AGTINE RF COMPONENTS; SEMICOND std physical Properties of Semiconducto UCTOR BASICS IN RF rs eration of semicond: ices j The op es rn ‘uctor devices ig dependent on physical behaviour of miconductor ns i Three Most commonly used semiconductors are silicon (si), semanium (Ge) an gal tum arsenide (GaAs), Figure 5.1(a) shows the bonding structure ofpure silicon. Each silicon atom shares its fo ur valance electrons with four neighboring sms, forming four covalent bonds, eee ONE Conduction bard 8 § Forbidden We | w, band or 5 Band gap 3 a Hole Wy Valence band () Planar representation of covalent bonds (b) Energy band levels Figure 5.1 Lattice structure and energy levels.of silicon Inthe absence of thermal energy i.e., when the temperature is equal to zero degree Xelvin (= 0K =—273.15°C) all electrons are bonded to the corresponding atoms and ®niconductor is not conductive. When the temperature increases, some of electrons ‘Main sufficient energy to break up the covalent bond and cross the energy gap +” Wo~W, as shown in figure 5.1(b)-At room temperature T = 300 K, the band gap isequal to 1.12 eV forSi 0.62 eV for Ge, 142eV for Gas. These fre electrons Negative charge carriers that allow electric current conduction. The concentration of Scanned with CamScannerTransom Lite rd RE Sy concn cevonsenintcterisenedase wen geeT NR ‘eo ilever behind pstvely hare vacancy: which an BE 068 fre cco. These pe of vacancies ar clled oles and thir concentrations tp lnthermal equiva, wehave equal mer ofrecombination and seen Iolesand lecrons. auwhen leet Beaks tec The concentration bey the Fermi stasis scoring to meow) ) n= Nee 0) few pemel 2) were ) _a the effective cartier concentration in conduction band (N,) and valsce ‘band (N,)- Wand W, is energy levels associated with conduction and valance baad WyisPemi energy lev mand m refer tothe efetive mas letons and holes inthe semiconducee KisBottmana’sconsant ‘hisPlanck’s constant Tis absolute temperature messuredin Kevin ‘The electron and hol concentrations are described by concentration law where nistheinvinscconseniration Ssbiwsonofequson() and 2a (slate espesionferiauinsicaie cooreaion nim Jichy ot et eng lad) ~O Class eistomseni thay sis etic contact inamatlele 3 (omg where Jiscurent dens: & Eis applicd elect field oo —UrUmUr—~—~r~—O™C—OCS o- a g is elementary charge Vy. isdrif velocity ispslindcesiceg eonreniectaina Oe to, -O ° =O ere Hao ate MOBS Of aces tes gmplity he equation) winga=pen, Hp) (¥s) Consider n-type semiconductoria wich be deceoscomeneaionisese8to etsleconcentration as ne = Not Py -o ere No the donor cone alsin oleonston Tofind nan phe eget Qhincrjunon wih) Theresais Noted a Fea pene any Wthe donor concentration Npis mush greter than the intrinsic electron, sscmationy, then mp (02) Scanned with CamScanneros ansmisson Lines and RE Sy, Eee 2 -Ny No [124] ; Nod. ntl Pr & 2 Np ) Consider p type semiconductor with Pp Natn, (14) where Ny.Mpy are acceptor and minority electron concentrations, Solving CqUation (14) together with (4) po Nae [NE + an? pe 3 (15) in Nae [In + an? a z 5.1.2 The pn-Junction The physical contact of a p-type with n-type semiconductor leads to one of the most important concepts when dealing with active semiconductor devices pn juinction, Because of difference in the carrier concentration between two types of semiconductor, a current flow will be initiated across the interface. This current is known as diffusion Current and is composed of electrons and holes, Consider one dimensional mode! ofp Junction as shown in Figure 5.2. «Electric field P-type retype Hole diffusion current ‘Space charge 0 q Space charge Figure 5.2 Current flows in the pn Junction Scanned with CamScanneresign Concepts fusion current is composed of 1, aig and J, ay components =], +1 A aa dp Jag = naif +p aig = 9 (0,4 og Dye (1) where A is the semiconductor Cross-sectional area orthogonal to the x-axis and spDp me diffusion constants for electrons and holes in the form KT Dap = Hap — qv bne Yr (2) The thermal potential Vy =KI, q 300K. is approximately 26 mV at room temperature of Since p type semiconductor was initially neutral, the diffusion current of holes is going to leave behind a negative space charge. Similarly electron current flow from n semiconductor will leave behind positive space