ISSN 2249-622X

Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

REVIEW ARTICLE

Biodegradable Polymers: An Ecofriendly Approach In Newer Millenium.

Parth N. Patel, Khushboo G. Parmar, Alpesh N Nakum, Mitul N Patel, Palak R Patel, Vanita R Patel, Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen*
Shri Sarvajanik Pharmacy College, Gujarat Technological University, Arvind Baug, Mehsana-384001, Gujarat, India.
.
ABSTRACT

Biodegradation or biotic degradation or biotic decomposition is the chemical dissolution of materials by bacteria
or other biological means. The term is often used in relation to ecology, waste management, biomedicine and the
natural environment (bioremediation) and is now commonly associated with environmentally friendly products that are
capable of decomposing back into natural elements. Organic material can be degraded aerobically with oxygen, or
anaerobically, without oxygen. A term related to biodegradation is biomineralisation, in which organic matter is
converted into minerals. Biosurfactant, an extracellular surfactant secreted by microorganisms, enhances the
biodegradation process. Biodegradable matter is generally organic material such as plant and animal matter and other
substances originating from living organisms, or artificial materials that are similar enough to plant and animal matter to
be put to use by microorganisms. Some microorganisms have a naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to
degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals. Major
methodological breakthroughs in microbial biodegradation have enabled detailed genomic, metagenomic, proteomic,
bioinformatic and other high-throughput analyses of environmentally relevant microorganisms providing unprecedented
insights into key biodegradative pathways and the ability of microorganisms to adapt to changing environmental
conditions. Products that contain biodegradable matter and non-biodegradable matter are often marketed as
biodegradable.
KEYWORDS: biodegradation, biosurfactant, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene
polychlorinated biphenyls, hydro-biodegradable plastics, oxo-biodegradable plastics, polyhydroxyalkanoates,
polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate, polylactic acid, polycaprolactone, polyvinyl alcohol, polyamides, polyethylene
terephthalate, polyhydroxyalkanoates, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, polyhydroxyvalerate, polyhydroxyhexanoate,
polybutylene succinate, polycaprolactone, polyanhydrides, polyvinyl alcohol, starch derivatives, cellulose esters,
nitrocellulose, celluloid

INTRODUCTION Scientists often use respirometry tests for aerobic

“Biodegradable” product has the ability to break microbes. First one places a solid waste sample in a
container with microorganisms and soil and then aerate
down, safely, reliably, and relatively quickly, by biological
means, into raw materials of nature and disappear into the mixture. Over the course of several days,
nature. microorganisms digest the sample bit by bit and produce
carbon dioxide – the resulting amount of CO2 serves as an
METHODS OF MEASURING BIODEGRADATION: indicator of degradation. Biodegradation can also be
In nature, different materials biodegrade at measured by anaerobic microbes and the amount of
different rates. To be able to work effectively, most methane or alloy that they are able to produce. In formal
microorganisms that assist the biodegradation need light, scientific literature, the process is termed bio-remediation.
water and oxygen. Temperature is also an important factor
in determining the rate of biodegradation. This is because BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS:
microorganisms tend to reproduce faster in warmer There are two main types of biodegradable plastics
conditions. Many products that are biodegradable in soil – in the market: Hydro-Biodegradable Plastics (HBP) and
such as tree trimmings, food wastes and paper – will not Oxo-Biodegradable Plastics (OBP). Both will first undergo
biodegrade when placed in landfills, because the artificial chemical sodium carbon dioxide degradation by hydrolysis
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landfill environment lacks the light, water and bacterial and oxidation respectively. This results in their physical
activity required for the decay process to begin. disintegration and a drastic reduction in their molecular
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Biodegradation can be measured in a number of ways. weight. These smaller, lower molecular weight fragments

*
Corresponding author: Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen | Email: [email protected]
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

are then amenable to biodegradation. OBPs are made by polystyrene (PS). The additives act as catalysts to speed up
adding a small proportion of compounds of specific the normal oxidative degradation, increasing the overall
transition metals (iron, manganese, cobalt and nickel are process by up to several orders of magnitude (factors of
commonly used) into the normal production of polyolefins 10)
such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and

Approximated time for compounds to Biodegrade Plastics

Product Time to Biodegrade Product Time to Biodegrade

Vegetables 5 days-1 month Plastic coated milk carton 5 years
Orange peels 6 months Leather shoes 24-40 years
General paper 2-5 months Nylon fabric 30-40 years
Paper towel 2-4 weeks Tin cans 50-100 years
Cardboard box 2 months Aluminium cans 80-100 years
Tree leaves 1 year Glass bottles 1 million years
Wool socks 1-5 years Plastic bags 500 years-forever
Table-1: Time period for biodegradation of compounds

Figure-1: Biodegradable polymers (Ref: 1, 2)

The products of the catalyzed oxidative degradation of the there are no existing corresponding standards that can be
polyolefins are precisely the same as for conventional used directly in reference to plastics that enter the
polyolefins because, other than a small amount of additive environment in other ways other than compost - i.e. as
present, the plastics are conventional polyolefins. Many terrestrial or marine litter or in landfills, OBP technology is
commercially useful hydrocarbons (e.g., cooking oils, often attacked by the HBP industry as unable to live up to
polyolefins and many other plastics) contain small amounts the standards (which are actually the standards for
of additives called antioxidants that prevent oxidative composting). It has to be understood that composting and
degradation during storage and use. Antioxidants function biodegradation are not identical. OBP can however be
by ‘deactivating’ the free radicals that cause degradation. tested according to ASTM D6954, and (as from 1.1.2010)
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Lifetime (shelf life + use life) is controlled by antioxidant UAE 5009:2009.

