1.
Polynomials
● Polynomial Expression: A sum of terms in the form anxn+an−1xn−1+⋯+a1x+a0a_n x^n
+ a_{n-1} x^{n-1} + \dots + a_1 x + a_0anxn+an−1xn−1+⋯+a1x+a0, where ana_nanare
constants and xxx is a variable.
● Degree: The highest power of xxx in the polynomial.
○ Example: 2x3−4x2+5x−12x^3 - 4x^2 + 5x - 12x3−4x2+5x−1 has degree 3.
● Factoring Polynomials:
○ Greatest Common Factor (GCF): Factor out the GCF from each term.
○ Factoring by Grouping: Group terms to factor.
○ Difference of Squares: a2−b2=(a−b)(a+b)a^2 - b^2 = (a - b)(a +
b)a2−b2=(a−b)(a+b)
○ Perfect Square Trinomial: a2+2ab+b2=(a+b)2a^2 + 2ab + b^2 = (a +
b)^2a2+2ab+b2=(a+b)2
○ Trinomial Factoring: ax2+bx+cax^2 + bx + cax2+bx+c can be factored into
(px+q)(rx+s)(px + q)(rx + s)(px+q)(rx+s).
2. Rational Expressions
● Rational Expression: An expression of the form P(x)Q(x)\frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}Q(x)P(x),
where P(x)P(x)P(x) and Q(x)Q(x)Q(x) are polynomials.
● Simplifying Rational Expressions:
○ Factor the numerator and denominator, then cancel common factors.
● Operations on Rational Expressions:
○ Multiplying/Dividing: Multiply the numerators and denominators. Simplify.
○ Adding/Subtracting: Find a common denominator, then add or subtract the
numerators.
● Domain: The values of xxx that make the denominator non-zero.
3. Exponents and Radicals
● Laws of Exponents:
○ xm⋅xn=xm+nx^m \cdot x^n = x^{m+n}xm⋅xn=xm+n
○ xmxn=xm−n\frac{x^m}{x^n} = x^{m-n}xnxm=xm−n
○ (xm)n=xmn(x^m)^n = x^{mn}(xm)n=xmn
○ x0=1x^0 = 1x0=1
○ x−n=1xnx^{-n} = \frac{1}{x^n}x−n=xn1
● Radicals:
○ x=x12\sqrt{x} = x^{\frac{1}{2}}x=x21
○ Rationalizing: Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate to
eliminate a radical from the denominator.
● Radical Equations: Solve by isolating the radical, then squaring both sides.
4. Quadratic Equations
● Standard Form: ax2+bx+c=0ax^2 + bx + c = 0ax2+bx+c=0
● Solving Quadratics:
○ Factoring: Set the equation equal to zero and factor.
○ Quadratic Formula: x=−b±b2−4ac2ax = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 -
4ac}}{2a}x=2a−b±b2−4ac
○ Completing the Square: Rewrite ax2+bx=cax^2 + bx = cax2+bx=c as
(x+p)2=q(x + p)^2 = q(x+p)2=q to solve for xxx.
● Discriminant: Δ=b2−4ac\Delta = b^2 - 4acΔ=b2−4ac
○ If Δ>0\Delta > 0Δ>0: Two real roots.
○ If Δ=0\Delta = 0Δ=0: One real root.
○ If Δ<0\Delta < 0Δ<0: No real roots (complex roots).
5. Logarithms
● Logarithmic Functions: The inverse of exponential functions.
○ logb(x)=y\log_b(x) = ylogb(x)=y means by=xb^y = xby=x.
● Logarithmic Properties:
○ logb(xy)=logb(x)+logb(y)\log_b(xy) = \log_b(x) +
\log_b(y)logb(xy)=logb(x)+logb(y)
○ logb(xy)=logb(x)−logb(y)\log_b\left(\frac{x}{y}\right) = \log_b(x) -
\log_b(y)logb(yx)=logb(x)−logb(y)
○ logb(xn)=nlogb(x)\log_b(x^n) = n \log_b(x)logb(xn)=nlogb(x)
○ Change of base formula: logb(x)=ln(x)ln(b)\log_b(x) =
\frac{\ln(x)}{\ln(b)}logb(x)=ln(b)ln(x)
● Solving Logarithmic Equations: Convert to exponential form and solve.
6. Rational Exponents
● Definition: xmn=xmnx^{\frac{m}{n}} = \sqrt[n]{x^m}xnm=nxm, which represents the nth
root of xmx^mxm.
● Operations:
○ Simplify expressions with rational exponents by applying exponent rules.
○ Example: x32=x3x^{\frac{3}{2}} = \sqrt{x^3}x23=x3.
7. Systems of Equations
● Solving Systems:
○ Substitution: Solve one equation for a variable, then substitute into the other
equation.
○ Elimination: Add or subtract equations to eliminate one variable.
● Types of Solutions:
○ One solution: The lines intersect at one point.
○ Infinite solutions: The lines coincide (same equation).
○ No solution: The lines are parallel and never intersect.
8. Sequences and Series
● Arithmetic Sequence: A sequence where each term increases by a constant difference
ddd.
○ General form: an=a1+(n−1)da_n = a_1 + (n-1)dan=a1+(n−1)d
● Geometric Sequence: A sequence where each term is multiplied by a constant ratio rrr.
○ General form: an=a1⋅rn−1a_n = a_1 \cdot r^{n-1}an=a1⋅rn−1
● Sum of Arithmetic Series:
○ Sn=n2⋅(a1+an)S_n = \frac{n}{2} \cdot (a_1 + a_n)Sn=2n⋅(a1+an)
● Sum of Geometric Series:
○ If ∣r∣<1|r| < 1∣r∣<1: Sn=a1(1−rn)1−rS_n = \frac{a_1(1 - r^n)}{1 -
r}Sn=1−ra1(1−rn)
9. Functions and Graphs
● Function Notation: f(x)f(x)f(x) represents a function with input xxx and output f(x)f(x)f(x).
● Transformations:
○ Shifting: f(x)±kf(x) \pm kf(x)±k shifts vertically by kkk.
○ Scaling: a⋅f(x)a \cdot f(x)a⋅f(x) scales vertically by aaa.
○ Reflection: −f(x)-f(x)−f(x) reflects over the x-axis.
○ Translation: f(x±h)f(x \pm h)f(x±h) shifts horizontally by hhh.