charges. As the diffusion current flow takes place an electric field Eis crated between net positive charge in the n semiconductor and net negative charge in the p semiconductor. This field in turn induces a current J,= CAE which opposes the diffusion current such that Ip + Tag =0. Substituting equation (7) for the conductivity Ip = gA("h,+PHy)E = Typ +1pp (3) since total current is equal to zero, the electron Portion of the current is also equal to zero; that is, da : dn_ndV Tnag tne = 9 Da AG +9n Hy AB mara vyGt_nit) e wa (4) where electric field E has been replaced by the derivative of the potential ped ee Integrating equation (4) we obtain the diffusion barrier Voltage or built in potential fae Vag 2% dn= =\r tn[ | Mp ren, iselectron’ concentration § in n-type Npis electron concentration in p- type wu (5) Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and RP gy Mem, Gal vy inf 2 65 Vu" SL Pn y -eaeceptor in the p-semiconductor is Ny >>n, Ifthe concentration of acceptor in the p dh 2 . : i >>nj, then n, = sii oncentration of donors in then semiconductor is Np >? n= Np, my = c 2m . Cr ong Na 2] 2 , ~ NY _t and equation (5) we obtain By using "p = 2 "Na NaNp Vai = np “@) Ifwe desire to determine the potential distribution along the x-axis, we can employ Poisson’s equation which for one-dimensional analysis is written as @vy _ -0@) _ dé me a (8) where p(x) is the charge density and ¢,.is the relative dielectric constant of the semiconductor Figure 5.3 Acceptor and donor concentration Assuming uniform doping and abrupt junction approximation as shown in figure 5.3 the charge density in each material is p(x) = -gNy, for -d, Saturation region Cut off Region Figure 5.7 1,—V-, characteristics of a BJT 1,~ Vg family of characteristic curves can be subdivided into Several regions active, saturation and cut off. 5.2.2 BUT DC Biasing The DC biasing of a transistor plays a major role in the operation and proper function of an active circuit. DC Biasing Definition: It is the setting of the DC ‘voltages at each of the two transistor junctions (EBJ or CBJ) such that the transistor will perform in a stable fashion in the intended mode (e.g., active mode for amplifiers, etc). Setting the proper values for each of the two transistor junction voltages can be translated equivalently into terminal current values sch as emitter or collector current, which can alternatively be used to specify the DC bias values of the transistor. These currents in conjunction with the bias voltage values of junctions make the DC bias specification of a transistor complete. 5.2.3 BUT Modes of Operation Depending on the bias conditions on each of the two Junctions (EBJ or CB), there can be four modes of operation. Assuming the following notations, FWD = forward bias REV = reverse bias these four modes of ‘operation are shown in figure 5.8. Scanned with CamScanneraE System Design Con CB) Inverse mode + Saturation mode EB) REV FWD Cut Tg |= Active mode | Figure 5.8 Four modes of operation of a BJT Each mode can be defined as follows. Saturation mode is the mode in which both EBJ and CBJ are forward biased. In this mode an increase in Base current (1,,) produces no further increase in collector current (I,.). Cut off mode is the mode in which both EBJ and CBJ are reverse biased. Thus there is no current of any kind through the circuit. 1, = 0, 1,=Oand I,, = 0. Active mode isthe mode where EBJ is forward biased and CBJ is reverse biased. In this mode the collector current (I..) is proportional to base current. I= Blp where B is common emitter current gain 1 KCL gives I, = Ip tc (145 }e B leaale = tle 148 where a = a is called common base current gain + A first order model for the operation of transistor in the active mode can be sepresented byhybrid— equivalent circuit as shown in figure 5.9 () alse where Ig is the reverse saturation current, Vyis thermal voltage defined to be \ a where K is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 1079 J/K), Tis absolute temperature Kelvin and qis magnitude of electronic charge (1.602 = 10°C), Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and Ry Sytem, m f the active mode the forward voltage a) etuse oon low, and as long as the CBJ remains, exponentially related collector current (I, to flow, id ‘Or i ont ‘terminal behave as anon linear voltage c nt roll ny biased (Vg> 0), the collector ter B iscommon emitter current gain and j, rue en to be much Smalley In the first order source depending exponentially on Vp, Tee sareslt Tpib5e : istor, B>>1. . ean any agent _ ae to unity for a good transistor, the collec, than Ic. Furthermore because oi i Up): Io=lp- current Ic is approximately equal to emitter current (Ig): Ic Cc | Ip Jira, Bay —o¢ Bo— | Var ¥) Bla B ~ + Ju Vas V7] tole e - E E Figure 5.9 Two possible large-signal equivalent circuit models of NPN BJT in active mode. Inverse mode is a mode in which the EBJ is Teverse biased and CBJ is forward biased; that is emitter’s and collector’s Toles are reversed, This mode may theoretically beused in the same manner as active mode, 5.3 RF FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS either holes or electrons contributes Contributions are involved it is of p-chi trolled device. A variable elect by changing the applied voltage anne! otherwise of n-channel FETs, FETis voltage tric field controls the current flow from source to drain on the gate electrode. 5.3.1 Construction FETsare classified accordi ng to how the gate is connected tothe conducting channel. Specifically the following four types are used, Scanned with CamScanneres Esse resytesee tests eet eae RRR ETERS ESEEEECEEE system Design Concepts zu) 1 }, Metal neulator semiconductor FET (MISFE-T): Here gate is separated from channel tea the channel through an insulation layer one of the most widely used types. the metal oxide semiconductor (MOSFET) belongs to this class. 2, Junction FET(IFET): This type relies on a reverse biased pn-junetion that isolates gate from the channel, 4, Metal semiconductor FET(MESFE‘T); If the reverse biased pn-junction is replaced by a schottky contact, the channel can be controlled just as in the JFET case. 4, Hetero FET: As the name implies heterostructure utilize abrupt transition between layers of different semiconductor materials, Examples are GaAlAs to GaAs. The High electron mobility Transistor (HEMT) belongs to this class. Dueto presence of a large capacitance formed by the gate electrode and the insulator or biased pn junction, MISFET and JFET have a relatively low cut off frequency and are ly operated in low and medium frequency ranges of typically up to 1GHz. GaAs MESFET find application up to 60-70 GHz, and HEMT can operate beyond 100 GHz. 6.3.2 Functionality Because of its importance in RF and microwave amplifier, mixer and oscillator circuits, we focus our analysis on the MESFET, whose physical behaviour is in many ways similar to the JFET. The analysis is based on the geometry shown in figure 5.10 where the transistor is operated in depletion mode. The schottky contact builds up a channel space charge domain that affect the current flow from source to drain. The space charge extent d, can be controlled via the gate voltage, 2 s) =) For instance the barrier voltage V, is 0.9 V for GaAs-Au interface. The resistance Rbetween source and drain is predicted by L R= Sad-d,)W we (2) Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and RF Systems (b) Operation in saturation region (a) Operation in linear region Figure 5.10 Functionality of MESFET for different drain-source voltages W being gate width. o = 4HyNp» substituting (1) in (2) yields the drain current equation v2 Vps 2e Va - Vas lS _{ 2% ‘a= as.) |V, Ip =p 7 8] aa? Np Ds et) oWd _. a Fi 7 where Go = << This equation shows that the drain current depends linearly rue for small Vps- the space change domain near the drain ‘form distribution of the deflection region ‘on drain source voltage, fact that is only t As the drain source voltage increases, contact increases as well, resulting inanon uni! along the channel. the voltage along the channel changes from 0 at the source location If we assume that t current for non uniform space to Vpg at the drain end then we can compute the drain charge region. This approach is also known as gradual-channel approximation. The approximation rests primarily on the assumption that the cross sectional area at a particular location y along the channel is given by A(y)=(d-4,0)) W and electric field Bis only y- directed. - The channel current is thus = FAQ) =0 2 ) (dd) W “&) Ip Scanned with