Refresher Training Programme

“Management of Modern Dairies

Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers
Scheme”

August 23-25, 2023

Course Directors
Dr. Shahaji Phand Mr. Mahesh Mane Dr. H.R. Gupta
Principal Coordinator Coordinator Director
(AC&ABC) MANAGE (DHD&ACS)

Organized by:
MANAGE, Hyderabad
&
Dr Harry Dairy & Allied Consultancy Services
Karnal-132001 (Haryana)
Published by:

Dr. Shahaji Sambhaji Phand, Course Organizer, MANAGE-Hyderabad

Mr. Mahesh Mane, Consultant, Course Director, MANAGE-Hyderabad
Dr. H R Gupta, Course Coordinator, Dr Harry Dairy & Allied Consultancy
Services, Karnal-Haryana

Compiled and edited by:

Dr. Surinder Gupta, CTO & Officer Incharge, NDRI

Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant
Mr. Sandeep Kumar, Administrative Manager, Dr Harry Dairy and Allied
Consultancy Services, Karnal

Dr Harry Dairy and Allied Consultancy Services, Karnal

E-mail: [email protected]

Visit us at www.dairyconsultants.co.in

The views expressed in the Book are those of the Authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the organizers/printer.
Dr. Shahaji Phand
Dr. Shahaji Phand, Deputy Director and Centre Head of Centre for
Extension in Agri-allied Sector and also Principal Coordinator, Agri-
Clinics and Agribusiness Scheme (AC&ABC), National Institute of
Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad. He is
veterinary graduate and completed Bachelor of Veterinary Science and
Animal Husbandry (B. V. Sc. A.H) degree in 2002 from Maharashtra Animal and Fishery Science
University, Nagpur Maharashtra. He completed his Master and Doctoral Degree in Veterinary
Extension Education from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh in
2005 and 2008 with Junior and Senior Research Fellowship respectively. After completion of
doctoral degree, he joined as Assistant Professor in Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science
University (NDVSU) in June 2008, promoted as Associate Professor in 2012 in same university.
After serving 8 years as faculty in university, he joined as Assistant Director in MANAGE,
Hyderabad in 2016 and promoted to post of Deputy Director in 2018. He has developed 02
technologies in the form of computer software’s namely Animal Health Information System
(AHIS) and Health Information System for Dairy Animal (HIS) as part his doctoral research, which
is patented and commercialized. For this contribution he has been conferred with Dr. C.M. Singh
Award for Best Ph. D Research at national level. He has published more than 30 research and
review papers in national and international journal and edited of more than 27 books. He has been
editor, reviewer and member of editorial board of national and international Journals. He has
organized and coordinated more than 300 training programs for senior and middle level officers of
State Department of Agriculture and Allied sector, Scientist, SAU faculties, Students etc. which
benefit reached more than 4000 stakeholders. He has organized and participated national level
conferences, seminar, workshop and contributed for policy formulation. As a Principal Coordinator,
he is implementing Agri-Clinics and Agribusiness Scheme (AC&ABC) with the help of 126 Nodal
Training Institute (NTIs) across the country, which have trained more than 7500 agricultural
graduates and diploma holder, among which more than 3000 trained candidates have established
their agri-venture in last two years and serving farming community.
Mahesh N. Mane
Education:
• Master's in Agriculture and Food Business Management
Career Objective:
• To contribute passionately to a professional organization with a focus
on agriculture and food business development.
Core Expertise:
• Technical: Proficient in Agricultural Production Practices, Planning, and Monitoring; Value
Chain Establishment for Agricultural Commodities; Resource Mobilization; Application of
New Agricultural Technologies; Agriculture Marketing; Supply Chain Management.
• Managerial: Skilled in Agriculture Management, Marketing, and Post-Harvest Management.
Skill Set:
• Communication
• Leadership
• Networking
• Report Writing
• Documentation
• Problem Solving
Professional Experience:
1. Consultant - National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE)
• Currently working as a Consultant since July 2016.
• Consulting for the Agri Clinic & Agri Business Scheme in Maharashtra.
2. Agriculture Marketing Expert - Maharashtra Agricultural Competitiveness Project
(MACP)
• Worked from July 2014 to July 2016.
• Led Strategic Research and Extension Plan preparation.
• Coordinated MACP project implementation.
• Trained extension machinery for agriculture-related marketing.
• Collaborated with Agricultural Business Promotion Facility for entrepreneurship
training.
3. District Project Facilitator - Maharashtra Water Sector Improvement Project
(MWSIP)
• Worked from January 2012 to June 2014.
• Coordinated multi-sector planning for land and water resources.
• Improved irrigation services and agriculture productivity.
 • Promoted agro-entrepreneurship and water management skills.
• Fostered NGO and private agency partnerships for development.
4. Marketing cum Technical Executive - K. F. Bio-plants Pvt. Ltd
• Worked from November 2011 to January 2012.
• Managed greenhouse projects, marketed seedlings, and provided technical support.
• Organized farmer meetings, demonstrations, and promotional activities.
• Established dealer networks and value chain marketing.
5. Project in Charge - Samruddha Jeevan Foods India Ltd
• Worked from April 2010 to June 2011.
• Managed agricultural projects, promoted contract farming, and handled HR.
6. Rural Agriculture Work Experience - Krishidut
• Implemented new farming technologies with host farmer.
• Conducted awareness programs, method demonstrations, and Kisan Fairs.
Special Training:
• Received training in SAP, ISO 22000, Modified Atmospheric Packaging, Grafting, Agri-
clinics and Agri-business Centers scheme, Agriculture Marketing, and more.
Programs Broadcasted on Radio:
• Presented programs on strengthening Agriculture Price Marketing Committee (APMC) and
alternative markets for farmers on "Akashwani" Radio.
Additional Info:
• Proficient in various aspects of agriculture management, marketing, and technical practices.
• Actively engaged in project implementation, training, and capacity-building across different
agricultural projects and initiatives.
DR. HARI RAM GUPTA
Founder,
DR HARRY DAIRY & ALLIED CONSULTANCY SERVICES
B. Tech (Dairy Technology), M.Tech (Dairy Technology), NDRI-Karnal,
PhD. (Dairy Science Technology), IGNOU- DELHI
#10, Shakti Colony, Mall Road, Karnal, 132001(Haryana)
+91 93541-20651, +91 7470000340; [email protected]

Dr. Hari Ram Gupta has been serving ICAR-NDRI for last more than three decades and contributing
hugely for institutional development and dairy development. Dr. Gupta has demonstrated
outstanding leadership attributes while leading experimental dairy staff of NDRI Karnal and as
Programme Coordinator of an external funded project Business Planning & Development (BPD)
Unit, NDRI, Karnal.