level and the rate of degradation after disposal is HBPs tend to degrade and biodegrade somewhat more
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controlled by the amount and nature of the catalyst. Since quickly than OBP, but they have to be collected and put
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

into an industrial composting unit. The end result is the days for ASTM D6400-04 and EN 13432 respectively; there
same - both are converted to carbon dioxide (CO2), water is therefore little or no carbon left for the benefit of the
(H2O) and biomass. OBP are generally less expensive, soil, but the CO2 emitted to atmosphere contributes to
possess better physical properties and can be made with climate-change.
current plastics processing equipment. However, HBP 3.Safety, that there is no evidence of any eco-toxicity in
emits methane in anaerobic conditions, but OBP does not. finished compost and soils can support plant growth; and
Polyesters play a predominant role in hydro-biodegradable 4.Toxicity, that heavy metal concentrations are less than
plastics due to their potentially hydrolysable ester bonds. 50% regulated values in soil amendments.
HBP can be made from agricultural resources such as corn, Biodegradable technology:
wheat, sugar cane, or fossil (petroleum-based) resources, In 1973 it was proved for first time that polyester degrades
or blend of the two. Some of the commonly-used polymers when disposed in bioactive material such as soil. As a
include PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates), PHBV result, polyesters are water resistant and can be melted
(polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate), PLA (polylactic acid), PCL
and shaped into sheets, bottles, and other products,
(polycaprolactone), PVA (polyvinyl alcohol), PET
(polyethylene terephthalate), etc. It would be misleading making certain plastics now available as a biodegradable
to call these "renewable" because the agricultural product. Following, Polyhydroxylalkanoates (PHAs) were
production process burns significant amounts of produced directly from renewable resources by microbes.
hydrocarbons and emits significant amounts of CO2. OBPs They are approximately 95% cellular bacteria and can be
(like normal plastics) are made from a by-product of oil or manipulated by genetic strategies. The composition and
natural gas, which would be produced whether or not the biodegradability of PHAs can be regulated by blending it
by-product was used to make plastic. HBP technology
with other natural polymers. In the 1980’s the company ICI
claims to be biodegradable by meeting the ASTM D6400-04
and EN 13432 Standards. However, these two commonly Zenecca commercialized PHAs under the name Biopol. It
quoted standards are related to the performance of was used for the production of shampoo bottles and other
plastics in a commercially managed compost environment. cosmetic products. Consumer response was unusual.
They are not biodegradation standards. Both were Consumers were willing to pay more for this product
developed for hydro-biodegradable polymers where the because it was natural and biodegradable, which had not
mechanism including biodegradation is based on reaction occurred before. Now biodegradable technology is a highly
with water and state that in order for a production to be
developed market with applications in product packaging,
compostable, the following criteria need to be met:
1.Disintegration, the ability to fragment into non- production and medicine. Biodegradable technology is
distinguishable pieces after screening and safely support concerned with the manufacturing science of
bio-assimilation and microbial growth; biodegradable materials. It imposes science based
2.Inherent biodegradation, conversion of carbon to carbon mechanisms of plant genetics into the processes of today.1
dioxide to the level of 60% and 90% over a period of 180

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Figure-2: Biodegradable technology (Ref: 3, 4)

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

Scientists and manufacturing corporations can help impact deformations, and sutures and other material aides can
climate change by developing a use of plant genetics that naturally biodegrade after a completed surgery.
would mimic some present technologies. By looking to
plants, such as biodegradable material harvested through HISTORY OF THE TERM BIODEGRADABLE:
photosynthesis, waste and toxins can be minimized. Oxo- The first known use of the word in biological text
biodegradable technology, which has further developed was in 1961 when employed to describe the breakdown of
biodegradable plastics, also emerged. By creating products material into the base components of carbon, hydrogen,
with very large polymer molecules of plastics, which and oxygen by microorganisms. Now biodegradable is
contain only carbon and hydrogen, with oxygen in the air, commonly associated with environmentally friendly
the product is capable of decomposing anywhere from a products that are part of the earth’s innate cycle and
week to one to two years.The chemical degradation capable of decomposing back into natural elements.
process involves the reaction of very large polymer Biodegradable plastics are plastics that will decompose in
molecules of plastics, which contain only carbon and natural aerobic (composting) and anaerobic (landfill)
hydrogen, with oxygen in the air. This reaction occurs even environments. Biodegradation of plastics can be achieved
without prodegradant additives but at a very slow rate. by enabling microorganisms in the environment to
That is why conventional plastics, when discarded, persist metabolize the molecular structure of plastic films to
for a long time in the environment. With this reaction, produce an inert humus-like material that is less harmful to
formulations catalyze and accelerate the biodegradation the environment. They may be composed of either
process. Biodegradable technology is especially utilized by bioplastics, which are plastics whose components are
the bio-medical community. Biodegradable polymers are derived from renewable raw materials, or petroleum-based
classified into three groups: medical, ecological, and dual plastics which utilize an additive. The use of bio-active
application, while in terms of origin they are divided into compounds compounded with swelling agents ensures
two groups: natural and synthetic. The Clean Technology that, when combined with heat and moisture, they expand
Group is exploiting the use of supercritical carbon dioxide, the plastic's molecular structure and allow the bio-active
which under high pressure at room temperature is a compounds to metabolize and neutralize the plastic.
solvent that can use biodegradable plastics to make Biodegradable plastics typically are produced in two forms:
polymer drug coatings. The polymer (meaning a material injection molded (solid, 3D shapes), typically in the form of
composed of molecules with repeating structural units that disposable food service items, and films, typically organic
form a long chain) is used to encapsulate a drug prior to fruit packaging and collection bags for leaves and grass
injection in the body and is based on lactic acid, a trimmings, and agricultural mulch.2
compound normally produced in the body, and is thus able
to be excreted naturally. The coating is designed for SCIENTIFIC DEFINITIONS OF BIODEGRADABLE PLASTIC:
controlled release over a period of time, reducing the Now-a-days a biodegradable plastic would typically
number of injections required and maximizing the be defined as one in which degradation results from the
therapeutic benefit. action of naturally occurring micro-organisms such as
Professor Steve Howdle states that biodegradable bacteria, fungi and algae. There are ranges of standards for
polymers are particularly attractive for use in drug delivery, biodegradable plastics. The requirements vary from 60 to
as once introduced into the body they require no retrieval 90% decomposition of the material within 60 to 180 days
or further manipulation and are degraded into soluble, of being placed in a standard environment - this may be
non-toxic by-products. Different polymers degrade at either a composting situation or a landfill. In the United
different rates within the body and therefore polymer States, the Federal Trade Commission is the authoritative
selection can be tailored to achieve desired release rates. body for biodegradable standards. ASTM International
Other biomedical applications include the use of defines appropriate testing methods to test for
biodegradable, elastic shape-memory polymers. biodegradable plastic, both anaerobically and aerobically
Biodegradable implant materials can now be used for as well as in marine environments. The specific
minimally invasive surgical procedures through degradable subcommittee responsibility for overseeing these
thermoplastic polymers. These polymers are now able to standards falls on the Committee D20.96 on
change their shape with increase of temperature, causing Environmentally Degradable Plastics and Biobased
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shape memory capabilities as well as easily degradable Products. The current ASTM standards are defined as
sutures. As a result, implants can now fit through small standard specifications and standard test methods.
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incisions, doctors can easily perform complex Standard specifications create a pass or fail scenario
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