CamScanneryr pesyster Design Concepts (Ea) where the difference between Vy and Vgg in the expression for d,(y) has to be augmented by the additional drop in voltage V(y) along the channel. So equation (1) ecomes 2 ds) |e Wa- Vos ¥en] w+ (5) | a . substituting (5) in (4) and carrying out the integration on both sides of equation yields L Vps| oe Wa f ld, =IpL=ow f {2 wavy-Voo| \w (6) 0 ‘The result is the output characteristic of the MESFET in terms of. ‘drain current as a junction of Vpsand Vgs or - 2 3/2 Ip= 04] vs ~ 3 Va Np He [Yps+Vu-Vos}"”-(Va-Vas) |-o We note that this equation reduces to (3) for small V,,,. When the space charge extends over the entire channel depth d, the drain source voltage for this situation is called drain saturation voltage V,,. .,, and is given by d,(L) = ‘os + Vpssat) 2 (8) orexplicitly Npd? Vps sat = nd (Va-Vos)=Vp-Va + Vas= Vos ~-Vro + (9) 2 where Vp pinch off voltage = No and threshold voltage Vro=Va-Vp- The associated drain saturation current is found by inserting (9) into (7) with result V, 2 LLL = rt—trt—‘i‘_e— Dsat = Go| (Va-Ves) iy (Va - Vos) w+ (10) The maximum saturation current in equation (10) is obtained when Vgs=0, which We ‘efine a8 Ipsa (Vgs=0) = Ipgg- Input and output transfer as well as output Nistic behaviour is shown in figure 5.11. — Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and Rr Syste my Saturation yo Ip salloss 1 @s= 0 G oo Voss VgslV: 5 ‘oslV10 Vy “1 (a) Circuit symbol (b) Transfer characteristics © Output characteristics Figure 5.11 Transfer and output characteristics of an n-channel MESFET The saturation drain current is often approximated by simple relation. 2 Ves Tp sat = Io ve +» (II) TO For a particular ‘Si pn-junction , the doping concentrations are given as | N4= 10 cm” and Np= 5 *10"cm, with an intrinsic concentration of | 121.5 x 10" cm”, Find the barrier voltage for T = 300 K © Solution: Given data, N,= 10% om, Np=5* 10Scm™ n=1.5%10cm3, = T=300K N,N, Vay = Vr of ne | 1” | i Ni a (at) Vag = 0.796 V. Scanned with CamScanner —presystem Design Concepts A GaAs MESFET has following parameters Np=10" cm, d = 0.75 pum, | W=10 pan, L=2 pm, ¢,= 12.0, Vy =0.8 Vand H,=8500 cm?/VS. Determine (The pinch off voltage (i) Threshold voltage (ii) Maximum saturation current, Np=10'S cm", d=0.75 pm, W=10 pm, L=2 pm, ¢,= 12.0 V=0.8V & 3500 cm’/VS 2 Pinchoff voltage V, = ot E V, =4.24V Threshold voltage Vr) = Va-Vp =0.8-4.24 Vp =-3.44.V Maximum saturation current Ipss = of ~ Vat 3h, v] _ SgNp Wa _ g? Hy Nb Wa _ ie ic Ipsg_ = 6.89 A 54 HIGH ELECTRON MOBILITY TRANSISTORS Go 8.16 Itis also known as modulation doped field effect transistor exploits the differences in bandgap, energy between dissimilar semiconductor: materials such as GaAlAs and GaAs Maneffort to substantially surpass the upper frequency limit of MESFET while maintaining OWnoise performance and high power rating: Transition frequencies of 100 GHz and. have been achieved. The high frequency behaviour is due to a separation of carrier Scanned with CamScannerion Lines Gn@ Kr Systems qrans n doped GaAlAs and Undopeg terface between OOF ad electrons from their donor atthe ine layer in aa toa is a c ve ¢ or plasma, yhere they are confined toa : Jectron gas % ons vat te ae Here atwo dimensional : , s : onyparalel tein, He very high mobility upto 9000 c1 5.4.1 Construction 5.12 where a GaAlAs n-dopeg The basic heterostructure is shown in Big aye an undoped GaAs il semiconductors followed by an undoped ean anda highly resistive semi-insulating GaAs st st / Source Gate Drain € E| +d 0.1 on | nt n-GaAlas | 0 | r 4 GaAlAs 5 ; (st) 1 pnt GaAs 2DEG é 300 wm Semi insulating GaAs “ Figure 5.12 Generic heterostructure of a depletion-mode HEMT The 2DEG forms in the undoped GaAs layer at zero gate bias condition because the fermi-level is above the conduction band, so that electrons accumulate in this narrow potential well. The electron concentration can be depleted by applying an increasingly negative gate voltage. HEMTS are primarily constructed of heterostructures with matching lattice constants toavoid mechanical tensions between layers. Examples are GaAlAs-GaAs and InGaAs- Inp interfaces. A larger In GaAs lattice is compressed onto a smaller GaAs lattice. Such a device configuration are known as pseudomorphic HEMTs or PHEMTs. 