Dr. Hari Ram possesses excellent technical skills which were demonstrated at times. He was
instrumental in “Low Cholesterol Ghee” making process and transfer of technology to the dairy
sector, Bihar project for establishment of new Institute of NDRI regional centre, providing guidance
for the project of making A1 cow milk powder in Experimental Dairy. Dr. Gupta has successfully
developed technologies for Cocoa and Whey Protein Enriched Functional Dairy Drink; Whey
Protein fortified products like Whey Protein Khoya Burfi, Whey Protein Lassi, Whey Protein
Flavoured Milk, Whey Protein Tilla Kulfi and Whey Protein Bar.

Dr. Gupta was a resource person for conducting practical classes of KVK & BPD unit entrepreneur
trainees. He has trained number of UG/PG students from various dairy and food science colleges
across India and delivered numerous lectures on “Preparation of Flavoured Milk and Lassi” ‘Milk
Processing & Manufacture of Selected Dairy Products’ “Fat/SNF standardization of milk using
Pearson Method” “Technology of Fat Rich Dairy Products” milk and milk product manufacturing.

He has published 19 research Papers (national & international); 18 Technical / Popular articles in
reputed periodicals and 2 book chapters. He has also published a book "Whey Protein & Cocoa
Enriched Functional Beverages" by LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, Germany.

To further enhance and update his skills he has attended training on Technological Aspects of
Composite Dairy Foods; Advances in Technology, Quality and Safety of Functional Dairy Foods;
and Engineering interventions in processing and value addition of milk and milk products. He is also
a certified Lead Auditor for ISO 22000, Food Safety Management System. He had attended 4
International and 7 National seminars on dairy and food.
Dr. Gupta is life member of Indian Dairy Association, Dairy Technology Society of India, and NDRI
Graduates Association.

Dr. Gupta has been actively involved in number of institutional building activities by acting as
member of the Employees Welfare Fund Committee, Chairman of the several departmental
Committees, and member in interview committees. Dr. Gupta is also actively involved in various
social welfare activities at the village as well as city level.

Dr. Gupta has received many awards namely Best Research Paper Certificate by “International
Journal of Business Management & Research”; Second Best Research Paper in the category of
“Economics and Extension” and “Dairy Processing” by Indian Journal of Dairy Science.

Dr. Gupta also has been awarded the “Unnat Bharat Sewashri Ratan” in 2017 and “Lifetime
Achievement Award” in 2018 for contribution in dairy field by Rashtriya Patarkar Sangadhan and
Rashtriya Kissan Sangadhan at Constitution Club, New Delhi.

Post retirement, Dr. Gupta utilized his skills and expertise to contribute to the industry and with
nutritional and functional foods keeping in view the nutritional security of the youth. In line with this
objective Dr. Gupta entered as a start-up entrepreneur into the value-added product category.
Currently Dr. Gupta has two registered startups named DR HARRY DAIRY & ALLIED
CONSULTANCY SERVICES and DR HARRY NUTRITION INTERNATIONAL HEALTHCARE
being operated from the office based at #10, Shakti Colony, Mall Road, Karnal. In research and
development, he has developed Whey Based Beverages and participated in ‘Agri-startup Incubation
programme’ organized by (AFBIC), IIT Kharagpur and selected as innovative product and finally he
is a Incubate of RKVY-RAFTAAR scheme of Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer ’Welfare, Govt. of
India (IIT Kharagpur) and funded by. The companies mainly deal with:

❖ A complete solution for dairy and allied consultancy services

❖ Training for milk processing and milk production
❖ Sale/Purchase of farm animal
❖ Testing milk for fat & adulteration
❖ Setting of milk processing plant
❖ R&D for new dairy products

Over the last four years the above companies have progressed significantly despite the COVID – 19
era for two years. The progress report charts are shown below which itself are self-explanatory. The
targeted revenue for the current financial year (2023 – 2024) is expected to cross 1.00 Crores.
 Refresher Training Programme
“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
Programme (AC& ABC),
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) – Hyderabad
Programme Schedule: August 23-25, 2023
Venue: Dr Harry Dairy & Allied Consultancy Services, Karnal-132001 (Haryana)
Time Topic Resource Person
Day-1 : 23/08/2023 (Wednesday)
09:00 AM Registration
MANAGE and Dr Harry Dairy & Allied
10:00 AM Inauguration and AC&ABC Overview
Consultancy Services, Karnal
Recent developments of economically feasible Dr. S S Lathwal, PS & Incharge, Livestock
11:00 AM
technologies in dairying. Research Centre, NDRI
Fodder production practices for round the Year
12:00 AM Mr. Mohar Singh, Ex CTO, NDRI
Feed Security of dairy animals
Major reproductive problems of dairy animals
02:00 PM Dr. KPS Tomar, Ex CTO, NDRI
& practices for improved reproductive efficiency
03:30 PM Marketing strategies of Milk Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant
05:30 PM Feedback Session Faculty
Day -2 : 24/08/2023 ( Thursday)
Introduction to basic animal nutrition and
10:00 AM Dr. P S Oberoi, Ex PS, NDRI
importance of minerals & vitamin in dairy animals
11:00 AM Computer simulative modeling in dairy farming Dr. P S Oberoi, Ex PS, NDRI
Innovative ration and feed (concentrate)
12.00 PM Dr. P S Oberoi, Ex PS, NDRI
formulation
Common diseases of dairy animals: their
02:00 PM Dr. Satya Pal, Ex CTO, NDRI
symptoms, control and preventive measures