whereas standard test methods identify the specific testing Landfill Conditions, this test has proven extremely difficult
parameters for facilitating specific time frames and toxicity to perform. Both of these tests are used for the ISO DIS
of biodegradable tests on plastics. Currently, there are 15985 on determining anaerobic biodegradation of plastic
three such ASTM standard specifications which mostly materials.
address biodegradable plastics in composting type 1. While aromatic polyesters are almost totally resistant to
environments, the ASTM D6400-04 Standard Specification microbial attack, most aliphatic polyesters are
for Compostable Plastics, ASTM D6868 - 03 Standard biodegradable due to their potentially hydrolysable ester
Specification for Biodegradable Plastics Used as Coatings bonds:
on Paper and Other Compostable Substrates, and the 2. Naturally Produced: Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) like
ASTM D7081 - 05 Standard Specification for Non-Floating the poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxyvalerate
Biodegradable Plastics in the Marine Environment. The (PHV) and polyhydroxyhexanoate (PHH)
most accurate standard test method for anaerobic 3. Renewable Resource: Polylactic acid (PLA)
environments is the ASTM D5511 - 02 Standard Test 4. Synthetic: Polybutylene succinate (PBS),
Method for Determining Anaerobic Biodegradation of polycaprolactone (PCL)
Plastic Materials Under High-Solids Anaerobic-Digestion 5. Polyvinyl alcohol
Conditions. Another standard test method for testing in 6. Most of the starch derivatives
anaerobic environments is the ASTM D5526 - 94(2002) 7. Cellulose esters like cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose
Standard Test Method for Determining Anaerobic and their derivatives (celluloid).
Biodegradation of Plastic Materials under Accelerated

Figure-3: Biodegradable plastic (Ref: 5)

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Figure-4: Cycle of biodegradation (Ref: 6)

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF BIODEGRADABLE biodegradable plastics made from natural materials in

PLASTICS DEPEND UPON PROPER DISPOSAL: anaerobic (landfill) environments will result in the plastic
There are several identifiable environmental lasting for hundred of years. It is also possible that bacteria
benefits that may potentially be derived from the use of will eventually develop the ability to degrade plastics. This
biodegradable plastics compared to conventional has already happened with nylon: two types of nylon
petroleum-based plastics. eating bacteria, Flavobacteria and Pseudomonas, were
These are: Compost derived in part from biodegradable found in 1975 to possess enzymes (nylonase) capable of
plastics increases the soil organic content as well as water breaking down nylon. While not a solution, it is likely that
and nutrient retention, while reducing chemical inputs and bacteria will evolve the ability to use other synthetic
suppressing plant disease. plastics as well. In 2008, a 16-year-old boy reportedly
Biodegradable shopping and waste bags disposed of to isolated two plastic-consuming bacteria. The latter
landfill may increase the rate of organic waste possibility was in fact the subject of a cautionary novel by
degradation in landfills while enhancing methane Kit Pedler and Gerry Davis, the creators of the Cybermen,
harvesting potential and decreasing landfill space usage. re-using the plot of the first episode of their Doomwatch
Biodegradable landfill covers may also considerably extend series. The novel, Mutant 59: The Plastic Eater, written in
landfill life. The energy required to synthesize and 1971, is the story of what could happen if a bacterium
manufacture biodegradable plastics is generally much were to evolve—or be artificially cultured—to eat plastics,
lower for most biodegradable plastics than for non- and be let loose in a major city.3
biodegradable plastics. The exception is PHA biopolymers
which consume similar energy inputs to polyethylenes. MECHANISMS:
New feedstock for PHA should lower the energy required DEGRADATION MECHANISMS.
for their production. Biodegradable plastics are not a Materials such as a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
panacea, however. Some critics claim that a potential biopolymer are completely compostable in an industrial
environmental disadvantage of certified biodegradable compost facility. Polylactic acid (PLA) is another 100%
plastics is that the carbon that is locked up in them is compostable biopolymer which can fully degrade above
released into the atmosphere as a greenhouse gas. 60°C in an industrial composting facility. Fully
However, biodegradable plastics from natural materials, biodegradable plastics are more expensive, partly because
such as vegetable crop derivatives or animal products, they are not widely enough produced to achieve large
sequester CO2 during the phase when they're growing, economies of scale.
only to release CO2 when they're decomposing, so there is 1.Enzymatic degradation
no net gain in carbon dioxide emissions. However, certified 2.Hydrolysis (depend on main chain structure: anhydride >
biodegradable plastics require a specific environment of ester )
moisture and oxygen to biodegrade, conditions found in
professionally managed composting facilities. There is
much debate about the total carbon, fossil fuel and water
usage in processing biodegradable plastics from natural
materials and whether they are a negative impact to
human food supply. Traditional plastics made from non-
renewable fossil fuels lock up much of the carbon in the 3.Homogenous degradation
plastic as opposed to being utilized in the processing of the 4.Heterogenous degradation
plastic. The carbon is permanently trapped inside the
plastic lattice, and is rarely recycled. There is concern that ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES:
another greenhouse gas, methane, might be released Biodegradable plastics are a new generation of
when any biodegradable material, including truly polymers emerging in the market. Biodegradable plastics
biodegradable plastics, degrades in an anaerobic (landfill) have an expanding range of potential applications, and are
environment. Methane production from landfills is rarely driven by the growing use of plastics in packaging and the
captured or burned, but rather enter the atmosphere, perception that biodegradable plastics are
where it is a potent greenhouse gas. Most landfills today 'environmentally friendly', their use is predicted to
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capture the methane biogas for use in clean inexpensive increase. However, issues are also emerging regarding the
energy. Of course, incinerating non-biodegradable plastics use of biodegradable plastics and their potential impacts
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will release carbon dioxide as well. Disposing of on the environment and effects on established recycling
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

