Diagnosis, Remediation, and Error

Correction for Mathematics:

AUTHORS
Scott A. Dueker
Jill D. Grande

Journal of Special
Education Preparation
© 2024 Advanced Online Publication
Licensed with CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 License
DOI: https://doi.org/10.33043/z4rb22qd

BALL STATE UNIVERSITY & TEACHER EDUCATION DIVISION

ABSTRACT
Instructors Mathematics is a core academic subject, regardless of grade level or setting. Everyone
of preservice uses mathematics in their everyday life, so being competent in basic mathematics
teachers should is critical to independent living. One thing teachers can do to ensure learners are
learning the mathematics concepts being taught is to diagnose and remediate the
embed discussions and
errors they are seeing. This skill involves digging deeper into the work of the learners
practice with diagnosis
and looking for error patterns. Unfortunately, this skill is not a focus of mathematics
and remediation into every
instruction courses that pre-service teachers (PSTs) take in their program. This article
mathematical concept is aimed at mathematics instruction faculty and describes three main error types as
taught in the class. By well as what to do when they are identified.
providing this additional
instruction to preservice
teachers, faculty may KEYWORDS
reduce their mathematics Diagnosis, errors, mathematics, pre-service teachers, remediation
anxiety, increase their
content knowledge,
and provide a way for

N
preservice teachers umbers are everywhere: phone numbers and addresses, prices at the store,
to understand their recipes for cooking, and sizes for clothing, to name just a few. Interpreting
learners’ mathematical these numbers and manipulating them through operations and analysis to
understanding. provide meaning are important life skills. However, teaching mathemat-
ics, particularly to learners in special education, can be a difficult process. What, at
face value, seem to be simple concepts can be problematic for some learners. The
ability to complete basic operational computations can set up a learner for vocational
opportunities and independent living (Newman et al., 2009). For learners in special
education environments, these skills often do not come easy (Browder & Spooner,
2006, 2011). According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NEAP)
testing, scores for mathematics for learners with disabilities have fallen each admin-
istration since peaking in 2007 for third-grade learners and 2011 for eighth-grade
learners (U.S. Department of Education, 2022). Teachers need to carefully plan
instruction with the idea that all learners have the ability to learn as long as the most
appropriate methods are chosen. Learning the most effective ways to provide that
instruction comes during their pre-service teaching programs.
Fluency with basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division)
is a critical skill learners need to be able to complete more advanced mathematical
tasks. Codding et al. (2017) suggested that fluency with basic fact retrieval can be
positively related to math performance through high school. They also suggested
that learners without that fact fluency struggle to perform the computational tasks
required for things like word problems and data analysis. Operations can pose prob-
lems for learners who are not fluent in basic facts. However, as a classroom teacher,
there are two things you can do to redress the situation. Diagnosis and remediation
of learner errors can allow instruction to be individualized to the learner or groups
of learners with similar error patterns. Riccomini (2005) found that teachers did not
look for error patterns or adjust instruction based on error analysis for subtraction
problems, instead focusing on reteaching basic facts. For this reason, discussion of
diagnosis and remediation strategies should occur during the pre-service teacher
(PST) preparation program as part of mathematics teaching instruction. In mathe-
matics courses for PSTs, diagnosis and remediation need to be considered as import-
ant as the pedagogy itself.
 DUEKER AND GRANDE | 3

