GAS TURBINES

Gas Turbine
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal
combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled
to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
Advantages of GT:
• GT is lighter and compact than IC Engines of same power.
• GT has fewer auxiliaries than Vapor Power System.
• The favorable power-output-to-weight ratio of GT
and military aircraft propulsion, marine power plants etc.)
• Short ‘set-up’ time and initial cost has made GT to be applicable in
stationary power generation too.
within 5 minutes.
• Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a
reciprocating engine.
• Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
• Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.
Gas turbines are used
to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, or even tanks.
Basic types of Gas Turbine System:

Gas turbine power plants may operate on either an open or closed basis.
The open cycle mode is more common. Both the types are shown in the
figure below. The figure (a) is the open cycle type GT and figure (b) is
the closed cycle type GT. Again, based on nature of combustion GT are:
a) Constant pressure GT and b) Constant volume GT.

(a) (b)

Figure: Simple gas turbine. (a) Open to the atmosphere. (b) Closed.
 Figure: Simple gas turbine with constant pressure combustion
(Brayton Cycle)

Working Principle:

In open-mode GT, atmospheric air is continuously drawn into the

compressor, where it is compressed to a high pressure. The air then
enters a combustion chamber i.e. combustor, where it is mixed with fuel
and combustion occurs, resulting in combustion products at an elevated
temperature. The combustion products expand through the turbine and
are subsequently discharged to the surroundings. Part of the turbine-
work developed is used to drive the compressor, the remainder is
available to generate electricity, to propel a vehicle, or for any other
purposes. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the
exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a high velocity.

In closed mode GT, the working fluid receives an energy input by a

heat exchanger (from an external source, for example a gas-cooled
nuclear reactor) or a combustor. The gas exiting the turbine is passed
through another heat exchanger, where it is cooled prior to re-entering
the compressor.
 Combined Cycle Power Plant
 A combined cycle couples two power cycles such that the energy
discharged by heat transfer from one cycle is used partly or wholly as the
heat input for the other cycle.
 The gas and vapor power cycles are combined using an interconnecting
heat-recovery steam generator that serves as the boiler for the vapor power
cycle.
 In open cycle GT, the hot flue gas exiting the turbine is passed through
a ‘Heat Recovery Steam Generator’ to produce some steam. With that steam
a steam turbine is driven. This type of power plant where the gas power
cycle and vapor power cycle both work side by side is called the
‘Combined Cycle Power Plant’ or ‘CCPP’. In a typical CCPP, the power
producing capacity of the steam turbine is generally half the capacity of GT.
For example- if the capacity of the GT is 240MW then the capacity of the
steam turbine will be 120MW.
 The combined cycle has the gas turbine’s high average temperature of
heat addition and the vapor cycle’s low average temperature of heat
rejection, and thus a thermal efficiency greater than either cycle would have
individually.

 For many applications combined

cycles are a good choice, and they
are increasingly being used
worldwide for electric power
generation.

The thermal efficiency of the

combined cycle is

is the net power developed by

the gas turbine
is the net power developed by
the vapor cycle
denotes the total rate of heat transfer to the combined cycle, including
additional heat transfer, if any, to superheat the vapor entering the vapor
turbine.
 The relation for the energy transferred from the gas cycle to the vapor
cycle for the system is obtained by applying the mass and energy rate
balances to a control volume enclosing the heat-recovery steam generator.
 For steady-state operation, negligible heat transfer with the
surroundings, and no significant changes in kinetic and potential
energy the result is

 To complete the analysis, however, the second law is required to

assess the impact of irreversibilities and the true magnitudes of losses.
Among the irreversibilities, the most significant is the exergy destroyed
by combustion. About 30% of the exergy entering the combustor with
the fuel is destroyed by combustion irreversibility. An analysis of the gas
turbine on an air-standard basis does not allow this exergy destruction to
be evaluated.