systems and technologies. There is an extensive range of C. DIFFERENT POLYMER BLENDS FOR DIFFERENT
potential applications. Some of these include: Film PRODUCTS
including over wrap, shopping bags, waste and bin liner Depending on the application, scientists can alter
bags, composting bags, mulch film, silage wrap, landfill polymer mixtures to enhance the properties of the final
covers, packaging - incl.O2 & H2O barriers, bait bags and product. For example, an almost pure starch product will
cling wrap, flushable sanitary products, sheet and non dissolve upon contact with water and then biodegrade
woven packaging, bottles, planter boxes and fishing nets, rapidly. By blending quantities of other biodegradable
food service cups, cutlery, trays, and straws. plastics into the starch, scientists can make a waterproof
product that degrades within 4 weeks after it has been
A. MULCH FILM FROM BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS buried in the soil or composted. Under proper conditions
This kind of mulch film can be useful for farmers. biodegradable plastics can degrade to the point where
Mulch films are laid over the ground around crops, to microorganisms can metabolise them. Degradation of oil-
control weed growth and retain moisture. Normally, based biodegradable plastics may release previously stored
farmers use polyethylene black plastic that is pulled up carbon as carbon dioxide. Starch-based bioplastics
after harvest and trucked away to a landfill (taking with it produced from sustainable farming methods can be almost
topsoil humus that sticks to it). However, field trials using carbon neutral but could have a damaging effect on soil,
the biodegradable mulch film on tomato and chilly crops water usage and quality, and result in higher food prices.
have shown it performs just as well as polyethylene film There are concerns over "Oxo Biodegradable (OBD)" plastic
but can simply be ploughed into the ground after harvest. bags. These are plastic bags which contain tiny amounts of
It’s easier, cheaper and it enriches the soil with carbon. metals such as cobalt, iron or manganese. They degrade in
the presence of sunlight and oxygen, but there are
B. PLANTABLE POTS concerns about the metals leftover and the time it takes
Another biodegradable plastic product is a plant for the plastics to degrade in certain circumstances.
pot produced by injection moulding. Gardeners and Microbial consumption of polymers are available through
farmers can place potted plants directly into the ground, addition of hydrophilic type additives onto the surface of
and forget them. The pots will break down to carbon the polymer chains. These types of additives are readily
dioxide and water, eliminating double handling and available and are used worldwide. The advantages of using
recycling of conventional plastic containers. these types of materials are heat stability, methane
capturing and product performance.

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Figure-5: Domestic biodegradable items (Ref: 7)

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

DEGRADATION SCHEMES: commingling with organic materials, the entire batch of

organic waste is "contaminated" with small bits of plastic
1. Surface erosion (poly(ortho)esters and polyanhydrides) that spoil prime-quality compost humus. Composters,
2. Sample is eroded from the surface
therefore, will not accept mixed organic waste streams
3. Mass loss is faster than the ingress of water into the bulk
4. Bulk degradation (PLA,PGA,PLGA, PCL) unless they are completely devoid of nondegradable
5. Degradation takes place throughout the whole of the plastics. So, because of a relatively small quantity of
sample nondegradable plastics, a significant waste disposal
6. Ingress of water is faster than the rate of degradation strategy is stalled. However, proponents of biodegradable
Environmental concerns; benefits: plastics argue that these materials offer a solution to this
Over 200 million tons of plastic are manufactured annually problem. Certified biodegradable plastics combine the
around the world, according to the Society of Plastics
utility of plastics (lightweight, resistance, relative low cost)
Engineers. Of those 200 million tons, 26 million are
manufactured in the United States. The EPA reported in with the ability to completely and fully biodegrade in a
2003 that only 5.8% of those 26 million tons of plastic compost facility. Rather than worrying about recycling a
waste are recycled, although this is increasing rapidly. relatively small quantity of commingled plastics, these
Much of the reason for disappointing plastics recycling proponents argue that certified biodegradable plastics can
goals is that conventional plastics are often commingled be readily commingled with other organic wastes, thereby
with organic wastes (food scraps, wet paper, and liquids), enabling composting of a much larger position of
making it difficult and impractical to recycle the underlying
nonrecoverable solid waste. Commercial composting for all
polymer without expensive cleaning and sanitizing
procedures. On the other hand, composting of these mixed mixed organics then becomes commercially viable and
organics (food scraps, yard trimmings, and wet, non- economically sustainable. More municipalities can divert
recyclable paper) is a potential strategy for recovering large significant quantities of waste from overburdened landfills
quantities of waste and dramatically increases community since the entire waste stream is now biodegradable and
recycling goals. Food scraps and wet, non-recyclable paper therefore easier to process. The use of biodegradable
comprises 50 million tons of municipal solid waste.
plastics, therefore, is seen as an enabler for the complete
Biodegradable plastics can replace the non-degradable
recovery of large quantities of municipal sold waste (via
plastics in these waste streams, making municipal
aerobic composting) that were are heretofore
composting a significant tool to divert large amounts of
unrecoverable by other means except land filling or
otherwise nonrecoverable waste from landfills. If even a
incineration.4
small amount of conventional plastics were to be

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Figure-6: Ecofriendly biodegradation (Ref: 8)