Diagnosis refers to identifying the of the skill, reducing the amount of those with higher levels of pedagogical
error type the learner is making. An time the learner will practice errors and content knowledge were less likely to
initial grading based on problems com- increasing the fluency with which the experience anxiety and felt higher levels
pleted incorrectly can be utilized, but the learner completes the skill. As previ- of teaching efficacy. This suggests that
additional step of identifying the errors ously mentioned, these error types will providing PSTs with coursework aimed
will allow teachers to specifically target present differently and be consistent as at addressing their self-efficacy and
problems for the learners (Kubina & errors on worksheets. anxiety can yield better instruction when
Yurick, 2012). If a learner makes many they enter the classroom. This improved
errors on a worksheet, the teacher may Evidence-Based Practices and self-efficacy can have an important
not need to examine each incorrect re- High-Leverage Practices impact on learners down the road.
sponse to identify that error type. These Education law requires the use of In their longitudinal study of 113
errors will generally follow a predict- evidence-based practices (EBPs) in the children, Vukovic et al. (2013) suggest-
able pattern, with some slight variance. classroom. According to the Every Stu- ed that effective instruction for learners
However, one error type will generally dent Succeeds Act, teachers should look may need to include aspects of explicit
be dominant for a learner and guide the for practices that meet one of the two instruction, review and practice, and
planning for remediation. A minimum of highest levels of evidence (Every Stu- connection to provide relevance. The
three data points are required to iden- dent Succeeds Act, 2015). In addition, relevance provided by teaching the
tify a trend (Collins, 2012). However, research has identified certain practices, material in a way that connects with the
Browder and Spooner (2011) suggested called high-leverage practices (HLPs), learner’s life connects the concepts with
six data points since using the intersec- as particularly important in the delivery familiar things and allows for greater
tion method for drawing a trend line of quality instruction (McLeskey et understanding (Herron et al., 2009).
requires six points, and the trend is an al., 2017). Twelve of 22 HLPs relate to Instruction designed to build skills rather
important indicator of learning. If the instruction. The more of these practices than be regurgitated on a test will be
error types are consistent across the first that are taught to PSTs who bring them more beneficial for the learner. This is
few problems, there is a high likelihood to the classroom, the higher the quality important for inclusion courses prepar-
that the issue has been identified, and of the instruction learners will receive. ing PSTs for mathematics instruction.
the teacher can plan for remediation Instructors of PSTs should include these
without assessing the remaining missed in their course design. ERROR ANALYSIS
problems. In determining why errors are occur-
Remediation is the process of applying PST Preparation ring, Hudson and Miller (2006) suggest-
an intervention that is aimed at correct- During teacher preparation programs, ed looking first at whether the learner is
ing errors (Merriam-Webster, 2022). PSTs are required to take different types making errors due to carelessness or not
There are three main types of errors that of mathematics courses to help them knowing the procedures. This suggests
learners make (Hudson & Miller, 2006; develop a basic understanding of the ma- that teachers should pay particular
Kubina & Yurick, 2012; Stein et al., terial they will need when they transition attention to the presentation of the lesson
2018). Although the names of these error to the classroom. Not all PSTs enter their and how learners are engaged with the
types vary slightly, they have common teaching programs with the same level material. Carelessness can come from
descriptions. Hudson and Miller (2006) of teaching self-efficacy. Many PSTs poor-quality instruction. Kenny (1980)
refer to them as factual, procedural, and have had poor experiences with mathe- identified several components of instruc-
conceptual errors. Kubina and Yurick matics in their academic careers, leading tion common to a high-quality instruc-
(2012) and Stein et al. (2018) call them to negative attitudes toward mathematics tional format, including pacing, choral
fact, component-skill, or strategy errors. and the potential for modeling anxiety responding, and corrective feedback.
These three error types can provide the in their instruction (Olson & Stoehr, For some learners, slower pacing can
teacher with information about where 2019). Mathematics anxiety can lead to lead to inattention. Hudson and Miller
the learner falls in relation to the cur- PSTs opting for teaching grades with (2006) posited this inattention can lead
rent lesson. Because these error types easier mathematics or focusing on areas to a lack of understanding during
increase in complexity, deciphering the without mathematics included. Howev- instruction or carelessness in completing
error type for the learner will give the er, according to Aksu and Kul (2019), the work. After ruling out simple
teacher a starting point for remediation a survey of over 400 PSTs found that carelessness, teachers can then focus on
issues related
4 | JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PREPARATION