03:00 PM Management of dairy animals (birth to calving) Dr. Brij Kishore, Ex TO, NDRI
Applied aspect of dairy animals physiology and Dr. Mahinder Singh, ICAR-Emeritus Professor &
04:00 PM
stress management Ex. HOD, AP Div., NDRI
5.00 PM Clean Milk Production from Dairy animals Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant
05:50 PM Feedback Session Faculty
Day-3: 25/08/2023 (Friday)
Visit to a NDRI Cattle farm and Experimental Dr. S S Lathwal, PS & Incharge, Livestock
10:00 AM
Dairy Research Centre, NDRI
Dairy Farm Management (Shelter, Animal herd Dr. S S Lathwal, PS & Incharge, Livestock
12:00 PM
Management & Waste Management) Research Centre, NDRI
Importance of breeding bulls and Semen
02:00 PM Dr. Brij Kishore, Ex TO, NDRI
handling in organized dairy farms: An Overview
03:30 PM Summary and Feedback Faculty
04:00 PM Valedictory Function Faculty
Dr Harry Course Organizer Dr. Shahaji Sambhaji Phand,
Dairy & [email protected]
Allied Course Director Mr. Mahesh Mane, Consultant, 7972156528,
Consultancy [email protected]
Services Course Coordinator Dr. H R Gupta,07470000340, [email protected]
Timing: 10:00 AM to 5:30 PM (Lunch Break at 01:00- 02:00PM)
 CONTENTS

Sr. No. Papers Page No.

1. Recent Developments of Economically Feasible Technologies in Dairy 1
Farming
Dr. S.S. Lathwal, Principal Scientist & I/c LRC, NDRI Karnal

2. Fodder Production Practices for Round the Year Feed Security of Dairy 4
Animals
Mr. Mohar Singh, Ex CTO, NDRI

3. Major Reproductive Problems of Dairy Animals & Practices for 24

Improved Reproductive Efficiency
Dr. KPS Tomar, Ex CTO, NDRI

4. Marketing strategies of Milk Ensuring a Healthy and Profitable 27

Industry
Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant

5. Basic Animal Nutrition and Importance of Minerals & Vitamin in Dairy 35

Animals
Dr. P S Oberoi, Ex PS, NDRI

6. Computer Simulative Modeling in Dairy Farming 48

Dr. P S Oberoi, Ex PS, NDRI

7. Innovative Ration and Feed (Concentrate) Formulation 62

Dr. P S Oberoi, Ex PS, NDRI

8. Common Diseases of Dairy Animals: Their Symptoms, Control and 69

Preventive Measures
Dr. Satya Pal, Ex CTO, NDRI

9. Management of Dairy Animals (Birth to Calving) 77

Dr. Brij Kishore, Ex TO, NDRI

10. Applied Aspect of Dairy Animals Physiology and Stress Management 82

Dr. Mahinder Singh, ICAR-Emeritus Professor & Ex. HOD, AP Div., NDRI

11. Clean Milk Production from Dairy Animals 95

Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant

12. Dairy Farm Management (Shelter, Animal herd Management & Waste 101
Management)
Dr. S S Lathwal, PS & Incharge, Livestock Research Centre, NDRI

13. Importance of Breeding Bulls and Semen Handling in Organized Dairy 113
Farms: An Overview
Dr. Brij Kishore, Ex TO, NDRI
 Refresher Training Programme
“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

Economically Feasible Technologies in Dairy Farming

Dr. S.S. Lathwal, Principal Scientist & I/c LRC, NDRI Karnal

Today, dairy farmers focus more on precision farming by monitoring and developing a
database for information provisioning and capturing competitive market data. To ensure
sustainability and remain competitive in the market, dairy farmers need to monitor variety
of data sources like cattle feeding, calving, nutrition, insemination, and the process of
milk production. However, they also face several challenges such as:
Breeding infrastructure and genetics: The success of dairy farming is mostly attributed to
the rising number of animals, and not productivity. When the resources are limited, it is
imperative to increase the productivity per animal. There is a high demand for good
animal genetics, breeding infrastructure and advance breeding methods such as artificial
insemination and embryo transfer.
Animal feed and fodder: There is an acute and ever-growing shortage of green fodder and
good quality feed. The growing trend of high breed animals is creating a huge demand for
good quality feed and fodder to cater the dietary requirement of milking animals. Also, in
order to avoid many health and nutrition related complications; prophylactic approach is
driving the use of feed pre-mixes.
Animal health: Good healthcare and animal disease diagnostic solutions are required to
address the gap. As high yielding animals demand extra care, the focus on animal health
is driving this segment.
Farm mechanization: There is growing shortage and high cost of labor. Hence, farmers
are adopting mechanization techniques to meet the global milk production.
Quality testing infrastructure and trained work force: Adequate quality testing
infrastructure is not available at milk collection centers. The problem is compounded by
the lack of trained manpower to undertake quality testing. At the consumer end, the
demand for safe food is emerging fast and thus creates high opportunity.
Waste handling: The environmental challenges of dairy farms are related to disposal of
dung and urinal wastewater. Poor handling and disposal of dung and wastewater cause
water pollution and odor problems.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

Today, Internet of Things (IoT) is making a significant impact on milk production.

Global milk production to meet the demands of the growing population needs to be
enhanced with technology. With this technology, farmers can enhance and improve
several dairy related activities such as ascertaining the right time to milk cows, increasing
the shelf life of the milk and so on.
In dairy farming, the Internet of Things (IoT) plays a crucial in the monitoring of
resources by connecting multiple and heterogeneous objects in mixed dairy farms (which
produce milk from cattle and cultivate feed grain for livestock), such as buildings,
machinery and vehicles or even living organisms like cattle. The IoT Sensor and Edge
Computing (EC) enable resource monitoring and traceability in the value chain, allowing
producers to optimize processes, provide the origin of the produce and guarantee its
quality to consumers.
The technological adoption of IoT and AI based approach helps in creating innovative
methodologies for production (milk yield) and the process of dairy farming. Process
innovation can be different for different sets of activities that are performed at several
levels in a smart dairy farm. In a dairy farm, the milking process is viewed as a singular
process; however, there are several activities that are performed in the farm such as
feeding, cow monitoring, and preserving milk. The intervention of IoT can be in different
processes and procedures like the feed system to sense the hunger needs of the cows and
automatically feed them. It can also proactively monitor automatic heat detection that will
assist in reproduction. Assessing health and monitoring cows for disease detection and
prevention will help the farmer to locate any animal that needs medical attention.
Smart dairy farming includes real time sensors that collect data from cows with the help
of wearable smart collars, machine learning data analysis, and cloud-based data centers
that manage data and support the farmer in order to manage quality of dairy products.
IoT and AI technology adoption can play a significant role in the dairy industry to
simplify the operations for milk producers and meet the increasing demand for quality
dairy products. The technological advancement in IoT can help minimize environmental
issues, decrease the use of resources, and enhance animal health by using advanced

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

sensing and data analyzing technologies. IoT based technology can be used in farm
management to reduce costs and make operations efficient. Here are some key outcomes.
Health monitoring: Monitoring and tracking of cattle health data like heart rate and other
vital signs of a cow can help farmers in early diagnosis of health issues and provide
correct medication.