5.4.2 Functionality ; The key issue that determines the drain current flow ina HEMT is the narroe interface between GaAlAs & GaAs layers, Scanned with CamScannerap system Design Concepts [519] A mathematical model can be developed by ‘writing the one dimensional poisson | quston inthe form | @V_-INp | a tn -@) where Np &ey are donor concentration and dielectric constant in the GeAlAS peterostructure, The boundary condition for the potential are imposed such that V@z=0) eoand at the metal semiconductor side V(@e=-d)=-V,+Vg +4 We! g- Here V; is parrier voltage, A Wc is energy difference in the conduction levels between the n-doped aAlAsand GaAs and Vg is composed of the gate source voltage as well as the channel yoltage drop Vg = Vgs + V(y).. To find potential equation (1) is integrated twice. At the: metal-semiconductor interface, we set QNp 2 Vd) = “95, * “BOE -Q) which yields 1 E@) = 5 (Ves~VO)-Vro) ...G) where defined the HEMT threshold voltage Vg as Vipg=~2- 2 SE 2 q-Vp eae aNd where V, = 2ey a Ip = GE,A =—qu,NpEWd = WnNp oy Wa (a the current flow is restricted to a very thin layer so that it is appropriate to carry 0 the integration over a surface charge density Q, atx=0. in Qs . _ HnQ * The result is o= Wid 7 For the surface charge density, find w Gauss’s law Q, =e} E(0) substitute in (4) L Vps J bdy=n,W J QdV a 0 0 Scanned with CamScannerUsing (3) Itis seen that drain current can be found WPS ou av IpL= Ha W ! h(Vas-V-Vro) “6 or v2 Ip= 1 EH Td EAL soso) | (7) Pinch off occur when drain-source voltage is equal to or greater than difference o¢ gate-source and threshold voltages (Vps2Vgs - Vro): If the equality of this condition is substituted in (7) it is seen that Ip= 1, at HL (Vos-Vro)” (8) The threshold voltage allows us to determine if the HEMT is operated as an enhancement or depletion type. For the depletion type, we require Vry<0 of \ -(%)-v, <0. ao d substituting the pinch off voltage V,= > and solving for d, this implies 2 26 AW, d>| —#| v, - Ae) -[Ze(w q a and if dis less than the Vy >0, we deal with an enhancement HEMT. 5.5 BASIC CONCEPTS OF RF DESIGN 5.5.1 RF Circuit Design Consideration Low RF circuits have to go through a three — step design process. In this design process, the effect of wave propagation on the circuit operation is negligible and the following facts in connection with design process can be stated: 1, The length of the circuit (/) is generally much smaller than wavelength (.> Oa 5.8 VOLTAGE CONTROL OSCILLATORS A voltage controlled oscillator is an oscillator with an output signal whose output can be varied over a range, which is controlled by the input DC voltage. i 'San oscillator whose output frequency is directly related to the voltage at its input. The oscillation frequency varies from few hert Z to hundred of GHz. Types of voltage controlled oscillators. Harmonic oscillators. The output is a signal with sinusoidal waveform. Examples are crystal oscillators and tank oscillators. Relaxation oscillators: The output is a signal with saw tooth or triangular waveform and provides a wide range of operational frequencies. The output frequency depends on time of charging and discharging of capacitor. Block diagram of VCO is shown in figure 5.17 and saw tooth wave generator VCO is shown in figure 5.18. Input voltage | Voltage controlled Output frequency V; oscillator proportional to Vj, Figure 5.17 Block diagram of VCO Control Constant + Capacitor voltage current | f source source YP Reference —, voltage Figure 5.18 Basic working principle of saw tooth wave generator VCO Fora voltage controlled oscillator generating a saw tooth waveform, main component is capacitor who’s charging & discharging actually decides formation of ‘output waveform. The input is given in the form of voltage which can be controlled, This voltage is converted into a current signal and is applied to capacitor. As current passes through capacitor it starts charging and voltage starts building across it. As the capacitor charges and voltage across it increases gradually, the voltage is compared with a reference voltage using a comparator. Scanned with CamScannerprsystem Design Concepts When capacitor voltage exceeds reference Volta ge, i 7 the ogi output which trigger the transistor and Capacitor is c¢ Scare 7 ing. Thus the outj onnected to ground and starts gischarging [put waveform generated is the representation of charging and aischarging of capacitor and frequency is controlled by input de voltage. Applications of VCO " O Electronic Jamming equipment . Function generator + Phase.locked loop . Frequency synthesizer, used in communication circuits. 