BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Because of their simplicity and versatility, block diagrams are often used by control engineers to
model all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to describe the composition and
interconnection of a system, or it can be used together with transfer functions, to describe the
cause and effect relationships throughout the system. For instance:

Figure 2.21

Block diagrams can be used to model linear as well as nonlinear systems.

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Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point. Let
us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the following figure to
identify these elements.

Figure 2.22
The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is
also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the flow
of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output. The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the
transfer function G(s).

Figure 2.23

2
Transfer Function,

Y (s )
Y ( s )=G ( s ) X ( s ) ∴ =G(s)
X (s)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

Summing Point

The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also
performs the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of
the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by
one.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the
output, Y as sum of A and B.
i.e.,Y = A + B.

Figure 2.24

3
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign
and B is having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as
the difference of A and B.
Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

Figure 2.25
The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one
output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a
negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as
Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Figure 2.26

4
Take-off Point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the
same input to one or more blocks, summing points.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two
more blocks.

Figure 2.27
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the inputs
to the summing point.

Figure 2.28

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Block diagrams of control systems:
One of the important components of a control system is the sensing device that acts as a junction
point for signal comparisons. The physical components are the potentiometer , revolver ,
differential amplifier , multiplier and other signal-processing transducers.
In general , sensing devices perform simple mathematical operations such as addition subtraction
, multiplication ( non-linear ) and sometimes a combination of these .
The block diagram representations of these operations are illustrated below. The addition and
subtraction operations (a) (b) (c) are linear so that the input and output variables of these block
diagram elements can be time-domain variables or Laplace transform variables.

Summary of summation junctions

Figure 2.29

It can be seen that from figure 2.15 a, b, c,

6
 e (t )=r(t )− y (t )
E( s)=R( s)−Y ( s)

The multiplication operation shown in figure (d) is nonlinear, so that the input output relation has
meaning only in the real (time) domain.

e(t )=r(t )× y(t )

It is important to keep in mind that multiplication in real domain does not carry over to the
Laplace transform domain so that:

E(t )≠R(s)×Y (s)

Rather when transformed should read

E(s) = R(s)*Y(s) *complex convolution of R(s) and Y(s)

in Laplace domain

Manipulation of block diagrams

Terminology Used

7
  X(t),X(s)=reference input command .
 Y(t), Y(s) = output ( controlled variable ).
 B(t),B(s)=feedback signal .
 U(t),U(s)= actuating signal = error signal e(t),E(s) when H(s)=1.
 H(t),,H(s) = feedback transfer function .
 H(s)G(s)=L(s)=loop transfer function
 G(s)=forward path transfer function.
 M(s)=Y(s)/X(s)=closed loop transfer function of system transfer function.

1) Closed loop transfer function :

Figure 2.30
Y(s) = G(s)E(s)….. (1)
B(s) = H(s)Y(s)……(2)
E(s) = X(s)-B(s)…. (3)
Substituting equation (3) into (1)
Y(s) = G(s)[X(s)-B(s)]…. (4)

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Substituting equation (2) into equation (4) and then solving for Y(s)/R(s) gives the close loop
transfer function

Y(s) = G(s)X(s)-G(s)H(s)Y(s)
Y(s) +G(s)H(s)Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
Y(s)[1+G(s)H(s)] = G(s)X(s)

∴
Y (s ) G( s )
M (s )= =
X ( s ) 1+G( s )H ( s )

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Figure 2.31
Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the positive
feedback, i.e.,

Y (s ) G(s)
=
X (s) 1−G ( s ) H (s)

In general a control system may contain more than one feedback loop , and evaluation of the
transfer function from the block diagram by means of the algebraic method just described may
be tedious . Although in principles , the block diagram of a system with one input and one output

9
can always be reduced to the basic single-loop form, the algebraic steps involved in the reduction
process may again be quite tedious.

2) Series Connection

Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure,

two blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.