FIGURE 1: Workflow Diagram of Diagnosis and Remediation Process When working with PSTs in the class-
room, there are a few ways to practice
this step. First, the PSTs can use exist-
ing permanent products. These can be
obtained from local school classrooms
if access is permitted. They can also
be generated from the computer. This
exercise could be treated like a lesson,
with some practice before a graded
quiz. Another method, using technolo-
gy, could be creating a simple Kahoot!
(https://getkahoot.com/) for the PSTs to
complete in class (Wang & Tahir, 2020).
Kahoot! (2023) is a game-based appli-
cation that requires participants to use a
handheld device or computer to respond
to questions. The instructor can create
problems with different error types and
Note: Created based on Witzel, B.S., Riccomini, P.J., & Herlong, M. L. (2012). Building number sense through the common core. Corwin Press. give the PSTs time to review each prob-
lem and decide on the error type, choos-
to procedural knowledge. guide the instruction to reach learners ing an option provided. PST responses
As mentioned previously, diagnosis who may be struggling. When evaluat- are anonymous individually, but Kahoot!
and remediation are important steps ing learner work, teachers should first does show correct and incorrect respons-
in the learning process. Witzel et al. determine whether the learner has identi- es. This allows the instructor to provide
(2013) described four distinct steps a fied the correct response. The number of immediate corrective feedback without
teacher should follow to provide the best problems answered correctly is not the calling attention to anyone specifically
outcomes for their learners, as described only metric used to determine learning. (Plump & LaRosa, 2017).
in Figure 1. The first step is to collect Because incorrect procedures can still However, these recommendations
some sort of permanent product from result in correct responses, counting the do not allow for Howell et al.’s (1993)
the learner. This most often looks like number of incorrectly answered prob- suggestion to include the learner in the
worksheets completed independently. lems on a worksheet can tell the teacher analysis process. They also recommend
As with any type of data analysis, only how successfully the learner com- looking for exceptions to the common
examin-ing only one instance is not pleted the work. To evaluate the level error patterns. These exceptions can be
enough to determine patterns. Several of understanding of those mathematical things like getting the correct response
instances of the learner’s work need to concepts, the teacher needs to examine despite not following the typical algo-
be com-pared. Teaching PSTs the each incorrect response to identify the rithm for solving the problem. If the
importance of data-based decision- error type the learner is exhibiting (For- teacher only looks at the answer, they
making during class can reinforce the bringer & Fuchs, 2014). Howell et al. will miss the fact the learner did not
point. Modeling, an EBP, can be helpful (1993) suggested that having the learner completely understand how to complete
in this regard. As an instructor of PSTs, demonstrate and explain their work can the problem.
you will be collecting some permanent be a helpful additional step in identifying Once error patterns have been iden-
product from your learners based on the the cause of errors. This can guide the tified, teachers need to create plans to
assignments in your class. You can additional instruction the learner might target instruction for that learner, focus-
model data-based decision-making by need moving forward. For an already ing on addressing the errors (Witzel et
describing how grades are calculated overworked teacher, this sounds like al., 2013). This third step in the process
and how the errors are used to drive an additional burden. However, if done is critical because teachers will identify
future content. correctly, it can reduce the overall teach- potential missing prerequisite skills that
The second step is to identify errors in ing load by focusing instruction where must be explicitly taught. When these
the work (Witzel et al., 2013). Identify- needed to improve correct responding skills are identified, and instruction is
ing error patterns is important to help and concept acquisition. focused on improving them, the learner
 DUEKER AND GRANDE | 5

FIGURE 2: Potential error points in two mathematical operations effect. This creates a circular workflow
(see Figure 1) that guides the teacher
1. Add the two numerals in the ones column through a continual process of evaluat-
2. Place the ones digit from the result below the line ing the teaching process used for that
under the ones column lesson. Although the key step in the pro-
3. Place the tens digit from the result above the top cess is identifying the errors the learner
numeral in the tens column
is making, it is just as important for the
4. Add two numerals in the tens column together
teacher to create an appropriate way to
5. Add the additional numeral above the tens column
to the result teach the skill that may be leading to
6. Place the result below the line under the tens the error. In a PST program, teaching
column this cycle should be included with each
topic taught so the PSTs gain experience
completing the cycle with each type of
1. Multiply the two numerals in the ones column
mathematical concept.
2. Place the ones digit from the result below the line under
the ones column A formal task analysis, an EBP, can
3. Place the tens digit from the result above the top be useful in teaching and be presented
numeral in the tens column
to learners in forms like graphic orga-
4. Multiply top numeral in the tens column and the lower
numeral in the ones column nizers. Task analysis is also a HLP that
5. Add the numeral above the tens column to the result (if is similar to systematically designing
applicable) instruction toward a specific learning
6. Place the new result below the line with the ones digit
in the result under the tens column and the tens digit in
goal or scaffolded supports (McLeskey
the result next to it (if applicable) et al., 2017). It can also be just as help-
7. Add a placeholder 0 under the ones column. ful for teachers in identifying the errors
8. Multiply the lower numeral in the tens column and the learners make on their formative assess-
upper numeral in the ones column
9. Place the ones digit from the result under the tens digit
ments. Task analysis is simply breaking
column a multi-step job into its most simple
10. Place the tens digit from the result above the tens components, the sequential combination
column above the line
of which completes the task (Cooper et
11. Multiply the lower numeral in the tens column and the
upper numeral in the tens column al., 2020). Math textbooks may provide
12. Add the numeral above the tens column to the result (if suggested task analyses, or they can be
applicable)
situation-specific. By examining the
13. Place the new result
individual steps required to complete
14. Add the numerals in the ones column between the lines
15. Place the ones digit from the result under the lower line
the problem, teachers may be able to
16. Place any tens digit from the result above the top find the patterns in learners’ responses
numeral in the tens column between the lines that lead to errors. Additionally, it can
17. Add all numerals in the tens column provide guidance on what specific skills
18. Place the ones digit from the result under the tens
column
would need to be taught to remediate
19. Place any tens digit from the result above the top the errors. Figure 2 shows an example
numeral in the hundreds column between the lines of the potential number of responses
20. Add the numerals in the hundreds column a learner must make to complete two
21. Place the result under the hundreds column below the
lower line
different mathematical operations. Each
step is a point at which the learner could
possibly make an error.
is more likely to be successful with that weaker skills, the PSTs may design more The idea of diagnosis and remediation
process in the future. This step is critical comprehensive lesson plans moving through task analysis stems from error
for moving the learners forward. As- forward. prediction theory in consumer ergonom-
signments in the PST mathematics class Finally, Witzel et al. (2013) recom- ics (Stanton & Baber, 2005). Knowing
may focus on lesson planning. Referring mended that teachers continue to mon- the points at which errors may be made
to previous lessons to reteach missing itor learner performance to ensure the can allow for more effective, directed
skills or provide additional practice to additional instruction has the intended teaching. In the addition problem, there
6 | JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PREPARATION

