RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

● system involved in breathing

6 MAJOR FUNCTIONS

1. GAS EXCHANGE
● when we inhale and exhale oxygen in the body
● Inhalation and exhalation
● happens in the air sacs called alveoli

2. REGULATION OF BLOOD IN PH

● Can alter our blood pH by changing the blood carbon dioxide level

3. VOICE PRODUCTION

● The air movement passes our vocal chords and makes sounds and speech
● The air movement and the vibration that is happening when the vocal chords are moving
while the air is passing that is what allows us to produce a sound '

4. OLFACTION

● The sense of smell

● The sensation of smell occurs when odorants drawn into the nasal cavity

5. INNATE IMMUNITY

● Protects us against microorganisms or phatogens such as viruses by preventing these

patogens by entering our body and by removing them from our respiratory surfaces
1. VENTILATION
● inhale and exhale

ANATOMY OR RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

UPPER AND LOWER RESPI TRACT

UPPER RESPI TRACT

● EXTERNAL NOSE
● NASAL CAVITY
● PHARYNX
● LARYNX

1. NOSE- external nose and nasal cavity

Functions:

● Filters the air that we inhale (nasal hair)

● Serves as an airway for our respiration
● Involve in our speech
● Olfactory receptors are located in the parts of our nose
● Warms and humidifies the air
● Initiate sneezing dislodges materials from nose

EXTERNAL NOSE

● visible structure that forms a prominent featue of our nose

● composed of mainly hyaline cartilage
 2. NASAL CAVITY
● extend from the nares (nostrils) to choanae
● CHOANAE- openings to pharynx
● Hard palate is its roof

NASAL SEPTUM

● Partition dividing the nasal cavity into right and left parts

HARD PALATE

● floor of nassal cavity, separating it from the oral cavity

NARES/ NOSTRILS

- external openings of nose

PARANASAL SINUSES

● air filled spaces within bone

● open into nasal cavity
● Lined with mucous
● Air-filled spaces within bone & open into nasal cavity; resonating chambers; reduce
weight of skull, produce mucus and influence the quality of voice
Function:

● reduce the weight of the skull

● Reduce mucous
● Influence the quality of the voice by acting as resonating chamber (nasal singing)

CONCHAE

● on each side of nasal cavity

● Increases surface area of nasal cavity
● Help in cleaning, humidifying, warm of air

NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS

● Carry the tears from eyes

● Opens into the nasal cavity
● SNEEZE REFLEX- performed by the body involuntarily. Happens when very small
substances enters the body (ex. Peppers)

SNEEZE REFLEX

Sneeze Reflex: Foreign substances detected by sensory receptors in superior part of nasal
cavity

Action potentials conducted along trigeminal nerve (V)

Sent to medulla oblongata

Reflex is triggered

Uvula & soft palate are depressed to allow the rapidly flowing air from lungs directly through
nasal passages

Foreign substances dislodged

PROCESSES IN THE NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY

1. Coarse hairs inside the nares & the mucus produced by goblet cells trap large particles.

2. Cilia sweep the debris-laden mucus towards the pharynx, where it is swallowed.
3. Air is warmed by blood vessels underlying the mucous epithelium & humidified by moisture.

Photic Sneeze Reflex / ACHOO (Autosomal-Dominant-Compelling-Helio-Ophthalmic-Outburst) -

stimulated by exposure to bright light; associated with complicated wiring to pupillary reflex
(pupils constrict in response to bright light)

3. PHARYNX (Throat)
● common passageway for respiratory and digestive systems

DIVIDED INTO 3 REGIONS

1. NASOPHARYNX (superior part of pharynx)

● Lined with the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium continuous with nasal cavity;
takes in air
● Located posterior to the choanae and superior to the soft palate
● SOFT PALATE- Is an incomplete muscle and connective tissue partitions separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx
● UVULA- posterior extension of the soft palate
● The little grape
● PHARYNGEAL TONSILS- aids in defendin against infection
1. OROPHARYNX
● Lined with stratified squamous epithelium that extends from uvula to epiglottis where oral
cavity opens; takes in food, drink, and air
● extends from the uvula to epiglottis
● Takes in food drink, and air
1. LARYGOPHARYNX
● extends from epiglottis to esophagus
● Food and drink pass through
● Lined with stratified squamous and ciliated columnar epithelium which passes posterior
to larynx and extends from top of epiglottis to esophagus; food and drink pass through

4. LARYNX

● located in front of the throat and extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea
● Passageway of air between the pharynx and trachea

FUNCTION

1. Maintains an open airway

2. protects the airway during swallowing
3. produces the voice

9 CARTILAGE STRUCTURES

3-UNPAIRED

6- PAIRED
UNPAIRED

THYROID CARTILAGE/ ADAMS APPLE

● Largest
● Attach to hyoid bone
● Opens passageway of for air movement

CRICOID CARTILAGE

● most inferior cartilage that forms the base of the larynx

● Opens passageway for air movement

EPIGLOTTIS

● Piece of cartilage
● Flap that prevents swallowed materials from entering larynx
● Has elastic cartilage
● Protects airway by covering the glottis as larynx elevates during swallowing