Monitoring of anomalies in milk production:

It is essential to understand cattle behavior and milk production by monitoring
continuously and comparing the regular patterns. Each animal can be tagged with a
unique identification number to help track the animal’s production and understand their
health patterns. Tracking of automatic water and food supply: Water is an important
nutrient for all animals, and it is important that cows should have sufficient quality water.
Milk contains almost 87% water. The water requirements are closely related to milk
production, the moisture content of the feed, and environmental factors such as air
temperature and humidity.

Technology driven future for the dairy industry

New-age smart techniques using IoT devices will help farmers with increased milk
production, advanced monitoring of cattle health & anomaly detection, thereby
streamlining the business and processes. Although smart dairy farming using IoT gives
various features to a common farmer, it may be a costly affair at the beginning; yet offers
the promise of cost recovery with longer usage. IoT helps in efficient monitoring of the
feeding and drinking method which can lead to better nutrition of cows, and more milk
production. The system with overall architecture, better adaptation of technology, and
versatile design can make IoT-based farming more efficient.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

Fodder Production Practices for Round the Year Feed Security of

Dairy Animals
Mohar Singh, Ex- Chief Technical Officer, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal

The health and productivity of livestock are closely linked with quantum and quality of
forage production. The present fodder crop area could not be increased due to increasing
pressure on cultivated land for food and commercial crop. The sustainability of dairy
industry in India largely depend on the quality herbage based animal feed and fodder. To
produce the targeted quantity of green fodder the best option is to maximize the fodder
production per unit area and per unit time. To ensure the availability of quality fodder as
per requirement throughout the year there is need to incorporate suitable fodder crops in
the cropping system. An ideal fodder system is that which gives the maximum out term of
digestible nutrients or maximum livestock products from a unit area. It should also ensure
the availability of succulent palatable and nutritive fodder throughout the year. Green
fodder is the essential component of feeding high yielding of milch animals to obtain
desired level of milk production

One of the main reason for slow pickup of forage production is non- availability of
good quality fodder seed varieties. With development of a number of improved and
highly yielding varieties in forages, it has become that quality seed is readily available for
supply to the farmers.

Quality forage seed in adequate quantities is the key to increase fodder production.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

1. Crop : Berseem – Sowing Time – Last week of September to 2nd week of October is the best time for sowing

Seed Rate : 8 - 10 Kg per acre

S. Varieties Year Av. Fodder Name of Institute Area of adoption Main Characteristics of variety

N. of yield Qu/acre Responsible for

Release Development

1. Mescavi 1975 320 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Entire Berseem Plants are shurby and erect growing
growing area of up to height of 45 -75 cm. with
country profuse tillars. Stem is soft and
succulent. It is tolerant to low and
high temperature.

2 B.L-10 1983 410 P.A.U. Ludhiana Entire Berseem It is a longer duration variety and
growing area of supplies green fodder up to mid of
country June. It is moderately tolerant to stem
rot disease. Its nutritive value and
voluntary intake are high. Its seed
crop mature in the last week of June.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

3 B.L-42 2003 440 P.A.U. Ludhiana Suitable for north It is quick growing variety which
west zone produces more number of tillers per
unit area. It is tolerant to stem rot
disease. It has superior nutritional
quality it supply green fodder up to
first week of June.

4 H.B-1 2006 350 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for U.P, It is a quick growing; more number
(Hisar Haryana & Hilly of tillers & superior nutritional
Berseem) Area quality it supply green fodder up to
end of May. It is tolerant to stem rot
disease.

5. Bundel 1997 400 ICAR-IGFRI, Jhansi Suitable for north The plant high ranges from 55-65 cm.
Berseem -2 west zone and It has dark green leaves. The crop is

(J.H.B-146) central zone area of fairly tolerant to acidic soil condition

country and is fertilizer responsive and
resistant to root rot & Stem rot
disease.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

6 IGFRI S-99- 350 ICAR-IGFRI, Jhansi Entire Berseem It tolerant to low temperature. It has
1 growing area of more number of tillers and leaves.
country

7. U.P.B- 110 1993 300 G.B.P.U.A & T, Suitable for South It has prolific crown branching with
Pant Nagar Zone succulent thick Stem. The basal
shoots and side branches develop
freely after cutting. It is long duration
variety tolerant to Stem rot disease.

8 B.L-44 2021 395 P.A.U, Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab It is quick growing variety with more
& Haryana number of tillers. It is moderately
resistant to stem rot disease. It has
superior nutritional quality. It supplies
green fodder up to 1st week of June.

9 Pusa Giant 1975 370 ICAR-IARI, New Entire Berseem It has dark green broader and thicker
Delhi growing area of leaves and juicy stem. It yield about
country 10- 15% more then mesavi variety
and tolerant to frost and low

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

temperature

2. Crop : Lucerne – Sowing Time – Middle of October to Middle of November

Seed Rate : 6 - 8Kg per acre

1 Sirsa Type-9 1978 240-365 Fodder research Suitable for This is a perennial Lucerne variety.
station Sirsa. northern India The plants are vigorous, quick
where cold growing, slander stalk, foliage dark
temperature green leaves, and flowers bluish
prevails purple.

2 Anand -2 1984 325-400 G.A.U. Suitable for Gujrat, It has broad dark green leaves, deep
Rajasthan, M.P. root system and perennial variety. It
Anand (Gujrat)
lucern growing gives 10-12 fodder cutting in a year.
area.

3 L.L.C-5 1982 280 P.A.U Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab It is a tall, erect and fast growing
& Haryana annual variety. It has broad dark
green leaves with purple followers. It
is highly resistant to downy mildew
disease. Its gives eight cutting up to
1st week of July.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

4 Anand -3 1995 300 A.A.U. Anand Suitable for cold It is an annual type variety suitable
(Gujrat) dry zone of for cold dry zone of Himachal
Himachal Pradesh Pradesh.