are seven possible points at which the plex mathematical concepts in the future easier facts should be introduced first,
learner can make an error. The task (Gersten & Chard, 1999). Fluency is the followed by related facts, and then re-
requires several prerequisite skills, ability to recall information quickly and verse facts (Stein et al., 2018). Because
including vertical addition, addition correctly (Baroody, 2011). In addition, of the inverse relation between addition
with carrying, and knowledge of place fluency exercises can be added to Tier 2 and subtraction as well as multiplication
value. Errors in any one of the steps can and Tier 3 interventions in a RtI/MTSS and division, concurrently introducing
result in an incorrect final calculation. framework. Teachers often post basic both can create some problems for
For the multiplication problem, the math facts as tables in their classrooms. learners. By teaching basic math facts in
learner can make an error in any one of These tables can be helpful prompts for this particular order, the learner practices
21 different spots. Because the operation learners as they work to acquire fluency sets that are different enough to avoid
requires knowledge and execution of with the facts. confusion. Sets with similar responses
both multiplication and addition, there Errors with basic facts are gener- are introduced later once the learner is
is a greater likelihood of an error during ally obvious and follow predictable more fluent in the initial sets. Discrim-
initial teaching. Again, several prereq- patterns. Fact errors normally require ination practice can be achieved by
uisite skills are required to successfully only additional practice on those math including mastered problems with those
complete the problem. Learners must be facts; however, this may need to be in acquisition.
able to distinguish between multiplica- specifically targeted toward the error Manipulatives are another tool that
tion and addition parts of the algorithm patterns discovered (Hudson & Miller, learners can use to learn basic facts.
to complete the problem. Additionally, 2006; Stein et al., 2018). As mentioned, Both concrete and virtual manipulatives
they need to know the same general teaching PSTs to identify fact errors can are EBPs that provide a connection to
skills required for addition problems. It be accomplished by embedding sample the material. PSTs should be exposed to
is important for teachers to figure out learner worksheets into lessons. using manipulatives in their instruction
why the errors are occurring. Teachers can provide additional course. Providing them with access to
practice with basic facts with explicit the materials and time to use them in
Error Types
instruction and timed fluency exercises. mock lessons can help their understand-
Solving mathematical problems is best
Many different commercial packages are ing of the best ways to implement them
done by following the prescribed steps
available for teachers to use; however, while creating engagement for the learn-
in a problem-solving strategy specific
this can be accomplished with simple ers in their class. Objects such as Unifix
to the operation. Learners may commit
worksheets and a timer. Teachers can Cubes or Lego® bricks can demonstrate
errors at any point in the process. As
use any worksheet, including ones they addition in a tangible, visual way. By
mentioned previously, there are three
might already be using for general in- dividing the class of PSTs into three
main error types learners can make in
struction. Practice can include the entire groups, the instructor can simulate a
mathematics operations (Hudson &
class or may be targeted to individual classroom experience of stations. One
Miller, 2006; Kubina & Yurick, 2012;
learners that require additional time and group can work on fact problems using
Stein et al., 2018). Each has unique
attention. College instructors can expose one type of concrete manipulative. An-
characteristics, but they can often be
PSTs to these types of interventions other group can practice fluency using
combined to cause errors. This can mean
during class by setting aside time for fact family diagrams. A third group
that diagnosing the errors becomes more
the PSTs to act as learners and practice can use virtual manipulatives or games
important because the teacher will need
using the materials. PSTs should be for their practice on a Smart™ Board.
to develop an appropriate remediation
taught to change worksheets daily to By combining explicit instruction and
plan for that learner.
avoid having the learners try to mem- real-world applications, teachers can
Basic Fact Errors orize the answers in a specific pattern. effectively address fact errors in mathe-
Basic fact errors are just that. Learners Problems may repeat but not in the same matical operations and support students
making fact errors have not mastered order on the sheets. For example, five in developing fluency and accuracy in
basic math facts related to the four op- to 10 worksheets may be rotated so that arithmetic.
erations: addition, subtraction, multipli- the same worksheet is not provided on
cation, and division. The earlier learners consecutive days. Component-Skill Errors
become fluent with these facts, the more Practice across the facts should The second type of error, compo-
successful they will be with more com- progress in a focused manner. Generally, nent-skill errors, directly reflects how
 DUEKER AND GRANDE | 7

