
which the thyristor valve and the capacitor banks are rated to meet the specific application
 requirements. The TSSC may also have transient ratings, usually defined as a function of
time.

3.3 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

The basic Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor consists of the series compensating
capacitor shunted by a Thyristor-Controlled Reactor.

Fig. 18
In a practical TCSC implementation, several such basic compensators may be
connected in series to obtain the desired voltage rating and operating characteristics. This
arrangement is similar in structure to the TSSC and, if the impedance of the reactor, XL, is
sufficiently smaller than that of the capacitor, XC, it can be operated in an on/off manner like
the TSSC. However, the basic idea behind the TCSC scheme is to provide a continuously
variable capacitor by means of partially cancelling the effective compensating capacitance by
the TCR. The TCR at the fundamental system frequency is a continuously variable reactive
impedance, controllable by delay angle 𝛼, the steady-state impedance of the TCSC is that of a
parallel LC circuit, consisting of a fixed capacitive impedance, XC, and a variable inductive
impedance, XL(𝛼), that is,

𝑋𝐶𝑋𝐿(𝛼)
𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 (𝛼) =
𝑋𝐿(𝛼) − 𝑋𝐶
Where,

The TCSC thus presents a tunable parallel LC circuit to the line current that is
substantially a constant alternating current source. As the impedance of the controlled reactor,
𝑋𝐿(𝛼), is varied from its maximum (infinity) toward its minimum (𝜔𝐿), the TCSC increases
its minimum capacitive impedance, 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑋𝐶 = 1⁄𝜔𝐿 until parallel resonance at 𝑋𝐶 =
𝑋𝐿(𝛼) is established and 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶,𝑚𝑎𝑥 theoretically becomes infinite. Decreasing 𝑋𝐿(𝛼),
further, the impedance of the TCSC, 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 (𝛼) becomes inductive, reaching its minimum
value of 𝑋𝐿𝑋𝐶⁄(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶) at 𝛼 = 0, where the capacitor is in effect bypassed by the TCR.
Therefore, with the usual TCSC arrangement in which the impedance of the TCR
reactor, XL, is smaller than that of the capacitor, XC, the TCSC has two operating ranges around
its internal circuit resonance:

(i) 𝛼𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋/2range, where 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 (𝛼) is capacitive, and the other is
(ii) 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝛼𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑚 range, where 𝑋𝑇𝐶𝑆𝐶 (𝛼) is inductive, as illustrated in Fig. 19.

Fig. 19
The steady-state model of the TCSC is based on the characteristics of the TCR
established in an SVC environment, where the TCR is supplied from a constant voltage source.
However. in the TCSC scheme the TCR is connected in shunt with a capacitor, instead of a
fixed voltage source. The dynamic interaction between the capacitor and reactor changes the
operating voltage from that of the basic sine wave established by the constant line current.
The compensating voltage versus line current (V-I) characteristic of a basic TCSC is
shown in Fig. 20. As illustrated, in the capacitive region the minimum delay angle, 𝛼𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚, sets
the limit for the maximum compensating voltage up to a value of line current (𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛) at which
the maximum rated voltage, 𝑉𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥, constrains the operation until the rated maximum current,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 is reached. In the inductive region, the maximum delay angle, 𝛼𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑚, limits the voltage at
low line currents and the maximum rated thyristor current at high line currents.
Fig. 20