Aircraft Gas Turbine

Gas Turbines are very suitable for aircraft propulsion due to their
higher power-to-weight ratio. This means they can deliver more power
than other propulsion systems yet being lighter. There are mainly three
types of aircraft gas turbine:

1. Turbojet GT:

The turbojet GT consists of

three main sections: the
diffuser, the gas generator
and the nozzle. The diffuser
situated in front of the
compressor decelerates the
incoming air relative to the
engine.
A pressure rise known as Ram Effect is associated with this deceleration.
The gas generator consists compressor, combustor and turbine. The
turbine is smaller than those that are used in stationary power plants
because in Turbojet, the turbine power output need only be sufficient to
drive the compressor and auxiliary equipment. The burnt gases leave the
Turbine at significantly higher pressure than atmospheric. The gases then
expand through the nozzle to a high velocity before being discharged to
the surroundings. The overall change in velocity of the burnt gases
relative to the engine gives rise to the propulsive force or thrust.
Afterburner

Some turbojets are equipped with afterburners. This is actually a kind

of reheat device in which additional fuel is injected into the gas exiting
the turbine and burned further, producing a higher temperature at nozzle
outlet than would be achieved otherwise. As a consequence, greater
nozzle exit velocity is attained, resulting in increased thrust. A turbojet
with afterburner is shown in the picture below. The nozzle used here is
also adjustable for greater control.

Uses of Turbojet Engines

Turbojet Engines are mainly used in large civilian aircrafts.
But Turbojet Engines with afterburners are solely used in military
aircrafts.
 2. Turboprop GT
Turboprop engine consists of a GT where the gases are allowed to
expand through the turbine into the atmospheric pressure. The net power
developed is directed to a propeller which is situated in front of the
engine. The propeller provides thrust to the aircraft.

Uses of Turboprop GT:

Turbofan engines are efficient
propulsion devices for speeds up
to 600 km/h (400 miles/h). They
are mainly used in light
commercial aircrafts or cargo
planes.

3. Turbofan GT
In Turbofan engines the construction is very much similar to the turbojet
engines. However, a set of large-diameter blades attached to the front of the
engine accelerates air around the core. This bypass flow provides additional
thrust for takeoff, whereas the core of the engine provides the primary
thrust for cruising.

Uses of Turbofan GT
Turbofan engines are
commonly used for
commercial aircraft with
flight speeds of up to about
1000 km/h (600 miles/h).
Thermodynamic Analysis of GT
The air-standard assumptions that are made during the analysis of the IC
Engine apply fully for ‘qualitative’ GT Cycle analysis also. The
assumptions are stated here:
.

1. The working fluid is air, which behaves as an ideal gas.

2. The Specific Heats (Cp and Cv) remain same for all the
temperatures and their values are taken at atmospheric temperature
(Cold-Air Standard Analysis).
3. All process are internally reversible (i.e. there is no loss due to
friction and no pressure drop).
4. Addition of fuel mass does not cause mass flow rate change.
5. Working medium has same kinetic energy at inlet and outlet of the
cycle resulting in simple flow energy equation.

A schematic diagram of an air-

standard gas turbine is shown
in Figure.

In air-standard Brayton Cycle, air is drawn into the compressor at state 1

from the surrounding and later returned to the surroundings at state 4 with
temperature greater than the ambient temperature. The heat exchanger
ensures the state of air at 1 is same all the time. Air flows at constant
pressure through the heat exchangers due to reversibility (no friction
assumed in the heat exchanger pipes).
 Figure: P-v and T-s Diagrams for ideal Brayton Cycle
Processes: On the p-v diagram:
1-2: Isentropic Compression Area: 1-2-a-b-1: compressor
2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition work input per unit of mass.
3-4: Isentropic Expansion Area: 3-4-b-a-3: turbine work
4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection output per unit of mass.
On the T-s diagram: Area: 1-2-3-4: net work output.
Area: 2-3-a-b-2: heat added per unit mass
Area: 1-4-a-b-1: heat rejected per unit mass
Area: 1-2-3-4: net heat added.

GT Cycle Analysis
Assuming the turbine operates adiabatically and with negligible effects of
kinetic and potential energy, the work developed per unit of mass flowing is

The compressor work per unit of mass flowing is

The heat added to the cycle per unit of mass is

The heat rejected per unit of mass is

The thermal efficiency of the cycle

The back work ratio for the cycle is

Back Work Ratio
It is the ratio between work consumed by compressor and work
developed by turbine.
For the same pressure rise, a gas turbine compressor would require a
much greater work input per unit of mass flow than the pump of a vapor
power plant because the average specific volume of the gas flowing
through the compressor would be many times greater than that of the
liquid passing through the pump Hence, a relatively large portion of the
work developed by the turbine is required to drive the compressor.
Typical back work ratios of GT range from 40 to 80%. Quite high
against 1 to 2% work input consumption in Boiler Feed Water Pump of
Vapor Power Cycle.

