Continuous Functions

5.1.1 Definition Let A  R lit let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R lit and let c  A. We say that
f is continuous at c if, given any number  > 0 there exists  > 0 such that if x
is any point of A satisfying

x - c < , then  f (x) - f (c)  <  .

If f fails to be continuous at c , then we say that f is discontinuous at c.

⎯→ R . is continuous at a point c  A if and

5.1.2 Theorem A function , f : A ⎯
only if given any  -neighborhood V ( f (c)) of f (c), there exists a
 -neighborhood V (c) = (c −  , c +  ) of c such that if x is any point
x V (c)  A , then f (x) belongs to V ( f (c))

Remark (1) : If c  A is a cluster point o f A, then a comparison of Definitions

4.1 .4 and 5.1.1 show that f is continuous at c if and only if
. lim f ( x) = f (c)
x →c

Thus, if c is a cluster point of A, then three conditions must hold for f to be

continuous at c:
(i) f must be defined at c
(ii) the limit of f at c must exist in R and
(iii) these two values must be equal

(2) If c  A is not a cluster point of A, then there exists a neighborhood V(c) of

c such that V (c)  A = {c}. Thus we conclude that a function f is
automatically continuous at a point c  A that is not a cluster point of A. the
points are often called "isolated points" of A.

5.1.3 Sequential Criterion for Continuity A function , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R is
continuous at the point c  A if and only if for every sequence (xn) in A that
converges to c, the sequence (f (xn)) converges to f (c).

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5.1.4 Discontinuity Criterion Let A  R let , f : A ⎯ ⎯→ R , and let c  A.
Then f is discontinuous at c if and only if there exists a sequence (xn) in A such
that (xn) converges to c, but the sequence (f (xn )) does not converge to f (c).

5.1.5 Definition Let A  R and let , f : A ⎯ ⎯→ R If B is a subset of A, we

say that f is continuous on the set B if f is continuous at every point of B.
Examples
(a) The constant function f(x) = b is continuous on R

It was seen in Example 4.1 .7(a) that if c R, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = b.
𝑥→𝑐

Since f(c) = b, we have lim f ( x) = f (c) , and thus f is continuous at every

x →c

point c  R Therefore f is continuous on R

(b) g(x) = x is continuous on R

It was seen in Example 4.1 .7(b) that if c R, then we have lim 𝑓(𝑥) = c .
𝑥→𝑐
Since g(c) = c ,then g is continuous at every point c  R Thus g is continuous
on R
(c) h(x) = x2 is continuous on R

It was seen in Example 4.1.7(c) that if cR, then we have lim 𝑓(𝑥) = c2 .
= c2 𝑥→𝑐

Since h(c) = c2 , then h is continuous at every point c R .Thus h is continuous

>
on R
(d)f (x) = 1/x is not continuous at x = 0
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proof : if f ( x) = , for x > 0, then f is not defined for x = 0, so it cannot be
x
1
continuous at x = 0 . and,(it was seen in Example 4.1.l )) lim (a) that does not
x→0 x

exist in R ,
so f (x) = 1/x cannot be continuous at x = 0.

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5.1.7 Remarks: Sometimes a function , f : A ⎯ ⎯→ R , f is not continuous at a
point c because it is not defined at this point. However, if the function f has a
limit L at the point c and if we define F : A  {c} → R by

L for x = c
F ( x) = 
 f ( x) for x  A

then F is continuous at c
Ex

a) f ( x) = sin 1x , at x = 0
1
b) g ( x) = x sin , at x = 0
x
Solution : a) The function g(x) : = sin(1/x) for x ≠ 0 does not have a limit at
x = 0 (see (Example 4.1.1( c)) . Thus there is no value that we can assign at
x = 0 to obtain a continuous extension of g at x = 0.

(b) Let f (x) = x sin(1/x) for x ≠ o. (See Figure) Since f is not defined a x = 0,
the function f cannot be continuous at this point.
1
But , ((it was seen in Example 4.2.8(f) )) that lim x sin( ) = 0 . Therefore , we
x →0 x
can define F : R → R by
 0 for x = 0
F ( x) =  1
 x sin( x ) for x  0

then F is continuous at x = 0.

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Exercises 5.1: ( 5,7, 13 )

5.2.1 Theorem Let A  R , let f and g be functions on A to R, and let

b  R Suppose that c  A and that f and g are continuous at c.
(a) Then f + g, f - g, f g, and bf are continuous at c.

⎯→ R is continuous at c  A and if h (x) ≠ 0 for all x  A, then

(b) If , f : A ⎯
the quotient f / h is continuous at c.