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

CONFUSION OVER PROPER DEFINITION OF TERMS: expected to lower energy requirements- manufacturing of
Until recently there were few legal standards PHAs by fermentation in Brazil enjoys a favorable energy
regarding marketing claims surrounding the use of the consumption scheme where bagasse is used as source of
term 'biodegradable'. In 2007, the state of California renewable energy. Many biodegradable polymers that
passed regulation banning companies from claiming their come from renewable resources (i.e., starch-based, PHA,
products are biodegradable without proper scientific PLA) also compete with food production, as the primary
certification from a third-party laboratory. The Federal feedstock is currently corn. For the US to meet its current
Court of Australia declared on March 30, 2009 that a output of plastics production with BPs, it would require
director of a company that manufactured 'biodegradable' 1.62 square meters per kilogram produced. While this
disposable diapers (who also approved the company's space requirement could be feasible, it is always important
advertising) had been knowingly making false and to consider how much impact this large scale production
misleading claims about biodegradability. In June 2009, the could have on food prices and the opportunity cost of using
Federal Trade Commission charged two companies with land in this fashion versus alternatives.
making unsupported marketing claims.
EXAMPLES OF BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS:
ENERGY COSTS FOR PRODUCTION: Bioplastics or organic plastics are a form of plastics
Various researchers have undertaken extensive life derived from renewable biomass sources, such as
cycle assessments of biodegradable polymers to determine vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, pea starch, or
whether these materials are more energy efficient than microbiota, rather than fossil-fuel plastics which are
polymers made by conventional fossil fuel-based means. derived from petroleum. Some, but not all, bioplastics are
Research done by Gerngross, et al. estimates that the fossil designed to biodegrade.
fuel energy required to produce a kilogram of
polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) is 50.4 MJ/kg, which coincides APPLICATIONS:
with another estimate by Akiyama, et al. who estimate a Biodegradable bioplastics are used for disposable
value between 50-59 MJ/kg. This information does not take items, such as packaging and catering items (crockery,
into account the feedstock energy, which can be obtained cutlery, pots, bowls and straws). Biodegradable bioplastics
from non-fossil fuel based methods. Polylactide (PLA) was are also often used for organic waste bags, where they can
estimated to have a fossil fuel energy cost of 54-56.7 from be composted together with the food or green waste.
two sources, but recent developments in the commercial Some trays and containers for fruit, vegetables, eggs and
production of PLA by NatureWorks has eliminated some meat, bottles for soft drinks and dairy products and blister
dependence fossil fuel based energy by supplanting it with foils for fruit and vegetables are manufactured from
wind power and biomass-driven strategies. They report bioplastics. Nondisposable applications include mobile
making a kilogram of PLA with only 27.2 MJ of fossil fuel- phone casings, carpet fibres, and car interiors, fuel line and
based energy and anticipate that this number will drop to plastic pipe applications, and new electroactive bioplastics
16.6 MJ/kg in their next generation plants. In contrast, are being developed that can be used to carry electrical
polypropylene and high density polyethylene require 85.9 current. In these areas, the goal is not biodegradability, but
and 73.7 MJ/kg respectively, but these values include the to create items from sustainable resources.
embedded energy of the feedstock because it is based on A. Compostable plastic: A plastic that undergoes biological
fossil fuel. Gerngross reports a 2.65 total fossil fuel energy degradation during the composting process (up to 2-3
equivalent (FFE) required to produce a single kilogram of months in a windrow) to yield carbon dioxide, water,
PHA, while polypropylene only requires 2.2 kg FFE. inorganic compounds and biomass at a rate consistent with
Gerngross assesses that the decision to proceed forward other known compostable materials and leaves no visually
with any biodegradable polymer alternative will need to distinguishable or toxic residues.
take into account the priorities of society with regard to B. Biodegradable plastic: A degradable plastic in which the
energy, environment, and economic cost. Furthermore, it is degradation must result from the action of naturally
important to realize the youth of alternative technologies. occurring microorganisms over a period of time (up to 2-3
Technology to produce PHA, for instance, is still in years in a landfill).
development today, and energy consumption can be C. Degradable plastic: An oil-based plastic containing a
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further reduced by eliminating the fermentation step, or by chemical additive that undergoes significant change in its
utilizing food waste as feedstock. The use of alternative chemical structure causing it to break down into smaller
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crops other than corn, such as sugar cane from Brazil, are particles. The degradation process is triggered only when
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

material is exposed to specific environmental conditions Packaging blister made from cellulose acetate, a bioplastic
(such as UV, heat and moisture). Residues are not food Cellulose bioplastics are mainly the cellulose esters,
matter for microorganisms and are not biodegradable or (including cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose) and their
compostable. derivatives, including celluloid.
The range of degradable plastics now available includes: Starch-based plastics:
• Starch-based products including thermoplastic starch, Constituting about 50 percent of the bioplastics market,
starch and synthetic aliphatic polyesters thermoplastic starch, such as Plastarch Material, currently
• Naturally produced polyesters. represents the most important and widely used bioplastic.
• Renewable resource polyesters such as PLA.
Pure starch possesses the characteristic of being able to
• Synthetic aliphatic polyesters.
• Aliphatic-aromatic (AAC) co polyesters. absorb humidity, and is thus being used for the production
• Hydro-biodegradable polyester such as modified PET. of drug capsules in the pharmaceutical sector. Flexibiliser
• Water soluble polymer such as polyvinyl alcohol and and plasticiser such as sorbitol and glycerine are added so
ethylene vinyl alcohol. the starch can also be processed thermo-plastically. By
• Photo-degradable plastics. varying the amounts of these additives, the characteristic
• Controlled degradation additive master batches of the material can be tailored to specific needs
(alsocalled"thermoplasticalstarch"). Simple starch plastic
PLASTIC TYPES:
CELLULOSE-BASED PLASTICS can be made at home shown by this method.5

Figure-7: Disposable bioplastics for daily use (Ref: 9)

ALIPHATIC POLYESTERS: and are used in the plastic processing industry for the
POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA) PLASTICS production of foil, moulds, cups and bottles.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a transparent plastic
produced from cane sugar or glucose. It not only resembles POLY-3-HYDROXYBUTYRATE (PHB)
conventional petrochemical mass plastics (like PE or PP) in The biopolymer poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a
its characteristics, but it can also be processed easily on polyester produced by certain bacteria processing glucose
standard equipment that already exists for the production or starch. Its characteristics are similar to those of the
32

of conventional plastics. PLA and PLA blends generally petroplastic polypropylene. The South American sugar
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come in the form of granulates with various properties, industry, for example, has decided to expand PHB
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

production to an industrial scale. PHB is distinguished to traditional polyethylene – it does not biodegrade but
primarily by its physical characteristics. It produces can be recycled. It can also considerably reduce
transparent film at a melting point higher than 130°C, and greenhouse gas emissions. Brazilian chemicals group
is biodegradable without residue. Braskem claims that using its route from sugar cane
ethanol to produce one tonne of polyethylene captures
POLYAMIDE 11 (PA 11) (removes from the environment) 2.5 tonnes of carbon
PA 11 is a biopolymer derived from natural oil. It is dioxide while the traditional petrochemical route results in
also known under the tradename Rilsan B, commercialized emissions of close to 3.5 tonnes. Braskem plans to
by Arkema. PA 11 belongs to the technical polymers family introduce commercial quantities of its first bio-derived high
and is not biodegradable. Its properties are similar to those density polyethylene, used in a packaging such as bottles
of PA 12, although emissions of greenhouse gases and and tubs, in 2010 and has developed a technology to
consumption of nonrenewable resources are reduced produce bio-derived butene, required to make the linear
during its production. Its thermal resistance is also superior low density polethylene types used in film production.
to that of PA 12. It is used in high-performance applications
like automotive fuel lines, pneumatic airbrake tubing, GENETICALLY MODIFIED BIOPLASTICS:
electrical cable antitermite sheathing, flexible oil and gas Genetic modification (GM) is also a challenge for
pipes, control fluid umbilicals, sports shoes, electronic the bioplastics industry. None of the currently available
device components, and catheters. bioplastics – which can be considered first generation
products – require the use of GM crops, although GM corn
BIO-DERIVED POLYETHYLENE: is the standard feedstock. Looking further ahead, some of
The basic building block (monomer) of the second generation bioplastics manufacturing
polyethylene is ethylene. This is just one small chemical technologies under development employ the “plant
step from ethanol, which can be produced by fermentation factory” model, using genetically modified crops or
of agricultural feedstocks such as sugar cane or corn. Bio- genetically modified bacteria to optimise efficiency.
derived polyethylene is chemically and physically identical
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS: CARBONYL BOND TO: O/N/S (ESTER/THIOESTER/AMIDE)