Process 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic :

From the pressure ratio relation it can then be written-

Pressure Ratio =

Therefore the equation of thermal efficiency becomes

From

(cold air standard basis)

Effect of Pressure Ratio on Performance

Thermal efficiency of the GT

increases as the Pressure Ratio
increases. From the above shown T-s
diagram, we can see that as the
pressure ratio increases, the cycle also
changes from 1-2-3-4-1 to 1-2’-3’-4-1.

Since the average temperature of the heat addition is greater in the latter
cycle and both the cycles have the same heat rejection process, cycle 1-
2’-3’-4-1 would have the greater thermal efficiency. But the
temperature at turbine inlet will also increase. There is a limit of about
1700 K imposed by metallurgical considerations on the maximum
allowed temperature at turbine inlet.

Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses

 Because of frictional effects within the

compressor and turbine, the working fluid
would experience increases in specific
entropy across these components.
 Owing to friction, there also would be
pressure drops as the working fluid passes
through the heat exchangers. However,
because frictional pressure drops in the heat
exchangers are less significant sources of
irreversibility, it is ignored and for
simplicity the flow through the heat
exchangers is assumed to occur at constant
pressure.
 Because of frictional effects, the work
developed by the Turbine decreases and the
work input to the compressor increases
resulting in a marked decrease in net work
output of the GT. After decades of developmental effort, efficiencies of
80 to 90% can now be achieved for the compressors and turbines in GT
power plants. Efficiencies can be denoted by following expressions:

 Owing to friction between working fluid particles and pipes, there

also would be pressure drops as the working fluid passes through the
heat exchangers otherwise thought of being constant pressure
processes.
 Irreversibilities within the turbine and compressor have a significant
impact on the performance of gas turbines. Irreversibilities result in an
increase in the work of compression and a reduction in work output of
the turbine. The back work ratio is greatly increased and the thermal
efficiency significantly decreased.

Regenerative Gas Turbines

 The turbine exhaust temperature of a simple gas turbine is normally
well above the ambient temperature. Accordingly, the hot turbine
exhaust gas has significant thermodynamic utility (exergy) that would be
irrevocably lost were the gas discarded directly to the surroundings. One
way of utilizing this potential is by means of a heat exchanger called a
regenerator, which allows the air exiting the compressor to be
preheated before entering the combustor, thereby reducing the amount
of fuel that must be burned in the combustor.
 The combined cycle arrangement considered is another way to utilize
the hot turbine exhaust gas.

An air-standard Brayton cycle modified to include a regenerator is

shown in the following Fig.
 The regenerator shown is a counterflow heat exchanger through which
the hot turbine exhaust gas and the cooler air leaving the compressor
pass in opposite directions. Ideally, no frictional pressure drop occurs in
either stream. The turbine exhaust gas is cooled from state 4 to state y,
while the air exiting the compressor is heated from state 2 to state x.
Hence, a heat transfer from a source external to the cycle is required only
to increase the air temperature from state x to state 3, rather than from
state 2 to state 3, as would be the case without regeneration.

The heat added per unit of mass is then given by

The net work developed per unit of mass flow is not altered by the
addition of a regenerator. Thus, since the heat added is reduced, the
thermal efficiency increases.
The regenerator effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the actual enthalpy
increase of the air flowing through the compressor side of the regenerator
to the maximum theoretical enthalpy increase.

In practice, regenerator effectiveness values typically range from 60 to

80%, and thus the temperature Tx of the air exiting on the compressor side
of the regenerator is normally well below the turbine exhaust temperature.
 To increase the effectiveness above this range would require greater heat
transfer area, resulting
 in equipment costs that might cancel any advantage due to fuel savings.
 Moreover, the greater heat transfer area that would be required for a
larger effectiveness can result in a significant frictional pressure drop for
flow through the regenerator, thereby affecting overall performance.
The decision to add a regenerator is influenced by considerations such as
these, and the final decision is primarily an economic one.

Modification of Brayton Power cycle

Two modifications of the basic gas turbine that increase the net work
developed are
 Multistage expansion with reheat and
 Multistage compression with intercooling.
When used in conjunction with regeneration, these modifications can
result in substantial increases in thermal efficiency.
Gas Turbines with Reheat

Figure: Ideal gas turbine with reheat.