well the learner is absorbing the lesson operations. Like addition, remediating should follow. With strategy errors,
content. With component-skill errors, multiplication can involve practice with learners show they have not learned the
the learner attempts to use the strategies skip counting, which can remediate concepts being taught. Strategy errors
taught to complete the problems but this error. A multi-digit problem error differ from component-skill errors
misses some elements or performs the involving renaming could be the result because the learner does not demon-
steps out of order (Hudson & Miller, of the learner placing digits in the wrong strate the skills required to complete the
2006; Stein et al., 2018). Although the column. This error is similar to the type strategy. With component-skill errors,
learner may also commit some fact seen in multi-digit addition problems. the learner can follow the strategy and
errors, the error patterns show some Practice on place value can correct this complete some steps correctly but lacks
confusion about applying the skills ac- error since the learner knows the process skills with some of the components.
curately. Component-skill errors are not for completing the problem. Strategy errors are some of the easiest
solitary. Learners often make multiple Division problems present differently errors to identify but require the most
types of errors, but they typically follow than the other three operations because effort to correct.
a predictable pattern. the problems look substantially different. Remediation for strategy errors
In many cases, the learner will attempt The division sign (÷) is replaced with the involves reteaching the concepts from
to follow the specific instructions pro- more general checkmark-looking sign. the beginning. It will also likely involve
vided by the teacher but will often show This does not mean that learners make identifying and teaching missing pre-
the same error across multiple problems different errors. Identifying these errors skills as well. One of the more common
on a worksheet. This indicates that the allows the teacher to efficiently target strategy errors would be the learner
learner understood the basics of the les- the errors for remediation while keeping using an addition algorithm to complete
son but simply implemented it incorrect- the learner engaged with the current les- subtraction or multiplication problems,
ly. Different remediation methods will son. For example, learners can still make which could also be related to a deficien-
depend on the specific error. Typically, renaming or place value errors. These cy in fact knowledge. Facilitating this
remediation involves reteaching a part of can be addressed by the same methods knowledge with prompts, the teacher
the basic algorithm. For example, when used for addition or subtraction. By can label each part of the problem and
a learner makes an error in renaming, a reviewing each learner’s work, a teacher its place on the fact family diagram for
teacher can provide additional practice can determine remediation needed for the learner to include either on the work-
with place value and placing digits in both specific learners as well as the sheet or in a graphic organizer.
the correct location, critical skills for entire class. Multiple learners are likely Teaching strategy errors in mathe-
multi-digit addition. Because all opera- making the same errors. matical operations involves identifying
tions are related, remediating this skill Instruction for PSTs on compo- common miscalculations and providing
can have long-term implications for the nent-skill errors can include practice in targeted instruction to address these
learner. Using prompts like graph paper task analysis of the operations. Pro- errors. A common theme across all
to assist with demonstrating place value, viding a few problems in each of the error types is the use of explicit instruc-
the teacher can help the learner orient operations and discussing the results as tion on problem-solving strategies. By
the problems vertically and remediate a class can facilitate dialogue on how to breaking down complex operations into
this problem. Because addition and sub- teach the steps. In addition, by introduc- systematic steps and demonstrating
traction are inversely related operations, ing manipulatives, PSTs can demon- problem-solving techniques, students
remediation looks similar for subtraction strate how to complete the steps. This can develop a deeper understanding of
problems. Practice with renaming during can become part of their lesson plans as the underlying concepts and learn how
addition instruction can potentially an assignment. to approach mathematical problems
reduce errors with subtraction. strategically. Teachers may also identify
As the problems become more Strategy Errors missing prerequisite skills that can be
complex, the opportunity to commit The final error type that learners could expressly taught to assist in strengthen-
component-skill errors increases. With make is strategy errors. Teachers provide ing the learner’s use of the algorithm.
multi-digit multiplication and division strategies, or algorithms, to the learners, Utilizing visual aids and both concrete
problems, learners must also use addi- giving them a method for solving the and virtual manipulatives can also help
tion and subtraction and may confuse problems. These typically consist of a students grasp abstract concepts and
the skills required to perform those set of steps (task analysis) the learner visualize problem-solving strategies. For
8 | JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PREPARATION