Proof. If c  A is not a cluster point of A, then the conclusion is automatic.

Hence we assume that c is a cluster point of A.
(a) Since f and g are continuous at c, then
lim f ( x) = f (c) and g(c) = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
x →c 𝑥→𝑐

Hence it follows from Theorem 4.2.4(a) that

lim (𝑓 + 𝑔) = lim 𝑓 + lim 𝑔 = f(c) + g(c) =(f + g)(c)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Therefore f + g is continuous at c.
The remaining assertions in part (a) are proved in a similar fashion.

(b) Since c  A, then h(c) ≠ 0. But since , it follows from

Theorem 4.2.4(b) that

. Therefore 1/ h is continuous at c

5.2.2 Theorem Let A  R , let f and g be continuous on A to R , and let b  R

(a) The functions f + g, f - g, f g, and bf are continuous on A.

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 ⎯→ R is continuous on A and h (x) ≠ 0 for x  A, then the
(b) If , f : A ⎯
quotient f / h is continuous on A.
Ex :
a) a polynomial function p(x) is continuous on R
.b) Rational functions
If p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions on R , then there are at most a finite
number 𝛼1 , … , 𝛼𝑚 of real roots of q .

If x  { 𝛼1 , … , 𝛼𝑚 }. then q(x) ≠ 0 so that we can define the rational function

p( x)
r by a rational function r ( x) = for x  { 𝛼1 , … , 𝛼𝑚 }
q( x)

If q(c) ≠ 0 Then
𝑝(𝑐) 𝑝(𝑥)
𝑟(𝑐) = = lim = lim 𝑟(𝑥)
𝑞(𝑐) 𝑥→𝑐 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑐

i.e r(x) is continuous at c.

Since c is any real number that is not a root of q, we infer that is continuous
at every real number for which it is defined.
Example :(
c) sine function is continuous on R
Proof :

(c ) For all x, y, z  R we have:

 sin z  ≤ z  ,  cos z≤ 1 ,

sin x - sin y = 2 sin [1/2 (x - y)] cos [1/2(x + y)] .

Hence if c  R, then we have

 sin x - sin c  = 2 sin [1/2 (x - c)] cos [1/2(x + c)] ≤ .2 · 1/2 x - c . 1 = x - c .

By choose =  then for given  we have

 x-c  <   sinx - sin c  ≤ x - c < 

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Therefore sin is continuous at c. Since c  R is arbitrary, it follows that sin is
continuous on R._________________

5.2.4 Theorem Let A  R , let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R , and let f be defined by
f ( x) = f ( x) for x  A.

(a) If f is continuous at a point c  A, then f is continuous at c.

(b) If f is continuous on A, then f is continuous on A.

5.2.5 Theorem Let A  R , let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R ,, and let f ( x)  0 for all x  A.
We let ( f ) be defined for x  A by ( f )( x) = f ( x) .

(a) If f is continuous at a point c  A, then ( f ) is continuous at c.

(b) If f is continuous on A, then ( f ) is continuous on A.

⎯→ R and , g : B ⎯
5.2.6 Theorem Let A, B  Rand let , f : A ⎯ ⎯→ R be
functions such that f (A)  B. If f is continuous at a point c  A and g is

continuous at b = f (c)  B, then the composition g  f : A ⎯

⎯→ R is
continuous at c.

5.2.7 Theorem Let A, B  R, let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R be continuous on A, and let
g: B → R be continuous on B . If f (A)  B, then the composite function
g o f :A⎯
⎯→ R is continuous on A.

5.2.8 Examples

(a)Proof g (x) =  x  for x  R is continuous .

It follows from the Triangle Inequality that

 g (x) - g (c) = | |x | - | c | | ≤  x – c for all x , c  R

For given  > 0 and by choose =  then we have

If  x – c <    g (x) - g (c) | ≤  x – c < 

Hence  g  is continuous at c  R.
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( Now we proof (5.2.4 Theorem)

⎯→ R is any function that is continuous on A and g (x) =  x  , then

If , f : A ⎯
Theorem 5.2.7 implies that g o f = g ( f ) =  f  is continuous on A.

(b) )( Now we proof ( 5.2.5 Theorem)

Let g ( x) = x , for x ≥ 0. It follows from Theorems 3.2.10 and 5.1.3 that g is

continuous at any number c ≥ 0.