VOCAL FOLDS/ CORDS

- source of voice production

- air moves past them, they vibrate, and sound is produced

- force of air determine loudness

- tension determines pitch

Laryngitis- inflammation of larynx, swelling

PAIRED ( from an attachment site for vocal folds)

CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE

● paired on top part

CORNICULATE CARTILAGE

● Paired on middle part

Arytenoid Cartilage

● paired on bottom part

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT

- TRACHEA
- BRONCHI
- LUNGS

TRACHEA
- also known as the windpipe
- Consist of 16-20 C shaped pieces of cartilage
- contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- smoking kills cilia
- coughing dislodges materials from the trachea
- protects through mediastinum
- Divides into rights and left primary bronchi (lungs) at level of 5th thoracic cartilage
- connecting the pharynx and larynx allowing the air to flow
BRONCHI
- divide from trachea
- connected to lungs
- lined with cilia
- contain c shaped pieces of cartilage
LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS
- more horizontal due to displacement from hearts location
RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS
- wider, shorter, more vertical, more in direct line with trachea

LUNGS
- primary organ of respiration
- principal organ in respiration
- cone-shaped with its base resting in diaphragm and apex extending superiorly to a point
about 2.5 cm above clavicle
- right lung has 3 lobes
- left lung has 2 lobes
- contains many passageways (division)
AIR PASSAGEWAY OF LUNGS/ TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE
- PRIMARY/ MAIN BRONCHI
- LOBAR (SECONDARY) BRONCHI
- SEGMENTAL (TERTIARY) BRONCHI
- BRONCHIOLES
- TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
- RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
- ALVEOLAR DUCTS
- ALEOLI
BRONCHOPULMONARY SEGMENT
- division of each lobe which separated from one another by connective tissue septa
- not visible as surface fissures
- right lung has 10 segments while left has 9

ALVEOLI
- small air sacs
- small air-filled chambers where the air and blood come into close contact with each
other
- where gas exchange happen
- 300 million in lungs
Conditions:
ASTHMA ATTACK
- Contraction of terminal bronchioles leads to reduced airflow

RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
- Formed by walls of of alveoli & capillaries where gas exchange takes place
- in lungs where gas exchange between air and blood occurs
- alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles also contribute
- very thin for diffusion of gases
- consist of two layers of simple squamous including alveolar fluid & separating spaces
LAYERS:
- Thin layer of alveoli fluid
- alveolar epithelium (simple squamous)
 - basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
- thin intestinal spaces
- basement membrane of capillary endothelium
- capillary endothelium (simple squamous)

PLEURAL MEMBRANES AND CAVITY

PLEURAL CAVITY
- spaces around each lung
- lined with serous membrane called pleura that consist of parietal pleura & visceral pleura
PLEURA
- double layered membrane around lungs
PARIETAL PLEURA
- membrane that lines thoracic cavity
VISCERAL PLEURA
- Membrane that covers lung’s surface

PLEURAL FLUID FUNCTIONS

1. Acts as lubricants allowing the parietal & visceral pleura to slide past each other as lungs
and thorax change shape during respiration
2. helps hold the pleural membranes together

VENTILATILATION/ BREATHING
- process of moving air in and out of lungs
- regulated by changes in thoracic volume, which, produce changes in air pressure within
lungs
- uses diaphragm: skeletal muscle that separates thoracic and abdominal cavities

PHASES:
INSPIRATION-
- Breath in
- uses external intercostal muscles
- movement of air in the lungs

EXPIRATION
- breath out
- uses internal intercostal muscles
- movement of air out the lungs

● the normal pressure present in our lungs is negative pressure

 STRUCTURE INSPIRATION/ INHALATION EXPIRATION/ EXHALATION

Thoracic Cavity Volume Increases Decreases

Atmospheric Pressure higher Lower

Alveolar Pressure lower higher

Diaphragm contracts to move inferiorly to relaxes in quiet expiration

expand the rib cage

External Intercostals contracts to elevate rib & relaxes

sternum

Internal Intercostals relaxes contracts in forceful

exhalation to depress ribs
and sternum

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIRFLOW INTO & OUT OF LUNGS

1. Changes in volume results in changes in pressure
- as the thoracic cavity volume increases, the pressure decreases
- inversely proportional

2. Air flows from areas of high to low pressure (DIFFUSION)

- the greater the pressure difference, thee greater the rate of air flow
- directly proportional

INSPIRATION EXPIRATION

Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils

Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure Thoracic cavity volume decreases,

decreases pressure increases

Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) Alveolar pressure is greater than (high)
alveolar pressure (low) atmospheric pressure (low)

Air moves into alveoli (lungs) Air moves out of lungs

Lung Recoil
- tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size
- Occurs during quiet expiration,
- due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining alveoli
Factors that Keep the Lungs from Collapsing