example, graphic organizers, number FIGURE 3: Addition and Multiplication Errors with Potential
lines, base-ten blocks, or geometric Remediation
shapes can provide concrete represen-
tations of mathematical operations and
aid in comprehension. Additionally,
interactive activities and games that sim-
ulate real-world scenarios can engage
students and encourage them to apply
problem-solving strategies in context.
Culturally relevant examples can also
assist in making connections (Cook et
al., 2023; Dueker & Chitiyo, 2023).
Encouraging students to explain their
problem-solving strategies to their peers
or the teacher and justify their solutions
can deepen their understanding and help
them identify and correct errors. By
combining explicit instruction, visual
aids, interactive activities, and collab-
orative learning opportunities, teachers
can effectively teach strategy errors in
mathematical operations and support
students in becoming more proficient
problem solvers. Teachers should think
carefully about how to adjust the lesson
to better present the concepts.

Remediation Examples
The problems in Figure 3 are ex-
amples of addition and multiplication
problems with common errors learners
might make. The addition problem has
both fact and component-skill errors. In
this example, the learner has correctly
tried the addition but erred in the factual
computation. Because this error might errors. Since the learner would place the for multi-digit addition. The fact that
be due to simple inattention, the teacher entire answer under the line in a typical the learner tried but was unsuccessful
should first try to identify a consistent single-digit addition problem, the learner at renaming in the tens column shows
pattern of similar fact errors across mul- demonstrates he understands how to that the learner did know to rename but
tiple problems and worksheets. If that is complete that part of the problem when failed to do so in the ones column. Re-
shown to be the case, the teacher would solving the ones column. However, mediating this would likely require dis-
want to employ a remediation strategy renaming is required for multi-digit ad- cussions of place value and its relation
of providing additional practice on sin- dition problems. Also, when adding the to the columns in an addition problem.
gle-digit addition fact problems. tens column, the learner tried renaming The second remaining error shows the
In addition, the learner has made but placed the tens value under the tens learner tried to place the numerals in the
errors related to renaming. This caused column and placed the ones value above columns but mixed them up by placing
the written sum to be significantly higher the hundreds column. The first of these the tens value under the line and the
than the correct answer. These could errors might suggest that the learner ones value above the hundreds column.
be either component-skill or strategy had not learned the basic algorithm This resulted in the incorrect addition of
 DUEKER AND GRANDE | 9