 Reheating is done to solve the problem of metallurgical limit of the
turbine material to bear high temperature consistently.
 The higher temperature can be controlled by providing air in excess
of the amount required to burn the fuel in the combustor. As a
consequence, the gases exiting the combustor contain sufficient air to
support the combustion of additional fuel.
In the reheat cycle, after expansion from state 3 to state a in the first
turbine, the gas is reheated at constant pressure from state a to state b. The
expansion is then completed in the second turbine from state b to state 4.
The ideal Brayton cycle without reheat, 1–2–3–4/–1, is shown on the same
T–s diagram for comparison. Because lines of constant pressure on a T–s
diagram diverge slightly with increasing entropy, the total work of the two-
stage turbine is greater than that of a single expansion from state 3 to state
4/. Thus, the net work for the reheat cycle is greater than that of the cycle
without reheat.
Despite the increase in net work with reheat, the cycle thermal efficiency
would not necessarily increase because a greater total heat addition would
be required.

However, the temperature at the exit of the turbine is higher with reheat
than without reheat, so the potential for regeneration is enhanced.

Gas Turbines with Intercooling

 The net work output of a gas

turbine also can be increased by
reducing the compressor work
input. This can be accomplished
by means of multistage
Compression with intercooling.
 The work required to compress any fluid in steady-flow process can be
reduced by compressing in stages. This is because cooling the gas reduces
the specific volume (m /kg) and in turn the work required to compress it.
By itself compression with intercooling does not provide a significant
increase in the efficiency of a gas turbine because the temperature at the
combustor inlet would require additional heat transfer to achieve the
desired turbine inlet temperature.

T–s diagrams show the states for internally reversible processes:

Process 1–c: is an isentropic compression from state 1 to state c where
the pressure is Pi
Process c–d: is constant-pressure cooling from temperature Tc to Td
Process d–2: is an isentropic compression to state 2.

On the P-v diagram:

Shaded area 1–c–d–2–a–b–1: The work input per unit of mass flow.
Enclosed area 1–2/–a–b–1: The work input per unit of mass flow without
intercooling (compressed isentropically in a
single stage from state 1 to state 2/).
The crosshatched area: represents the reduction in work that would be
achieved with intercooling.
Problem-1
In an air-standard Brayton Cycle, the air enters the Compressor a 0.1 MPa,
15°C. The pressure leaving the compressor is 1.0 MPa and the maximum
temperature in the cycle is 1100°C. Determine:
1. The pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle.
2. The compressor work, turbine work, back work ratio, net work
developed, thermal efficiency.
Assumptions
1. The model is ideal gas with constant specific heat, at 300 K.
2. Each process is steady state and reversible.
3. No changes in kinetic or potential energy
Solution
Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression
and

Therefore, Compressor work input per unit mass is

Consider the turbine next.

Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion
and
Therefore, Turbine work output per unit mass is

The Net work developed per unit mass is

Back work ratio

= 269.5 / 664.7 = 0.41 ≈ 41%

Now consider the heat exchangers

Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition

Process 4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

Therefore, the thermal efficiency is

This may be checked by using

Problem-2
In the problem-1 above stated, find out the parameters assuming a
compressor efficiency of 80%, a turbine efficiency of 85% and a
pressure drop between the compressor and turbine of 15 kPa.

Solution
First consider the compressor
For ideal process: and

For real process: and

Therefore, Compressor work input per unit mass is

Consider the turbine next.

For ideal process:

For real process: wt = h3 – h4 and

Given that, pressure drop between the compressor and turbine of 15 kPa.
So,

and

Therefore, Turbine work output per unit mass is

The Net work developed per unit mass is

 Back work ratio

= 337 / 562.4 = 0.6 ≈ 60%

Now consider the heat exchangers

Therefore, the thermal efficiency is

Comparing Prob-1 and Prob-2

Problem-3
Determine the parameters by incorporating –
1) an ideal regenerator &
2) a 70% efficient regenerator in problem-2.
Compare the results of Problem-1, 2 and 3
Prob-1:
Calculate the efficiency and specific work output (kW/(kg/sec of air)) of a
simple gas turbine plant operating on the Brayton Cycle. The maximum and
minimum temperatures of the cycle are 1000K and 288K respectively. The
pressure ratio is 6.
a. Calculate the parameters wanted by assuming that, the turbine
and the compressor are ideal.
b. Calculate the parameters wanted if the compressor efficiency is
85% and turbine efficiency is 90%.
Prob-2:
Air enters the compressor of an ideal air-standard Brayton cycle at 100 kPa,
300 K, with a mass flow rate of 5.807 kg/s. The compressor pressure ratio is
10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. Consider compressor and turbine
to be ideal. Determine –
a. The thermal efficiency of the cycle
b. The back work ratio
c. The net power developed, in kW.
Prob-3:
In the problem-2, recalculate the parameters considering a turbine and
compressor efficiency of 80% each.