33
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Flowchart of bioconversion of chemicals (Ref: 5, 6)

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS USED FOR MEDICAL energy required to power farm machinery and irrigate
APPLICATIONS: growing crops, to produce fertilisers and pesticides, to
1. NATURAL POLYMERS: transport crops and crop products to processing plants, to
• Collagen process raw materials, and ultimately to produce the
• Chitosan bioplastic, although renewable energy can be used to
• Gelatin obtain petroleum independence. Italian bioplastic
• Hyaluronan manufacturer Novamont states in its own environmental
2. SYNTHETIC POLYMERS: audit that producing one kilogram of its starch-based
• PLA, PGA, PLGA, PCL, Polyorthoesters product uses 500g of petroleum and consumes almost 80%
• Poly (dioxanone) of the energy required to produce a traditional
• Poly (anhydrides) polyethylene polymer. Environmental data from
• Poly (trimethylene carbonate) NatureWorks, the only commercial manufacturer of PLA
3. DEGRADATION CAN BE DIVIDED INTO 4 STEPS: (polylactic acid) bioplastic, says that making its plastic
material delivers a fossil fuel saving of between 25 and 68
• Water sorption
per cent compared with polyethylene, in part due to its
purchasing of renewable energy certificates for its
• Reduction of mechanical properties (modulus &
manufacturing plant.6
strength)
A detailed study examining the process of manufacturing a
• Reduction of molar mass
number of common packaging items in several traditional
• Weight loss
plastics and polylactic acid carried out by Franklin
4. FACTORS INFLUENCE THE DEGRADATION BEHAVIOR:
Associates and published by the Athena Institute shows the
• Chemical Structure and Chemical Composition
bioplastic to be less environmentally damaging for some
• Distribution of Repeat Units in Multimers products, but more environmentally damaging for others.
• Molecular Weight This study however does not consider the end-of-life of the
• Polydispersity products, thus ignores the possible methane emissions that
5. PRESENCE OF LOW Mw COMPOUNDS (MONOMER, can occur in landfill due to biodegradable plastics. While
OLIGOMERS, SOLVENTS, PLASTICIZERS, ETC) production of most bioplastics results in reduced carbon
• Presence of Ionic Groups dioxide emissions compared to traditional alternatives,
• Presence of Chain Defects there are some real concerns that the creation of a global
• Presence of Unexpected Units bioeconomy could contribute to an accelerated rate of
• Configurational Structure deforestation if not managed effectively. There are
6. MORPHOLOGY (CRYSTALLINITY, PRESENCE OF associated concerns over the impact on water supply and
MICROSTRUCTURE, ORIENTATION AND RESIDUE STRESS soil erosion.
• Processing methods & Conditions & Method of
Sterilization BIOPLASTICS AND BIODEGRADATION:
• Storage History The terminology used in the bioplastics sector is
• Physiochemical Factors (shape, size) sometimes misleading. Most in the industry use the term
• Mechanism of Hydrolysis (enzymes vs water) bioplastic to mean a plastic produced from a biological
source. One of the oldest plastics, cellulose film, is made
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT: from wood cellulose. All (bio- and petroleum-based)
The production and use of bioplastics is generally plastics are technically biodegradable, meaning they can be
regarded as a more sustainable activity when compared degraded by microbes under suitable conditions. However
with plastic production from petroleum (petroplastic), many degrade at such slow rates as to be considered non-
because it relies less on fossil fuel as a carbon source and biodegradable. Some petrochemical-based plastics are
also introduces fewer, net-new greenhouse emissions if it considered biodegradable, and may be used as an additive
biodegrades. They significantly reduce hazardous waste to improve the performance of many commercial
caused by oil-derived plastics, which remain solid for bioplastics. Non-biodegradable bioplastics are referred to
hundreds of years, and open a new era in packing as durable. The degree of biodegradation varies with
34

technology and industry. However, manufacturing of temperature, polymer stability, and available oxygen
bioplastic materials is often still reliant upon petroleum as content. Consequently, most bioplastics will only degrade
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an energy and materials source. This comes in the form of in the tightly controlled conditions of industrial composting
 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

units. In compost piles or simply in the soil/water, most the National Innovation Agency has said that there is no
bioplastics will not degrade (e.g. PH), starch-based proven evidence that bio-organisms are really able to
bioplastics will, however. An internationally agreed consume and biodegrade oxo plastics.
standard, EN13432, defines how quickly and to what
extent a plastic must be degraded under commercial RECYCLING:
composting conditions for it to be called biodegradable. There are also concerns that bioplastics will
However, it is designed only for the aggressive conditions damage existing recycling projects. Packaging such as HDPE
of commercial composting units. There is no standard milk bottles and PET water and soft drinks bottles is easily
applicable to home composting conditions. identified and hence setting up a recycling infrastructure
The term "biodegradable plastic" has also been used by has been quite successful in many parts of the world,
producers of specially modified petrochemical-based although only 27% of all plastics actually get recycled. The
plastics which appear to biodegrade. Biodegradable plastic rest are in landfills and oceans. However, plastics like PET
bag manufacturers that have misrepresented their do not mix with PLA, yielding unusable recycled PET if
product's biodegradability may now face legal action in the consumers fail to distinguish the two in their sorting. The
US state of California for the misleading use of the terms problem could be overcome by ensuring distinctive bottle
biodegradable or compostable. Traditional plastics such as types or by investing in suitable sorting technology.
polyethylene are degraded by ultra-violet (UV) light and However, the first route is unreliable, and the second
oxygen. To prevent this process manufacturers add costly.
stabilising chemicals. However with the addition of a
degradation initiator to the plastic, it is possible to achieve MARKET:
a controlled UV/oxidation disintegration process. This type • Tea bags made of polylactide (PLA), (peppermint
of plastic may be referred to as degradable plastic or oxy- tea)
degradable plastic or photodegradable plastic because the • Prism pencil sharpener made from cellulose
process is not initiated by microbial action. While some acetate biograde.
degradable plastics manufacturers argue that degraded Because of the fragmentation in the market and
plastic residue will be attacked by microbes, these ambiguous definitions it is difficult to describe the total
degradable materials do not meet the requirements of the market size for bioplastics, but estimates put global
EN13432 commercial composting standard. production capacity at 327,000 tonnes. In contrast, global
The bioplastics industry has widely criticized oxo- consumption of all flexible packaging is estimated at
biodegradable plastics, which the industry association says around 12.3 million tonnes.
do not meet its requirements. Oxo-biodegradable plastics - COPA (Committee of Agricultural Organisation in the
known as "oxos" - are conventional petroleum-based European Union) and COGEGA (General Committee for the
products with some additives that initiate degradation. The Agricultural Cooperation in the European Union) have
ASTM standard used by oxo producers is just a guideline. It made an assessment of the potential of bioplastics in
requires only 60% biodegradation, P-Life is an oxo plastic different sectors of the European economy:
claiming biodegradability in soil at a temperature of 23
degrees Celsius reaches 66% after 545 days. Dr Baltus of