1. Surfactant
- mixture of lipoprotein molecules
- produced by secretory cells of alveoli epithelium that reduces the surface tension
- keeps lungs from collapsing

2. Pleural Pressure
- pressure in pleural cavity
- normally less than alveolar pressure to expand alveoli which is caused by fluid removal
by lymphatic system & by lung recoil
- keep alveoli from collapsing

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PULMONARY VENTILATION

LUNG ELASTICITY
- Lungs needs to recoil between ventilations
- Decreased by emphysema
- EMPHYSEMA- type of copd
- the air sacs are damaged
LUNG COMPLIANCE
- expansion of thoracic cavity
- affected if rib cage is damaged

RESPIRATORY PASSAGEWAY RESISTANCE

-occurs during an asthma attack, infection, tumor
Spirometry
- process of measuring volumes of air that move into & out of respiratory systems.
Spirometer
- the device that measures these respiratory volumes (measures of the amount of air
movement during different portions of ventilation).

RESPIRATORY/ PULMONARY VOLUMES

- measures of amount of air movement during different portions of ventilation
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
- the sum of two or more respiratory volumes

Four Respiratory Volumes:

Tidal Volume (TV)- air inspired/expired with each breath: about 500 ml at rest.
- normal
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)-air that can be inspired forcefully after a normal inspiration,
about 3L.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) - amount of air that can be expired forcefully after a normal
expiration; about 1.1L
Residual Volume (RV) -remaining air after maximum expiration: about 1.2L

PULMONARY CAPACITIES
FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY
- FRC= ERV + RV. 2300ML
INSPIRATORY CAPACITY
- IC= TV + IRV
VITAL CAPACITY (VC)- about 4600 ml
- VC= IRV + ERV+ TV
TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC)
- TLC= IRV + ERV+ TV+ RV
- TLC= VC+ RV
-

- TIDAL VOLUME
- INSPIRATORY
 - EXPIRATORY

Respiratory Capacities
- sums of two or more respiratory volumes; total volume of air contained ranges from 4 to
6 L.

Functional Residual Capacity

- expiratory reserve volume + residual volume
Inspiratory Capacity
- tidal volume inspiratory reserve volume

Vital Capacity
- tidal volume inspiratory & expiratory reserve volume

Total Lung Capacity

- tidal residual + inspiratory reserve expiratory reserve volumes

Forced Expiratory Vital Capacity

- rate at which lung volume changes during direct measurement of vital capacity.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PULMONARY VOLUMES
- GENDER
- AGE
- HEIGHT
- WEIGHT

GAS EXCHANGE

RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
- where gas exchange occur

- primarily in alveoli and some in respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts

- influenced by thickness of membrane, total area of membrane, partial pressure of gases

- Increased thickness decreases rate of diffusion
- Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion
- there is a fluid accumulation in the pulmonary area
- Rate of gas exchange is decreased
- O₂ exchange is affected before CO₂ because CO₂ diffuse more easily than O₂

● the thicker the respiratory membrane is the lower the rate of diffusion or gas exchange
because the surface o penetrate is too thick making it to harder for the gasses to pass
easily
Surface Area

- Total surface area is 70 square meters

- Decreased due to removal of lung tissue, destruction from cancer, emphysema

Partial Pressure
- pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of gases
- Ex. Total pressure of all gasses is 760 (mm Hg) and 21% of mixture is O₂ then partial
pressure for O₂ is 160 mm Hg
symbol is P and gas (Po₂)

Diffusion of Gases in...

Lungs

Cells in body use O_{2} and produce CO₂

1. Blood returning from tissues and entering lungs has a decreased P*O_{2} and increased
Pco₂

2. O_{2} diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries (blood)

3. C*O_{2} diffuses from capillaries into alveoli

Tissues

Blood flow from lungs through left side of heart to tissue capillaries

1. Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into interstitial fluid because P o2 in interstitial fluid is lower
than capillary

2. Oxygen diffuses from interstitial fluid into cells ( P 2 ) is less

]
Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH

• CO, diffuses from cells into capillaries

• CO₂ enters blood and is transported in plasma, comb. with blood proteins, bicarbonate ions

• CO₂ reacts with water to form carbonic acid then forms H+ + bicarbonate ions

Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of CO, reacting with water

CO₂ levels increase blood pH decreases

Rhythmic Ventilation

• Normal respiration rate is 12- 20 resp. per minute (adults)

Controlled by neurons in medulla oblongata

Rate is determined by the number of times resp. muscles are stimulated

Nervous Control of Breathing

➤ Higher brain centers allow voluntary breathing

➤ Emotions and speech affect breathing

Hering-Breuer Reflex:

➤ inhibits respiratory center when lungs are stretched during inspiration

Chemical Control of Breathing

• Chemoreceptors in medulla

oblongata respond to changes in blood pH

• Blood pH are produced by changes in blood CO₂ levels

• An increase in CO₂ causes

decreased pH, result is increased breathing

Low blood levels of O₂ stimulate chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies, increased
breathing