5,9 POWER AMPLIFIER The RF power amplifier is the last component of transmitter chain. The purpose of transmitter is to deliver an RF signal with required properties and specified power level tothe antenna and need for the PA (Power Amplifier) is in amplification of that signal to level expected at antenna port. Requirements of power amplifier Y Ithasto have sufficient gain Y _ Ithas to have sufficient power handling capability Y Ithas to be stable. 5.40 AMPLIFIER POWER RELATIONS [s" L i Output Input ks ' Matching Matching —> | Network Network | ay on Figure 5.1 9 Generic amplifier system Scanned with CamScannerLines and RF Systems A generic single stage amplifier configuration embedded between input and outpyt matching networks is shown in figure 5.19, Input and output matching networks are needed to reduce undesired reflections and thus improve the power flow capabilities, The amplifier is characterized through its $ parameter matrix ata particular DC bias point. The following list constitute a set of key amplifier parameters: v v v v v Gain and gain flatness (in dB) Operating frequency and bandwidth (in Hz) Output power (in dBm) Power supply requirements (in V and A) Noise figure (in dB) 5.10.1 RF Source There are various power gain definitions that are critical to the understanding of how an RF amplifier functions. — a in Figure 5.20 Simplified schematics of a single stage amplifier For this reason let us examine figure 5.19 in terms of its power flow relations under the assumption that the two matching networks are included in the source and load impedances. b, a, Sy by a ‘ f a ces b, a Figure 5.21 Signal flow graph Scanned with CamScanner7 prsystem Design Concepts $29 b, = Sey Ly © ayez, Vs Bails = 4 (1-Tie Is) cae The incident power wave associated with bf is givenas . . p =i L1 lye a 2 a] Tnlst +2) Which is the power launched towards the amplifier. The actual input power P,. observed at the input terminal of the amplifier is composed of the incident and reflected power waves with the aid of the input reflection coefficient [,- mot) Seg) ow The maximum power transfer from the source to the amplifier is achieved ifthe input impedance is complex conjugate matched (Z,, = Z;) orinterms of the reflection coefficients, if[;, = isi . Under maximum power transfer condition, the available power Paas Lbs re “eee, a Vint) Lbs 1 s7 AA) 21-[sf This expression makes clear the dependence on Is. If ln = 0 and \s #0, itis seen from (2) that P,,. = | mr f 5.10.2 Transducer a Gain It quantifies the gain of the amplifier placed between source and load. Power delivered to the load oP __Power ceiver ————— = tT “Available power from the source P, or with P= ; bP: ( S ina we obtain Scanned with CamScannersion Lines and RF Transmis: If) be determined, with help of: signal flow ge Eat (1 TP, Lbs In this expression, te ratio ba/bs. graph and based on figure we establish has to Sy be yo Salt. Sy SolL ufo Babb The required ratio is given by IF a o> (SO Salt)- SoSelcls Inserting (8) into (5) results in (1-i1ee) ISuP 0-IISF) Gy i= i(-suls) (1-8: Spy IL) - Sq SpILISP Which can be rearranged by defining the input and output reflection coefficients. 0) s Sup IL lin = "4+ Tog Sal. SpSulg = Stes out 1-S)[s With these two definitions two more transducer power gain expressions ¢é derived. First by incorporating (10) into a iti is seen that Ss i i-satt fo (9) results in cal F=Sulgh co 7 ‘Scanned with CamScanner| System Design Cone RF eee 531 ‘An often employed approximation for the transducer power gain is 90 called csileteral power gain Gry, which neglect the feedback effect of the amplifier (Sn=9)- ‘his simplifies (13) into H-TE Sof P-Sulst 5.10.3 Additional Power Relations AIS) ‘The transducer power gain is a fundamental expression from which additional saportant power relations canbe derived. For instance, the available power gain for load jéematching ([p, = [our ) isdefinedas G,= Srlp=ter _ Power available from the network _ Py Power available from the source Pa oe eat tell ~08 Coat )h-st Further power gain (operating power gain) is defined as the ratio of the power delivered to the load to the power supplied to the amplifier or Power deliverd to load . Power supplied to the amplifier P iy P, = tet. A=G, A ‘ Pr Pa Pin Py Combining (3), (4) and (12) « (1- fa) suf 7 (that) -Salct «(16) Scanned with CamScanner5.32 Transmission Lines and RF Systems Example: 3 S-parameters: = 0.2 |-10°» S2.