Items Tonnes/year
Catering products 450,000
Organic waste bags 100,000
Biodegradable mulch foils 130,000
Biodegradable foils for diapers 80,000
Diapers, 100% biodegradable 240,000
Foil packaging 400,000
Vegetable packaging 400,000
Tyre components 200,000
35

Total 2,000,000
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Table-2: Industrial production of biodegradable items

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

Biodegradable bags are bags made from materials that are particles of polymer dispersed in water, and in a one step
able to decompose under specified conditions of light, process adds nanometre sized silica-based particles to the
moisture, and oxygen. Every year approximately 500 billion mix. The newly developed technology might be most
to 1 trillion plastic bags are used worldwide. Often applicable to multi-layered biodegradable packaging, which
composting conditions or exposure to sun, moisture, and could gain more robustness and water barrier
oxygen are needed: degradation is slow in landfills. Many characteristics through the addition of a nano-particle
stores and companies are beginning to use different types coating.
of biodegradable bags to comply with perceived
environmental benefits. In the years 2000 to 2008, TESTING PROCEDURES:
worldwide consumption of biodegradable plastics based on 1.BIODEGRADABILITY - EN 13432, ASTM D6400
starch, sugar, and cellulose - so far the three most The EN 13432 industrial standard is arguably the
important raw materials - has increased by 600 %. The most international in scope and compliance with this
NNFCC predicted global annual capacity would grow more standard is required to claim that a product is compostable
than six-fold to 2.1 million tonnes by 2013. BCC Research in the European marketplace. In summary, it requires
forecasts the global market for biodegradable polymers to biodegradation of 90% of the materials in a lab within 180
grow at a compound average growth rate of more than 17 days. The ASTM 6400 standard is the regulatory framework
percent through 2012. Even so, bioplastics will encompass for the United States and sets a less stringent threshold of
a small niche of the overall plastic market, which is forecast 60% biodegradation within 180 days, again within
to reach 500 billion pounds (220 million tonnes) globally by commercial composting conditions. Many starch based
2010.7 plastics, PLA based plastics and certain aliphatic-aromatic
co-polyester compounds such as succinates and adipates,
COST: have obtained these certificates. Additivated plastics sold
With the exception of cellulose, most bioplastic as photodegradable or Oxo Biodegradable do not comply
technology is relatively new and is currently not cost with these standards in their current form.
competitive with (petroplastics). Bioplastics do not yet
reach the fossil fuel parity on fossil fuel-derived energy for 2. BIOBASED - ASTM D6866
their manufacturing, reducing the cost advantage over The ASTM D6866 method has been developed to
petroleum-based plastic. However, in certain, special certify the biologically derived content of bioplastics.
applications bioplastics are already unbeatable because Cosmic rays colliding with the atmosphere mean that some
pure material costs form only a part of the entire product of the carbon is the radioactive isotope carbon-14. CO2
costs. For example, medical implants made of PLA, which from the atmosphere is used by plants in photosynthesis,
dissolve in the body, save patients a second operation. so new plant material will contain both carbon-14 and
Compostable mulch films for agriculture, already often carbon-12. Under the right conditions, and over geological
produced from starch polymers, do not have to be timescales, the remains of living organisms can be
collected after use and can be left on the fields. transformed into fossil fuels. After ~100,000 years all the
Research and development: carbon-14 present in the original organic material will have
1. In the early 1950s, Amylomaize (>50% amylose content undergone radioactive decay leaving only carbon-12. A
corn) was successfully bred and commercial bioplastics product made from biomass will have a relatively high level
applications started to be explored. of carbon-14, while a product made from petrochemicals
2. In 2004, NEC developed a flame retardant plastic, will have no carbon-14.The percentage of renewable
polylactic acid, without using toxic chemicals such as carbon in a material (solid or liquid) can be measured with
halogens and phosphorus compounds. an accelerator mass spectrometer. There is an important
3. In 2005, Fujitsu became one of the first technology difference between biodegradability and biobased content.
companies to make personal computer cases from A bioplastic such as high density polyethylene (HDPE) can
bioplastics, which are featured in their FMV-BIBLO NB80K be 100% biobased (i.e. contain 100% renewable carbon),
line. yet be non-biodegradable. These bioplastics such HDPE
4. In 2007 Braskem of Brazil announced it had developed a play nonetheless an important role in greenhouse gas
route to manufacture high density polyethylene (HDPE) abatement, particularly when they are combusted for
36

using ethylene derived from sugar cane. energy production. The biobased component of these
5. In 2008, a University of Warwick team created a soap- bioplastics is considered carbon-neutral since their origin is
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free emulsion polymerization process which makes colloid from biomass.