Figure 2.32
Y ( s )=G2 ( s ) Z ( s ) Z ( s )=G1 ( s ) X ( s )

∴ Y ( s )=G2 ( s ) [ G1 ( s ) X ( s ) ]=G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) X (s)

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below

.
Figure 2.34

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 3) Parallel Connection

The blocks, which are connected in parallel, will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in
parallel. The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

Figure 2.35

Y ( s )=Y 1 ( s ) +Y 2 ( s )

where Y 1 ( s )=G1 ( s ) X ( s )∧Y 2 ( s )=G2 ( s ) X ( s )

∴ Y ( s )=G1 ( s ) X ( s )+G 2 ( s ) X ( s )=[ G1 ( s ) +G2 ( s ) ] X (s )

That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two blocks.
The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Figure 2.36

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

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There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting summing point after the block

 Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases
one by one.

Shifting Summing Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

Figure 2.37

The summing point has two inputs R(s) and X(s) Therefore the output of the
summing point is R(s)+X(s)
The output Y(s)=G(s)[R(s)+X(s)]
Therefore Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s)

Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

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 Figure 2.38

Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s).

The output of the summing point is

Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s)

Compare the equations before and after shifting.

Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Before shifting)

Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s) (After shifting)

The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference in the
second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more
block G(s). having the input X(s) . This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

13
 Figure 2.39

Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is present
after the block.

Figure 2.40
Output of this block diagram is –

Y ( s )=G ( s ) R ( s )+ X (s)

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

14
 Figure 2.41
Output of this block diagram is -
Y(S)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s)
Compare the equation before and after the shifting
Y ( s )=G ( s ) R ( s )+ X (s) Before shifting

Y(S)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) After shifting

,
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the
second term. In order to get the second term also the same we need to divide the
second term by G(s), we require one more block 1/G(s).. This block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

Figure 2.42

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 X + W X +
G1 G1 W W =G1 X +G2 Y
+
Y
G2 +
G2
Y G1

Figure 2.43

In this example the summation junction was moved from after G1 and therefore it had to be

taken into account with G 2

X + X + W W=G.(X+Y)
G G

+ +
Y G
Y

Figure 2.44

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting take-off point after the block

 Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements are to be done in the above two cases, one
by one.

16
Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off
point is present before the block.

Figure 2.45

Here, X(s)=R(s) and Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But,
there is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require
one more block 1/G(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Figure 2.46

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Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
present after the block.

Figure 2.47

Here, X(s)=Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will not be effected.
But, there is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require
one more block G(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

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 Figure 2.48
X ( s ) =R ( s ) G ( s )∧Y ( s ) =R ( s ) G(s)

X X
G1 G2 G1 G2 Y =G 1 X

Y Y
G1

Figure 2.49

X X
G1 G2 G1 G2 Y =G 1 X

1
Y G2
Y

Figure 2.50

X + + W X + + W W= X+Y+Z

+ + + +

Y Z Z Y

Figure 2.51

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1) Reduction of block diagrams with several loops will usually require combination and
repeated application of various rules , bearing in mind that the inner-loops must be reduced first .

Further consideration:

Figure 2.52
In general

C = the actual process output which is measured by the measurement transducer giving the signal
C1.C1 is compared with the reference input R giving error signal E. E is the output to the
controller which generates an actuating signal V which is the input to the process .
feedback is negative , i.e. an increase in controlled output C giving a negative error which
the
tends to reduce C.

Unity feedback:

In some cases H = 1 (unity feedback), then:

20
 Figure 2.53

Here E is the actual error (E is normally the difference between the reference input and the
measured output).

Non-unity feedback
A non-unity feedback gain control system can be converted into a unity gain system.

Figure 2.54

Converting the above block diagram into a unity feedback block diagram as follows:

21
 Figure 2.55

Manipulating of block diagrams is OK as long as the transfer function does not change.
Knowing the transfer function:

CG
=
R 1+GH C 1
∴ 1¿then¿ R ≈ H ¿¿
IFGH¿
¿

i.e. if the loop gain is high (GH>>1) then the closed loop transfer function C/R depends almost
entirely on the transfer function of the measurement transducer .

Example (2.5):

Amplifier Motor

K Gm

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 Tachogenerator

Figure 2.56

Motor Speed Control System

The controller is simply an amplifier giving an actuating signal proportional to the error signal.
This is called proportional control.