5 Co-1 1980 325-365 T.N.A.U, Tamil Suitable for Tamil It has high crude protein (20%) This
Nadu Nadu and Karnatka is a perennial variety which can be
maintained successfully for 3 years.

6 RL88 1991 300-400 M.P.K.V.V. Rahuri Suitable for entire This variety has recommended for
(Rahuri Maharsthra lucern growing cultivation for year around irrigated
lucern) area situation in all zone of the country. It
gives 11 cutting in a year. The variety
resistant to major disease and pests.

3. Crop : Oats – Sowing Time – 2nd week of October to Middle of November

Seed Rate : 35 - 40Kg per acre

1 Kent 1975 210 - Entire oats growing It is medium late and erect type with
area of country long droopy leaves. Av. Plant height

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

at 50% flowering is 75-80cm. It is

resistant to rust, blight and lodging. It
has more number of tillers. First cut
can be taken in 60 -65 days of sowing
it gives two cutting in a year.

2 HJ-8 1997 260 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for It has fast growth, better regeneration
Haryana. and suitable for two cutting. It has
broad green leaves.

3 U.P.O-212 1990 230 G.B.P.U.A & T, Entire oats growing It is a multi cut variety. This variety
Pant Nagar area of country. has light green stem with 8-10 tillers.
It gives 2-3 cutting.

4 Bundel Jai- 1998 200 ICAR-IGFRI, Jhansi Suitable for north This is a multi cut variety having fast
851 and north west zone regeneration high leafiness, more
and entire oats tillering and high protein content. It
growing area. can give up to 4 cuts. It has prostrate
growth habit but become erect after
tillering.

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“Management of Modern Dairies Under Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centers Scheme”
August 23-25, 2023

5 OL-10 2014 275 P.A.U .Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab, It is a multi cut variety recommended
Haryana and U.P. for irrigated area. Its plant is tall
profuse tillering and leafy growth.
The leaves are long broader. Its
fodder quality is superior in terms for
TDN (Total Digestible Nutrients) and
DCP (Digestible crude protein)

6 O.L-14 2020 307 P.A.U .Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab, It is multi cut variety. Its plants are
Haryana and U.P. tall with profuse tillering and leafy
growth. The leaves are long broader.
Its fodder quality is superior in terms
for TDN and DCP its seed yield is
10.9 quintal per acre

7 O.L-15 2021 320 P.A.U .Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab, It Is a single cut variety. Its plants are
Haryana. tall having long and broad leaves with
more leafiness and tillering ability. Its
fodder quality is superior its seed
yield about 9.8 quintal per acre

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August 23-25, 2023

4. Crop Maize – Sowing Time – 1st week of March to middle of September.

Seed Rate : 30 Kg per acre

1. African tall 1981 225 Mahatma Phule Entire Country It has more number of leaves more
Agricultural leaf area. The variety is resistant to
University, foliar diseases and stem borer. The
Kolharpur (MR) av. Plant height is 260cm and the
fodder quality is superior.

2 J-1006 1993 165 P.A.U .Ludhiana Entire Country Its plants are tall, vigorous and broad
leaves. Its moderately resistant to
maydis leaf blight and brown stripe
downy mildew disease and stem
broader and lodging resistant.

3 J-1007 2020 168 P.A.U .Ludhiana Entire Country The plants of this variety are tall with
broad leaves. Its moderately resistant
to maydis leaf blight and Charcoal rot
disease.

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August 23-25, 2023

4 APFM-8 1997 140 A.N.G.R.A.U, Suitable for south It is a leafy, non lodging, orange
Hydrabad zone of the country grain variety, and plant height 180 to
200 cm sturdy plant type with dark
green leaves.

5 Pratap 2008 150 M.P.U.A &T , North west zone of It is a medium tall variety. Its stem is
Makka Chari Udaypur the country strong, medium thick and lodging
-6 resistant.

5. Crop : Sorghum – Sowing Time – 20 March to 10 April ( in summer) , 25th June to 10 July ( Rainy Session ),
April end - May end ( Multi Cut Variety )
Seed Rate : Single Cut Verity 20-25 Kg per acre Multi cut Variety 12-15 Kg. Per Acre

a) Multi Cut Varieties

1 SSG 59-3 1977 300 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for all The Variety is tall and profuse
sorghum growing tillering with quick growth. It is
area in north zone tolerant to drought and water logging.
of the country The Stem is sweet and thin. The first
of the crop can be taken in 55-60
days of sowing and then after cut can

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be taken 35-40 day.

2 Hara Sona - 1994 300 Pro agro seed Suitable for It is high tillering, thin stem, more
855 company ltd. cultivation in A.P., leafy. Dark green color and superior
Aurangabad Gujrat , Haryana, fodder quality in terms and DCP and
Punjab, M.P. & U.P TDN and low HCN content.
area

3 Punjab 1994 480 P.A.U .Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab, It is multicut variety. Its plant are tall
Sudax chari- Haryana. with broad leaves, stem is juicy and
1 sweet. it is resistant to red leaf spot
diseases. The timely sown crop gives
three good cutting during the summer
session.

4 Punjab 2015 445 P.A.U .Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab, It is multicut variety. Its plant are tall
Sudax chari- Haryana. with broad leaves and ready for first
4 cutting after 60 days of sowing. It is
moderately resistant to leaf spot
disease and shoot fly. The timely
sown crop gives three good cutting.

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August 23-25, 2023

5 CSH-24 MF 2019 365 G.B.P.U.A & T, Suitable for all This is the best multicut forage

Pant Nagar sorghum growing sorghum with good palatability, fast

area growth with excellent re-growth, high
protein, and high digestibility. Its
plant are tall with broad green leaves
and ready for first cutting after 60-65
days of sowing and subsequent
cutting after every 45 days. Fodder
quality of this variety superior juicy,
sweetness, soft and more nutritional
quality and low HCN content. Plants
are stay green up to maturity. This
variety tolerant to water stress and
water logging condition.

6 Pusa Chari - 2005 300 ICAR-IARI, New Suitable for north It is a multicut hybrid. Its plants are
109 Delhi zone of country 225 cm. tall, semi erect, stay green
type leafy with juicy stem. Its leaves
are long broad with dull green midrib.

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August 23-25, 2023

This variety is tolerant to major foliar

disease, shoot fly and stem borer.

b) Single Cut Varieties

1. H.C-136 1982 200-240 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Entire country Its plants are tall, growing with long

(Haryana broad leaves. It is tolerant to foliar

Chari) disease. It has low HCN content.