the hundreds column and a vastly larger tion strategies targeting specific deficits. formation from a formative assessment,
incorrect sum. In the figure, the remediation is fo- teachers can easily target instruction to
The multiplication problem in Figure cused on the concept of place value. The ameliorate misunderstandings. Ensur-
3 also shows multiple errors. When problems are embedded in a series of ing PSTs understand the importance of
calculating the ones column, the learner columns corresponding to the different that relationship is a critical part of their
added instead of multiplying. This is a place values. Each column is labeled training and should be included in any
basic strategy error left over from sin- above with a single letter, which might mathematics instruction course they
gle-digit multiplication. Strategy errors be part of the problem. The vertical lines take.
typically require reteaching of the algo- can guide the learner on the placement
rithm. From there, the learner correctly of the digits once they have identified REFERENCES
multiplied the digit in the tens column in the value. As with any prompt intro- Aksu, Z., & Kul, Ü. (2019). The mediating role
of mathematics teaching efficacy on the
the upper numeral with the digit in the duced to learners, these vertical lines relationships between pedagogical content
ones column from the lower numeral, and letters would need to be faded as the knowledge and mathematics teaching
indicating knowledge of multi-digit mul- learner becomes fluent with the concept. anxiety. SAGE Open, 9(3), https://doi.
org/10.1177/2158244019871049
tiplication properties. The learner then An easy way would be to fade the letters Baroody, A. J. (2011). Learning: A framework.
failed to add a placeholder under the and then the lines. However, consistent In F. Fennell (Ed.), Achieving fluency:
digit in the ones column in the product. practice will be required until the learner Special education and mathematics (pp.
15–58). National Council of Teachers of
This could be a component-skill error achieves a level of understanding. Mathematics.
if it is not a consistent pattern. If the Browder, D. M., & Spooner, F. (2006). Teaching
learner makes this error for each prob- language arts, math, & science to students
CONCLUSIONS AND with significant cognitive disabilities. P.H.
lem, it would be a strategy error. The IMPLICATIONS Brookes Publishers.
multiplication of the rest of the problem Teachers in the field must understand Browder, D. M., & Spooner, F. (2011). Teaching
students with moderate and severe disabili-
is correct. With a component-skill error, the importance of diagnosis and remedi- ties. Guilford Press.
the teacher can provide practice with ation in mathematics. This should begin Codding, R. S., Volpe, R. J., & Poncy, B. C.
prompted worksheets using graph paper during PST training. During teacher (2017). Effective math interventions: A
guide to improving whole-number knowl-
or column lines. preparation programs, mathematics edge. Guilford Publications.
However, additional errors occurred instruction classes should focus on Collins, B. C. (2012). Systematic instruction for
during the addition of the products. This content creation and improving the basic students with moderate and severe disabili-
ties. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
demonstrates the relationship between understanding of mathematical con- Cook, M. J., Taylor, J. C., Hughes, E. M., &
addition and multiplication and the cepts. However, by including examples Deau, T. D. (2023). Culturally sustaining
importance of ensuring learners have of errors learners might make during math word problem instruction with hip-
hop story schemas. Journal of the Arts and
a strong foundation in addition before PST instruction, where they fit into the Special Education, 3(1), 5.
beginning multiplication. First, the various error types, and how to address Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L.
learner made a fact error in adding eight the issues presented, teachers of math- (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.).
Pearson.
and three in the ones column and an ematics instruction can set the stage for Dueker, S., & Chitiyo, A. (2023). 1, 2 here’s
additional error by not renaming. The their understanding and more frequent what we gon’ do: Creating culturally rele-
learner committed the same renaming vant mathematics word problems across the
use in future classrooms. Instructors MTSS spectrum. In W. Hunter, J. Taylor,
error in the tens column. Because these of PSTs should embed discussions and & L. Scott (Eds.), The mixtape volume
two renaming errors occur in the same practice with diagnosis and remediation 1: Culturally sustaining practices within
problem, they may indicate a strategy MTSS featuring the everlasting mission of
into every mathematical concept taught student engagement. Council for Excep-
error that relates back to addition. The in the class. By providing this additional tional Children.
final product, 21,010, is considerably instruction to PSTs, faculty may reduce Every Student Succeeds Act, 20 U.S.C. §
6301 (2015). https://www.congress.gov/
higher than the correct answer of 795. mathematics anxiety, increase content bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/1177
These two examples demonstrate knowledge, and provide a way for the Forbringer, L. L., & Fuchs, W. W. (2014). RtI
that learner errors are not limited to one PSTs to understand their learners’ math- in math: Evidence-based interventions for
struggling students. Routledge.
of the three types. Learners may make ematical understanding (Olson & Stoehr, Gersten, R., & Chard, D. (1999). Number sense:
multiple errors in a single problem. If 2019). Diagnosis and remediation Rethinking arithmetic instruction for stu-
that error is consistently displayed, the analysis can also be an important way to dents with mathematical disabilities. Jour-
nal of Special Education, 33, 18–28. https://
teacher can create appropriate remedia- address struggling learners. Using the in- doi.org/10.1177/002246699903300102
10 | JOURNAL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION PREPARATION