⎯→ R is continuous on A and if f (x) ≥ 0 for all x  A, then it

If , f : A ⎯
follows from Theorem 5.2.7 that g o f = g (f ) = ( f ) is continuous on A.
1
(c) h(x) = sin ( ) , x ≠ 0
𝑥

Solution:

Exercises 5.2: (5,7,15)

5.3.1 Definition A function , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R is said to be bounded on A if there
exists a constant M > 0 such that  f (x)  ≤ M for all x  A.
In other words: a function is bounded on a set if its range is a bounded set in R

A function f is not bounded on the set A if given any M > 0, there exists a
point xM  A such that  f (xM)  > M.
We often say that f is unbounded on A in this case.
5.3.2 Boundedness Theoremt: Let I = [a, b] be a closed bounded interval and
let f : I → R. be continuous on I . Then f is bounded on I
Ex:
(i) The interval must be bounded. The function f (x) = x for x in the
unbounded, closed interval A = [0, ∞) is continuous but not bounded on A.
(ii) The interval must be closed. The function g(x) = l /x for x in the half-open

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interval B = (0, 1] is continuous but not bounded on B.
(iii) The function must be continuous. The function h defined on the closed
interval C = [0, 1 ] by

 1
, for x  (0,1]
h( x ) =  x
 1 ,x =0

is discontinuous and unbounded on C.

5.3.3 Definition Let A  R. and let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R We say that f has an
absolute maximum on A if there is a point x*  A such that

f (x*) ≥ f (x) for all x  A .

We say that f has an absolute minimum on A if there is a point x  A such

that

f ( x ) ≤ f (x) for all x  A .

We say that x* is an absolute maximum point for f on A, and that x is an

absolute minimum point for f on A, if they exist.
5.3.4 Maximum-Minimum Theorem: Let I = [a, b] be a closed bounded
interval and let , f : I ⎯
⎯→ R be continuous on I . Then f has an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum on I .

5.3.5 Location of Roots Theorem: Let I = [a, b] and let , f : I ⎯ ⎯→ R be

continuous on I . If f (a) < 0 < f (b), or if f (a) > 0 > f (b), then there exists a
number c  (a , b) such that f (c) = 0
------------------------

5.4.1 Definition: Let A  R and let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R We say that f is uniformly
continuous on A if for each  > 0 there is a  () > 0 such that if x, u  A are
any numbers satisfying  x – u  <  (), then  f (x) – f (u) < 

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It is clear that if f is uniformly continuous on A, then it is continuous at every
point of A

5.4.2 Nonuniform Continuity Criteria: Let A  R and let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R
Then the following statements are equivalent:
(i) f is not uniformly continuous on A.

(ii) There exists an  > 0 such that for every  > 0 there are points x , u in A
such that

x − u   and f ( x ) − f (u )  

(iii) There exists an  > 0 and two sequences (xn) and (un) in A such that

lim(xn - un) = 0 and  f (xn) – f (un) ≥  for all n  N.

Ex: We can apply this result to show that g(x) = 1/x is not uniformly
continuous on A = {x  R : x > 0}.
For, if xn = l/n and un = 1/(n + 1), then we have lim(xn - un) = 0,

but  g(xn) - g(un) = 1 for all n  N.

then g(x) = 1/x is not uniformly continuous on A
1
Ex : Show that the function f ( x) = is uniformly continuous on the set
x
A = [a, 0) , where a is a positive constant
Proof :

5.4.3 Uniform Continuity Theorem Let I be a closed bounded interval and

let , f : I ⎯
⎯→ R be continuous on I . Then f is uniformly continuous on I

5.4.4 Definition Let A  R and let , f : A ⎯

⎯→ R . If there exists a constant
K > 0 such that

 f (x) – f (u) ≤ K  x – u 

9
for all x, u  A , then f is said to be a Lipschitz function (‫( دالة ليبشز‬

(or to satisfy a Lipschitz condition) on A.

5.4.5 Theorem If , f : A ⎯
⎯→ R is a Lipchitz function, then f is uniformly
continuous on A.

Proof. If Lipschitz condition is satisfied,:  f (x) – f (u) ≤ K  x – u 

Then, for given  > 0, we can choose  =  / K.


Now, if x, u  A satisfy  x - u  < , then  f (x) – f (u)< . K < K = .
K
This proves that f is uniformly continuous on A.
5.4.6 Examples (a) If f (x) = x2 on A = [0, b], where b > 0, then

 f (x) – f (u) =  x + u  x – u  ≤ 2b  x - u
for all x, u in [0, b]. Thus f satisfies Lipschitz condition with K = 2b on A, and
therefore f is uniformly continuous on A.
Of course, since f is continuous and A is a closed bounded interval, this can
also be deduced from the Uniform Continuity Theorem.
(Note that f (x) = x2 does not satisfy a Lipschitz condition on the interval
[0, ∞).)
Exercises 5.4: (1, 10 )
=============================

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