Plants are stay green type. The
variety is juicy, sweet broad leaves,
stay green long time and superior
fodder quality.

2 H.C-308 1996 215 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for all Its plants are tall, sweet, juicy and
sorghum growing long broad leaves. Resistant to foliar
area of country disease, stay green upto maturity.
Good crude protein and low HCN
content.
3 Pant Chari-4 1997 185-215 G.B.P.U.A & T, Recommend for Its plants are tall 350cm, purple

Pant Nagar cultivation in U.P. pigmented with dark green leaves.

except hill area.

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August 23-25, 2023

4 H.J-513 2007 225 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for north The plants are tall 245-260 cm. Long
west zone of leaves and semi compact. Tolerant to
country major foliar diseases. Suitable for
early and late sown condition in the
Kharif Session.

5 H.J-541 2014 225 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for Its plants are juicy, sweet, better
Haryana State nutritional quality and stay green
upto maturity. Resistant to Stem
borer and having low HCN Content.
High digestibility and crude protein
content.

6 C.S.V.32F 2016 205 ICAR-IIMR, Rahuri All sorghum Plants are more sweet, juicy and soft,
Center growing area of height upto 12 ft. More protein and
Maharashtra, Tamil Low HCN Content. Stay green upto
Nadu & Karnatka maturity and superior nutritional
quality.

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August 23-25, 2023

6. Crop : Bajra (Pearl Millet) – Sowing Time – March- April (Irrigated area) June- July (Rain fed area)

Seed Rate : 4-5 Kg per acre

1. FBC-16 2003 230 P.A.U .Ludhiana Suitable for north This is multicut composite variety It
west zone of India flowering 8-10 days letter as
compared to other verities. Provide
green fodder for longer duration.
Plants attain an average height of
about 235cm and have long broad
leaves which remain green at
maturity. Contain low amount of
oxalates.

2. Proagro-1 1998 300 Pro agro seed Suitable for all bajra This is a multicut variety. The plants
(FMH-3) company ltd. growing area of required 50-55 days for flowering
Hydrabad country and mature 90-95 days. The variety
highly resistant to downy mildew
disease.

3. PHBF-1 2009 260 P.A.U. Ludhiana Suitable for Punjab It is a multicut hybrid for green
& Haryana State. fodder. Plant height 198 cm. It has

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August 23-25, 2023

succulent stem, better tillering and

long broad leaves. The fodder
quality of this variety is superior.

7. Crop : Hybrid Napier– Sowing Time – February- March (Irrigated area) July – August (Rainy season)

Seed Rate 5-6 Quintal Root slip or 4-5 thousand stem cutting per acre.

1 N.B-21 1987 800 ICAR-IARI, New Entire Country It is a fast growing variety with high
Delhi tillering capacity. Stem are thin and
non hairy with long, Smooth and
narrow leaves it has low oxalate
content.

2 PBN-223 2000 1100 P.A.U. Ludhiana Suitable for north It is a non hairy with smooth long
west zone and broad leaves it maintain its active
vegetative growth for longer
duration. Its sprouts earlier in springs
session and remains in vegetative
growth upto onset of winter. Its
winter dormancy period is less.

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August 23-25, 2023

3 PBN-342 2019 880 P.A.U. Ludhiana Suitable for north It is a leafy hybrid with long smooth,
west zone non hairy and broad leaves. Its
sprouts earlier in springs session and
remains in vegetative growth upto
onset of winter.

8. Crop : Cowpea– Sowing Time – March- April and June- July

Seed Rate 16-20 Kg per acre

1 HFC.42-1 1976 140-150 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for This is an erect type variety with dark

(Hara Lobia) cultivation and green foliage and suitable for mixed
Haryana and Punjab cropping.
State

2 IFC-8503 1993 160 ICAR-IGFRI, Jhansi Suitable for north Plants height is 140-150 cm with 4-5

(Bundel west plane zone branches. The growth habit is erect to

Lobia) semi erect with tendrils. The leaves

are medium to broad and light green
colour. The variety is suitable to drier
area of country.

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August 23-25, 2023

3 C.S-88 1996 140-150 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Suitable for This is suitable for Cultivation in

(Haryana Haryana State summer and rainy season. Plants

Lobia) growth is erect nature, having long

and broad leaves. It is suitable for
mixed cropping.

4 C.L367 2005 110 P.A.U. Ludhiana Suitable for This is an early short duration verity.
Haryana and Punjab It is dual purpose for fodder as well
State as pulse purpose. Its plants are erect
with dark green leaves. It is resistant
to yellow mosaic virus and
anthracnose disease. Its fodder
quality is superior. It bears large
number of Pods. The variety is
suitable for human consumption
because it has very good cooking
quality.

5 U.P.C 625 2009 160 G.B.P.U.A & T, Suitable for Entire It is a white seeded variety and used
Country for dual purpose. It leaves stay green

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August 23-25, 2023

Pant Nagar at pod maturity. It has higher leaf

stem ratio. Suitable for mixed
intercropping with sorghum, maize &
Bajra.

9. Crop: Guar (Cluster bean) Sowing time: 1st week of April – Mid July.

Seed Rate 18-20 Kg per acre

1. Guara-80 1990 125 P.A.U. Ludhiana Recommended for It is tall, quick growing, hairy and
cultivation in north profusely branches type. It is resistant
west zone of to guara leaf blight disease. It is a late
country maturity variety.

2 Bundel Guar 1999 160 ICAR-IGFRI, Jhansi Recommended for It is a dual purpose variety suitable for
-3 entire guar fodder as well as grain type. The

(IGFRI- growing area. maturity of this variety is 50-55 days.

1019-1) It is moderately resistant to bacterial

leaf blight and powdery mildew
disease. Highly tolerant to shattering
and reasonably resistant to drought

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situation.

3 HFG-156 1987 145 C.C.S.H.A.U. Hisar Recommended for It is a tall branched and tolerant to
cultivation in disease. It is suitable for cultivation in
Haryana. Haryana.

4 Guar Kranti 2005 140 Agriculture research Recommended for This Variety is medium maturity and
(RGC-1031) station Durgapura cultivation in suitable for rainfed well drained and
Rajasthan State sandy loam soil. The plants height 108
cm. And highly branched broad leave.
This variety is tolerant to drought
condition. Moderately resistant to
bacterial blight, Alternaria blight,
Root Rot and wilt disease.