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Herron, J., & Barta, J. (2009). Culturally relevant word problems in second
grade: What are the effects? Journal of Mathematics and Culture, 4(1),
Scott Dueker, Ph.D. 23–49.
Dr. Scott Dueker is an assistant professor Howell, K. W., Fox, S. L., & Morehead, M. K. (1993). Curriculum-based
of Special Education and Applied Behavior evaluation: Teaching and decision-making (2nd ed.). Brooks/Cole.
Analysis at Ball State University. He is also a Hudson, P., & Miller, S. P. (2006) Designing and implementing mathematics
Board-Certified Behavior Analyst-Doctoral instruction for students with diverse learning needs. Pearson.
Kahoot! (2023, February 23). How to start a live game. Retrieved Feb-
Level. His interests include mathematics
ruary 26, 2023, from https://support.kahoot.com/hc/en-us/arti-
instruction and language development for cles/360039422694-How-to-start-a-live-game
learners with moderate to severe intellectual Kenny, D. T. (1980). Direct instruction: An overview of theory and prac-
and developmental disabilities as well as tice. Journal of the Association of Special Education Teachers, 15(12),
using technology for instruction in both 17–22.
clinical and classroom settings. Kubina, R. M., & Yurick, K. L. (2012) The precision teaching book. Great-
ness Achieved Publishing Company.
McLeskey, J., Barringer, M.-D., Billingsley, B., Brownell, M., Jackson, D.,
Jill Grande, M.A. Kennedy, M., Lewis, T., Maheady, L., Rodriguez, J., Scheeler, M. C.,
Jill D. Grande is a graduate student working
Winn, J., & Ziegler, D. (2017). High-leverage practices in special edu-
toward a PhD in special education at Ball
cation. Council for Exceptional Children & CEEDAR Center.
State University. She has a BA in psychology Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Remediation. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary.
and sociology and an MA in Applied Retrieved December 2, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/
Behavior Analysis (ABA). Jill is a Board- dictionary/remediation
Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA) and holds Newman, L., Wagner, M., Cameto, R., & Knokey, A.-M. (2009). The post-
certificates in autism and supervision. She high school outcomes of youth with disabilities up to 4 years after
currently works as a graduate assistant high school: A report from the national longitudinal transition study-2
at Ball State University. Her main areas of (NLTS2) (NCSER 2009-3017). National Center for Special Education
interest include autism spectrum disorder Research. http://ies.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=NCS-
(ASD), emotional and behavioral disorders ER20093017
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(EBD), and behavioral consultation.
teachers experiences’ with mathematics anxiety and mathematics teach-
ing anxiety. School Science and Mathematics, 119(2), 72–82. https://doi.
org/10.1111/ssm.12320
Plump, C. M., & LaRosa, J. (2017). Using Kahoot! in the classroom to create
engagement and active learning: A game-based technology solution
for eLearning novices. Management Teaching Review, 2(2), 151–158.
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Riccomini, P. J. (2005). Identification and remediation of systematic error
patterns in subtraction. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(3), 233-242.
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Stanton, N. A., & Baber, C. (2005). Validating task analysis for er-
ror identification: Reliability and validity of a human error pre-
diction technique. Ergonomics, 48(9), 1097–1113. https://doi.
org/10.1080/00140130500219726
Stein, M., Kinder, D., Silbert, J., & Carnine, D. W. (2018). Designing effec-
tive mathematics instruction: A direct instruction approach (5th ed).
Pearson.
U.S. Department of Education (2022). 1990–2022 Mathematics Assessments.
Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics,
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). https://nces.
ed.gov/nationsreportcard/mathematics/
Vukovic, R. K., Kieffer, M. J., Bailey, S. P., & Harari, R. R. (2013). Mathe-
matics anxiety in young children: Concurrent and longitudinal associa-
tions with mathematical performance. Contemporary Educational Psy-
chology, 38(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.09.001
Wang, A. I., & Tahir, R. (2020). The effect of using Kahoot! for learning–A
literature review. Computers & Education, 149, Article 103818. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103818.
Witzel, B. S., Riccomini, P. J., & Herlong, M. L. (2012). Building number
sense through the common core. Corwin Press.
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SPECIAL
EDUCATION
preparation
BALL STATE UNIVERSITY & TEACHER EDUCATION DIVISION