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

3. ANAEROBIC - ASTM D5511-02 AND ASTM D5526 compostable plastics are not appropriate for oxo-
The ASTM D5511-02 and ASTM D5526 are testing degradable plastics, and vice-versa.
methods that comply with international standards such as
the ISO DIS 15985. COMPANIES:
Different companies use different kinds of
DEGRADATION OR BIODEGRADATION: biodegradable bags. Many stores use biodegradable bags.
A material that simply breaks up into smaller and Multinational baking giant Grupo Bimbo SAB de CV of
tiny portions is no longer regarded as being biodegradable. Mexico City claims to have been the first to make "Oxo
Naturally occurring polymers include: polysaccharides e.g., Biodegradable metalized polypropylene snack bag". In
starch from potatoes and corn, their derivatives, cellulose addition to that, a company named "Doo Bandits" has
from marine crustaceans; proteins such as gelatin created biodegradable bags used for picking up dog waste.
(collagen), casein (from milk), keratin (from silk and wool) The Supermarket Chain Aldi Süd in Germany offers
and zein (from corn); polyesters such as poly hydroxyl biodegradable Ecovio bags. Ecoflex bags are flexible, tear-
alkanoates formed by bacteria as food storage; lignin; resistant, waterproof, and suitable for printing. It gives the
shellac and natural rubber polylactic acid, jute, flux, silk, bags renewable raw material, making them biodegradable.
cotton can fall into the category of natural polymers where All of these examples show where companies have claimed
the monomer is produced by fermentation. While there biodegradable products without qualification of how long,
are a number of biodegradable synthetic resins, including: conditions required, end state results, or weither the
polyalkylene esters, polylactic acid polyamide esters, residue contains harmful by products as outlined in the
polyvinyl esters, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, pass/fail ASTM D6400 standard. In most cases, without
polyanhydrides. The materials mentioned here are those clarification that these products require composting
that exhibit degradation promoted by micro-organisms. conditions to achieve endstate, the products will be placed
This has often been coupled to a chemical or mechanical in traditional landfills and there will be no environmental
degradation step.8 benefits and no improvement in degradation of the

THERE ARE FIVE DIFFERENT KINDS OF DEGRADABLE PRODUCT:

PLASTIC: MATERIALS:
• Biodegradable, Most bags are mostly manufactured from plastic
• Compostable, made from corn-based materials, like Polylactic acid (PHA).
• Hydro-biodegradable, Biodegradable plastic bags require more plastic per bag,
• Photo-degradable because the material is not as strong. Many bags are also
• Bioerodable. made from paper, organic materials, or polycaprolactone.
Plastic bags can be made "Oxo-degradable" by being "The public looks at biodegradable as something magical,"
manufactured from a normal plastic polymer (i.e. even though the term is mostly meaningless, according to
polyethylene) with an additive which causes fragmentation Ramani Narayan, a chemical engineer at Michigan State
of the polymer (polyethylene) due to oxidation of metal University in East Lansing, and science consultant to the
additives (often cobalt). Other degradable technology Biodegradable Plastics Institute. "This is the most used and
utilizes organic additives to polyethylene which allows it to abused and misused word in our dictionary right now.
fragment into little pieces (but note that unless the small Simply calling something biodegradable and not defining in
pieces are themselves completely biodegradable this does what environment it is going to be biodegradable and in
not constitute true biodegredation).Template:Cite ref The what time period it is going to degrade is very misleading
trade association for the Oxo-biodegradable plastics and deceptive." In the Great Pacific Garbage Patch,
industry is the Oxo-biodegradable Plastics Association biodegradable plastics break up into small pieces that can
(www.biodeg.org), which will certify products tested more easily enter the food chain by being consumed."
according to ASTM D6954 or (as from 1st Jan 2010) UAE
5009:2009 The trade associations for the compostable RECYCLING:
plastics industry are the Biodegradable Products Institute In- plant scrap can often be recycled but post-
(BPI), "European Bioplastics," and SPIBioplastics Council. consumer sorting and recycling is difficult. Many
37

Plastics are certified as biodegradable under composting biodegradable polymers have the potential to contaminate
conditions in the United States if they comply with ASTM the recycling of other more common polymers. Degradable
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D6400, and in Europe EN13432. Standards appropriate to

 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

bags need to be kept separate from the normal recycling about environmental impact of degradable, compostable,
stream. SPI Resin identification code 7 is applicable. and biodegradable plastic bags, food service ware, and
packaging."Legal Considerations of Marketing Claims. In
MARKETING QUALIFICATION AND LEGAL ISSUES: 2010, an Australian manufacturer of plastic bags (who
Since many of these plastics require access to made unsubstantiated or unqualified claims about
sunlight, oxygen, or lengthy periods of time to achieve biodegradability) was fined by that country's equivalent of
degradation or biodegradation the Federal Trade the FTC.9
Commission's, GUIDES FOR THE USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
MARKETING CLAIMS, commonly called the "green guide" FACTORS THAT ACCELERATE POLYMER DEGRADATION:
require proper marking of these products to show their • More hydrophilic backbone
performance limits. • More hydrophilic endgroups
• More reactive hydrolytic groups in the backbone
THE FTC PROVIDES AN EXAMPLE: • Less crystallinity
Example: A trash bag is marketed as “degradable,” • More porosity
with no qualification or other disclosure. The marketer • Smaller device size
relies on soil burial tests to show that the product will
decompose in the presence of water and oxygen. The trash METHODS OF STUDYING POLYMER DEGRADATION:
bags are customarily disposed of in incineration facilities or
at sanitary landfills that are managed in a way that inhibits 1. Morphological changes (swelling, deformation, bubbling,
degradation by minimizing moisture and oxygen. disappearance)
Degradation will be irrelevant for those trash bags that are 2. Weight lose
incinerated and, for those disposed of in landfills; the 3. Thermal behavior changes
marketer does not possess adequate substantiation that 4. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
the bags will degrade in a reasonably short period of time 5. Molecular weight changes
in a landfill. The claim is therefore deceptive. Since there 6. Diluted solution Viscosity
are no pass fail tests for "biodegradable" plastic bags 7. Size exclusion chromatography (SEC)
manufactures must print on the product the environmental 8. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
requirements for biodegradation to take place, time frame 9. MALDI Mass Spectroscopy
and end results in order to be within US Trade 10. Change in chemistry
Requirements. In 2007, the State of California essentially 11. Infra-Red Spectroscopy
made the term "biodegradable bags" illegal unless such 12. NMR Spectroscopy
terms are "substantiated by competent and reliable 13. TOF-SIMS
evidence to prevent deceiving or misleading consumers
CONCLUSION

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 Dr. Dhrubo Jyoti Sen, Asian Journal of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences 1 (3) 2011, 23-39

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