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August 23-25, 2023

Major Reproductive Problems of Dairy Cattle and Good Practices for

Improving Reproductive Efficiency
Dr. K.P.S. Tomer, Chief Veterinary Officer (Retd)
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana

Major reproductive disorders in Dairy Cattle:

Anoestrus Repeat Uterine Puerperal Metritis

Breeding
Clinical Pyometra Infections Abortion & Premature Birth
Endometritis Dystocia

Anoestrous: Anestrous is considered a problem when cows are not seen in heat. Failure to
observe heat and heat detection must always be ruled out as the primary problem.
Pregnancy can be psychological cause of anestrous and must always be confirmed before
anything tried to such cattle. True anestrous can be confirmed by palpating the ovaries by
experts. The overall percent incidence range from 11 to 33% in Indian field conditions.

Repeat Breeding: Repeat breeding cattle that are cycling normally, with no clinical
abnormalities, which have failed to conceive after at least three successive
inseminations. In practice, some will have been inseminated at the wrong time, others
may have pathological changes in the bursa or oviduct that are difficult to palpate or
undiagnosed uterine infections. Overall incidence of repeat breeding ranged from 5 to 9%
in different breeds of cows and buffaloes, however incidences are higher in crossword
animals.

Puerperal metritis is defined as an animal with an abnormally enlarged uterus and a

fetid watery red-brown uterine discharge, associated with signs of systemic illness
(decreased milk yield, dullness or other signs of toxaemia) and fever > 39.5 within 21 days
after parturition. Animals that are not systemically ill, but have an abnormally enlarge
uterus and a purulent uterine discharge detectable in the vagina, within 21 days after
calving, maybe classified as having clinical metritis.

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Clinical endometritis is characterized by the presence of purulent (> 50% pus) uterine
discharge detectable in the vagina 21 days or more after parturition, or mucopurulent
(approximately 50% pus, 50% mucus) discharge detectable in the vagina after 26 days. In
the absence of clinical endometritis, a cow with subclinical endometritis is defined by >
18% neutrophils in uterine cytology samples collected 21-33 days after calving, or > 10%
neutrophils at 34-47 days.

Pyometra is defined as the accumulation of purulent material within the uterine lumen in
the presence of a persistent corpus luteum and a closed servix. Retention of placenta
(ROP)/ retention of foetal membrane (RFM). RFM occurs when the calf’s side of the
placenta fails to separate from the mother’s side. However, separation of the membrane
normally occurs after the calf is born (early separation is one cause of stillbirth), so
defining the time at which the membranes became retained is not simple. The most
commonly used definition is 24 hours after birth. The overall incidence range has been 4 to
18%.

Dystocia: Dystocia is defined as a difficult or delayed birth at any stage of labor. It is

important to know the normal aspects of calving in order to determine if the cow/ heifer is
experiencing dystocia. The causes of dystocia may be due to many management decision
i.e. genetics and nutrition to management of the cow or heifer during delivery. The overall
range was 0.5-6%.

Abortion and Premature birth: Abortion in the cow is defined as foetal death and
expulsion approximately between day 45 and day 265 of pregnancy. Range of percent
incidence was 3-6% for abortion, 1.5-3% for stillbirth and 1% premature birth.

Prophylactic interventions for improving postpartum reproductive performance:

Prophylactic interventions through supplementation of Vitamin E and Selenium, assisting
cow through hormonal and non-hormonal agents are necessary while postpartum cow is
in most stressful period so that cow can reach the productive and reproductive targets
fixed in each Dairy heard. It has been found that the higher the number of cycles before
60 days postpartum, higher is the conception rate. Hence, there is a need to maintain the
reproductive tract in estrogen dominance until 45 days Postpartum and afterwards in

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August 23-25, 2023

progesterone dominance before normal breeding through to achieve higher postpartum

reproductive performance. Supplementary feeding during pre and early postpartum is more
helpful in assisting the high producing cow in its most stressful period. Supplementation of
Vitamin E and Selenium results in improving immunity there by significantly reducing the
incidence of metritis, retained placenta uterine infections like endometritis matritis etc.
Around the time of carving the fat soluble vitamins like retinol, carotene, tocopherol are
significantly reduced to 50% which necessitates the Vitamin E and Selenium
supplementation.

Integrated reproductive management

For an efficient monitoring of reproduction management, computing and interpreting

reproduction or breeding efficiency indexes become very important. The breeding records
necessary for calculations of the indexes are: Date of the most recent calving, Date of
previous calving for second and later lactation cows, Reproductive status (pregnant/ open
and bred but too early to detect pregnancy), Number of services for all cows and Date of
first breeding and most recent breeding, if a cow has been bread more than once.

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August 23-25, 2023

Marketing Strategies for Milk: Ensuring a Healthy and Profitable Industry

Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant

Abstract: Milk is an essential part of the human diet and a significant commodity in the
global market. Its demand and consumption are influenced by various factors, including
health awareness, changing consumer preferences, and emerging trends. The discussion
encompasses product positioning, branding, packaging, pricing, distribution, and promotion.
By understanding these marketing strategies, stakeholders in the milk industry can adapt to
the evolving market dynamics and maintain a competitive advantage. Milk is something that
is consumed by everyone across all market geographically and demographically.

Over 80 per cent of milk consumption in India is that of liquid milk and over 55 per cent of
the revenue of large co-operatives, such as Amul and Nandini, comes from selling liquid milk.
There are still limited takers for value-added dairy products such as cheese, yogurts or
flavoured milk. The Indian consumer – especially the affluent urban consumer – is consuming
more value-added products, which bring in bigger profits for dairy companies than raw milk.
The phenomenon of working couples, single men and women with high disposable income
also provided the impetus to look at the category with fresh eyes. The fact that the Indian
cooperatives had largely stuck to basic milk, butter, processed cheese slices and ice cream for
many decades, had left a gap in the market that allowed some of the new players to come in
with new product offerings.

India has always been the largest producer (an estimated 400 million litre per day currently)
and consumer of milk in the world. But it remained a boring market largely because the per
capita consumption was low, and most of the milk was consumed in its basic, liquid form, or
at best as ghee and some butter.