Ω = KG m
V ref 1+ KGm H
suppose the steady state motor and tachogenerator transfer function are :

Gm = 5 rad s-1 / V
H = 0.1V / rad s-1

Thus Vref in the range 0 – 10V should correspond to a motor speed of 0 -100 rad/s.
Ideal closed loop gain = 10 rad s-1 / V.

Consider the effect of different amplifier gains.

K=1

Ω = KG m = 1×5
=3. 33
V ref 1+ KGm H 1+(1×5×0 .1 )

23
K=10

Ω = KG m =10×5 =8 .33
V ref 1+ KGm H 1+(10×5×0 .1 )
K=100

Ω = KG m =100×5 =9 . 80
V ref 1+ KGm H 1+(100×5×0 .1 )
K=1000

Ω = KG m =1000×5 =9 . 98
V ref 1+ KGm H 1+(1000×5×0 .1 )

Increasing the controller gain decreases the steady state error. However, there must always be a
finite error otherwise the controller output would be zero.

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many blocks,
summing points and take-off points.
 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

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  Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the overall
block diagram.

Example

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Figure 2.57

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1G1 and G2G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3G3 and G4G4. The
modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Figure 2.58

25
Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the
block G5G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Figure 2.59

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Figure 2.60

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

26
 Figure 2.61

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Figure 2.62

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram and transfer function.

Figure 2.63

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Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram having
multiple inputs.
 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time
and make the remaining inputs as zero.
 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
 Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we
have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this
drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).
In the next two chapters, we will discuss about the concepts related to signal flow graphs, i.e.,
how to represent signal flow graph from a given block diagram and calculation of transfer
function just by using a gain formula without doing any reduction process.

Example (2.6):

28
 Figure 2.64

Note feedback signal H1 Y(s) = positive.

G3(s) G4(s) H1(s) is called positive feedback loop.

Step (1):

Eliminate the loop G3(s) G4(s) H1(s)

We move H2 behind block G4 thus taking into effect G4 and feedback become (H2/G4), block
diagram as follows:

Figure 2.65

G 3 G4
Now loop G3(s)G4(s)H1(s) become Note 1- G3(s) G4(s) H1(s), negative because
1−G3 G 4 H 1
positive feedback

29
 Figure 2.66

Step(2): eliminate loop containing

G2 G3 G 4 G2 G3 G4
1−G3 G4 H 1 1−G3 G 4 H 1 G2 G3 G 4 G2 G3 G4
= = =

( )
H 2 G2 G3 G4 H 2 G 2 G 3 G4 H G G 1−G3 G 4 H 1 +G 2 G3 H 2
1+ 1+ 1−G 3 G4 H 1 + 2 3 4
G4 1−G3 G4 H 1 G4 ( 1−G3 G4 H 1 ) G4

Figure 2.67

Finally taking the last loop give:

G1 G2 G3 G4
T . F=
1−G3 G4 H 1 +G2 G3 H 2 +G1 G2 G3 G4 H 3

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Closed loop system subjected to disturbance:

Figure 2.68
Assuming a linear system, we may consider the output C(s) due to two inputs R(s) and
disturbance N(s).

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 C(s) = CR(s) +CN(s) = effect of input + effect of disturbance

Find T.F due to N(s). First assume R(s) =0

Figure 2.69
The signal A can also be written as –Cn(s)H(s) s follows :

Figure 2.70

CN(s) = [ -CN (s)H(s)G1+Ns]G2(s)

CN (s) = -CN(s)H(s)G1(s)G2(s)+NsG2(s)
CN (s)+CN (s)H(s)G1(s)G2(s) = NsG2(s)
CN (s)[1+H(s)G1(s)G2] = NsG2(s)

CN ( s ) G2 ( s )
=
Ns 1+(G1 G2 H )s

32
Now find in the normal way the transfer function when Ns=0 .
G1 G2
C R ( s )= R( s )
1+G1 G2 H

From C(s)=C(s)+C(s)

G2
C (s )= [G R (s )+N s ]
1+G1 G2 H 1

Example (2.8).

Write the equation for the system then take the Laplace transform assuming zero initial
conditions .

Figure 2.71

33
 I
V i =IR+
Cs
V i =IR+V o
∴
V i −V o
I=
R

Total block diagram :

Figure 2.72

34
35