= 4 -45°. Further more, the amplifier is connected to a voltage source with a) = 5V [0° ang source impedance Zs = 40 Q. The output is utilized to drive an antenna, which has an impedance of Z;, = 73 2 Assuming that the S parameters of the amplifier are measured with reference toa Zo = 502 An RF amplifier has the following Sy = 003 [=20°, Sp, = 3.5 [85° Sz Find the following quantities. i) Transducer gain Gr ii) Unilateral transducer gain Gru iii) Available gain G4 iv) Operating power gain G ¥) Incident power to the amplifier Pine vi) Available power from the source P4 vii) Power delivered to the load Py & Solution: Zs = Zo Z5+ Zo 40 - 50 40 +50 =-0.111 al \ Source reflection coefficient a H Z- Zo Z,+ Zo 73-50 73 +50 = 0.187 Load reflection coefficient IL = L lin = Sit Sy Sip IL 1-SyIL = 0.146 - 7 0.151 Scanned with CamScannerjem Design Concepts wey Tour See Teeals So Su? (1 / ) Gr lou’ i ot = 12.56 or 10.99 dB O \ (fe?) isa? (11s) , =the ss ) Gy I-hesak Is 12.67 of 11.03 dB (i-fst) 7 = 14.74 or 11.68 dB = = 13.74 or 11.38 dB P, (dBm) = 10 log (P,, (1 mw)) = 18.73 dBm ine V 1dsP = 7g. rmvv of 18.93 dBm Oka on eee , |v) PL= PG, = 981.4 mw or 29.92 dBm 541 STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS |S41.4 Stability Circles Anamplifier circuit must be stable over the entire frequency range. The RF circuit ‘0d to oscillate depending on operating frequency and termination. The phenomenon of scillation can be understood in the context of voltage wave along a transmission line. TEE] >1 then retum voltage increases in magnitude possibly causing instability. IIT] <1 causes a diminished return voltage wave (negative feedback). bh Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and RF Systems 5.34 i: its S - parameters. Ampli Amplifier as a two port network characterized through its S pal mplifier 7 ffici unity. is stable, when magnitude of reflection coefficient are less than [dl < fle! * a) © Vl --Q) {Tout | (3) where A =§$ 8 -S'S (4) Since S parameters are fixed fora particular frequency, the only factor that have a parametric effect on stability are[;and[ In terms ofamplifier output port, the condition is established for which (2) is satisfied, To this end, the complex quantities Sn = Si +S), Sy = SR +78), Avs Aka jal, L = L tip +(5) substituting equation (5) into (2) output stability circle equation is 2 2 (ES -c8) +(E'-ct,) = 12, 6 where circle radius is given by IS Su ‘ag = —!Sia Sil lISnP ~14F) “@ and center of circle is located at Con = Cou + IC hy = Ga sSi ay" (8) Sx. [=A] as depicted in figure 5.22(a) Interms of in input stability circle equation (5°- ca) +(S- eu) = 2 %, Scanned with CamScanner put port, substituting (5) into (3) yields theystem Design Concepts Sy S. where Tj, = ~~ 3 2L__ . Su P=14F) (19) Su a C,= 7a ang Sm [Sy P= LAP (M1) when plotted in [5 plane we obtain response as schematically shown in gure 5:22 (0)- al ie (b) Input stability circle (a) output stability circle Figure 5.22 Stability circle linl =1 in the complex Ie- plane and stability circle Wout |* 1 in the complex [5 ~ plane 5.11.2 Unconditional Stability Unconditional stability refers to the situation where the amplifier ency and bias conditions. remains stable for any passive source and load at the selected frequ For|S,,| < 1 and |S,.| < 1; itis stated as WC, |-r,1 > 1 WC t= ray > 2 ‘oul wu(12) (13) In other words, the stability circles have to reside completely outside the il = land {rl =1 circles. Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and RF, Systems 5.36 The condition for stability is expressed in terms of ‘stability factor K as 2 1-18, PF -ISeP +14P . (14) « 2152118] ) ‘The stability factor K is also referred as Rollet factor. Itapplies for both input and output ports. | Mowe = 4 1 jout Mout = 1 | R four @) ifout} = | circle must reside outside (b) [IS |=1 circle must reside inside Figure 5.23 Unconditional stability in the |g and [ju planes for |Sy| <1 5.11.3 Stabilization Methods If the operation of a FET or BJT is found to be unstable, an attempt can be made to stabilize the transistor. The conditions |[;,| > land |[5,4] > 1 can be written in terms of input and output impedances. Nil = > Woul = Which imply Re(Zj,) <0 and Re(Z,) < 0. One way to stabilize the active device” is to add a series resistance or a shunt conductance to port. [Zou — Zo| ae iz, +2, | Figure 5.24 shows the configuration for the input port. This loading in conjunction’ with Re(Zs) must compensate the negative contribution of Re(Zin). Thus we require Scanned with CamScannerFr => -— RF System Design Concepts Re Zin +Rj, + Zs) > 0 (or) Re (Y;, +Gi, + Ys) > 0 gt Ri Rr. Yint Gin Active }..... Active }----> device Lis, device Source (BIT or Source (BIT or FET) |}... F Pl Sen b---- 2 | = Yin (a) Series Resistance (b) Shunt conductance Figure 5.24 Stabilization of input port through series resistance or shunt conductance Figure 5.25 shows the stabilization of the output port. The corresponding condition is Re (Zou +Rou. + Zi) > 0 (01) Re (You +Gou + Yi) > 0 Zouit Rou Yout Gout a Active -] Aatve device levice Load @sTor fey Load BIT or see FET) - vee-{ FET) Z, ‘out (a) Series resistance (b) Shunt conductance Figure 5.25 Stabilization of output port through series resistance or shunt conductance Example: 4 A MESFET operate’ Sp = 0.02 |0°, S21 = 65 115°, Spy = 0.6 |-35°. Verify the circuit whether | | | it is unconditionally stable or not? dat 5.7 GHz has, following S parameters. Sj, = 0.5 |-60°, Scanned with CamScannerTransmission Lines and RF Systems = Solution: 2 — 1-18, P= 1SnP +141 - 218,21 1Sail K= 2.17 [AI= 18), 8-8, Sal |Al= 0.42 : J K> 1 and|A|<1-so the transistor is unconditionally stable. ‘Scanned with CamScannervy stem Design Con pr sys! cepts [539 4. ESS oenes What are the key parameters used to evaluate the performance of an amplifier? ) Gain and gain flatness i) Operating frequency and bandwidth ij) | Output power iv) Power supply requirements y) _ Inputand outputreflection coefficient vi) Noise figure. Define transducer power gain. It is gain of the amplifier when placed between source and load. Power delivered to the load _ Py Gee T “Available power from the source Py Define unilateral power gain. Itis amplifier power gain when feedback effect of amplifier in neglected S12 = 0. Define unconditional stability. Unconditional stability refers to the situation where the amplifier remains stable for any passive source and load at the selected frequency and bias conditions. What is the need of matching network? Itcan help stabilize the amplifier by keeping the source and load impedances inthe appropriate range. What are factors used for selecting a matching network? ¥ Complexity Y — Bandwidth requirement Y — Adjustability v Implementation Scanned with CamScanner14 ¥ Noise figure is low ¥ Itmay have voltage gain in addition to current gai , in, ¥ Its operating frequency is upto X band ¥ Its input resistance is very high upto several mega ohms. what is MESFET? Field effect transistors at microwave frequencies are mostly fabricated in GaAs and use a metal semiconductor schottky junction for gate contact. This device is referred as MESFET (Metal Semiconductor FET) Define pinch off voltage. Itis the gate reverse voltage that removes all the free charge from the channel. What is called high electron mobility transistor? ‘The field effect transistor made using hetero junction is called high electron’ mobility transistor. Define threshold voltage. A minimum gate voltage is required to induce the channel and itis called threshold voltage. Scanned with CamScannera Grae Ushi 15 Explain the constructional details and principle of operation of GaAs MESFET with neat diagrams. Explain the operation of bipolar junction transistor with neat diagram. Explain the operation of HEMT with neat diagram. Discuss various aspects of amplifier power relations for RF transistor amplifier design. Explain stability considerations for RF transistor amplifier design. Explain various stabilization methods. Explain the design concept of RF. Explain mixer and Low Noise Amplifier with neat diagram. d Scanned with CamScanner