Out of the 400 million litres of milk that India produces per day, 160 million litres per day
(48 per cent) is retained by the producers for their own consumption. The surplus milk that is
available for sale is around 240 million litres per day, and out of that only 70 million litres
per day is being used by the organised sector – consisting of co-operatives such
as Amul, Mother Dairy and Nandini (a brand owned by the Karnataka Cooperative Milk

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Producers Federation (KMF), as well as private sector players such as Nestle and Danone.
Over 170 million litres of the surplus milk continues to be with the unorganised sector,
comprising traditional domestic. In value terms, the Indian milk economy is worth Rs 5 lakh
crore, growing at a CAGR of 15-16 per cent, out of which the organised milk economy, is
worth Rs 80,000 crore.

You could have a lot of sellers and buyers. Especially in large metros or other big cities, if
you start simply by advertising online about A2 milk, you will attract orders. But the key
issues in starting are Farm, Storage, Transportation, Distribution Network and Price. Storage
is not challenging but transportation plays a vital role as the time taken from the moment the
milk is milked from the cows to delivering to the customers, you need to maintain the time
schedules as the product is perishable. You could brainstorm on temperature-maintained
environments such as refrigerated storages.

1. Introduction: The milk industry plays a crucial role in meeting the nutritional needs of
people worldwide. It serves as a primary source of various essential nutrients, such as
calcium, protein, and vitamins. The marketing of milk involves a range of strategies to
engage and influence consumers. This paper aims to explore and analyze the marketing
techniques used by various milk companies to increase sales, establish brand loyalty, and
adapt to ever-changing consumer demands.

2. Product Positioning: Product positioning is the foundation of any marketing strategy.

Milk companies often position their products based on their unique selling propositions
(USPs). Health benefits, source of origin, and quality are common attributes emphasized
in product positioning. For example, companies may promote the inclusion of essential
nutrients, such as DHA (Docosahexaenoic acid) for brain development in children, or low-
fat milk for weight-conscious consumers.

3. Branding and Packaging: Effective branding is crucial in distinguishing a milk brand

from its competitors. Brands aim to create a positive perception in consumers' minds,
associating their products with trust, quality, and reliability. Unique logos, slogans, and
packaging designs are part of the branding efforts. Packaging plays a significant role,
especially in the dairy industry, as it directly affects consumer perception and shelf appeal.

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4. Pricing Strategies: The pricing of milk products is influenced by several factors,

including production costs, competition, and consumer perceptions. Price elasticity is a
critical consideration in determining the optimal price point. Additionally, companies may
use price promotions, bundling strategies, or volume discounts to attract customers and
increase sales.

5. Distribution Channels: The distribution of milk products requires an efficient and robust
network to ensure availability and freshness. Companies can use various channels, such as
supermarkets, convenience stores, online platforms, and direct-to-consumer models, to
reach different customer segments effectively. The choice of distribution channel impacts
accessibility, product reach, and overall market penetration.

6. Promotion and Advertising: Promotional activities are vital to creating brand awareness
and persuading consumers to choose a particular milk brand. Companies use advertising
campaigns through various media channels, including television, radio, print, social
media, and influencer marketing. These campaigns often focus on health benefits, taste,
and versatility of milk.

a) Placing your product in community events, including charity fundraisers, will help
your product gain brand recognition and customer loyalty. Look for opportunities to
show consumers the value of your product rather than just offer it as a free gift.

b) Place products in local television programming, including sports events, local news
and local programs of interest. Local viewers are as likely to purchase products
placed in local programming as those advertised nationally and will be cost
effective.

c) Consider whether your town has a local celebrity with whom you can place your
product. This may be a notable athlete or someone from your hometown who has
gained recognition throughout your region.

d) Try gaining exposure for your product through local theatre, including school,
community and regional productions. Local businesses from car dealerships to
jewellery stores and shoe shops find success placing their products this way.

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7. Targeting Specific Consumer Segments: The milk industry has diversified its offerings
to cater to specific consumer segments. Companies have launched specialized milk
products for lactose-intolerant individuals, athletes, and children. By targeting these niche
markets, milk companies can capitalize on unmet needs and generate brand loyalty.
Identify who your customers are and their demographics, such as age, income, and
lifestyle. This information will help you tailor your messaging and communication
channels

8. Social and Environmental Responsibility: Consumers increasingly value brands that

demonstrate social and environmental responsibility. Milk companies may invest in
sustainable farming practices, animal welfare initiatives, and environmentally friendly
packaging to appeal to ethically conscious consumers.

9. Innovation and New Product Development: To remain competitive, milk companies

continuously innovate and develop new products. This can involve introducing flavored
milk options, plant-based alternatives, or fortified milk with additional nutrients.
Innovation helps maintain consumer interest and adapt to changing dietary trends.

10. Health and Nutrition Communication: Health and nutrition are paramount concerns for
consumers when choosing dairy products. Milk companies invest heavily in health
communication to highlight the nutritional benefits of milk consumption. They often
collaborate with nutritionists and health experts to create campaigns promoting the role of
milk in supporting bone health, muscle growth, and overall well-being. These campaigns
also address specific health concerns like calcium deficiency, osteoporosis, and childhood
nutrition. Provide value-added content: Share recipes, tips, and educational content that
can engage your audience and showcase the versatility of your milk products.

11. Online Presence and E-commerce: In recent years, the internet has revolutionized
marketing, and the milk industry is no exception. Milk companies have embraced the
digital age, establishing a strong online presence through websites and social media
platforms. They engage with consumers through interactive content, recipes, and health
tips. E-commerce platforms have become crucial for direct-to-consumer sales,
subscription services, and personalized offers. The massive rise in internet penetration and

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August 23-25, 2023

the recent COVID-19 pandemic has presented huge growth opportunities for digital sales
of dairy and milk-based products. Fulfilment options such as click and collect and on-
demand delivery has grown exponentially, as every consumer is now ordering fresh
perishables online daily. All this is leading to a self-sufficient and viable dairy ecosystem,
which is a win-win proposition for all. Hopefully in the next two decades, as the market
becomes more defragmented, supply chains strengthen and innovations rise, India would
transform into a global dairy superpower with dairy production at its peak. Tech-backed
milk and milk-product delivery platforms are likely to grow even further over the next few
years.

12. Partnerships and Collaborations: Collaborations with other brands and organizations
offer milk companies unique marketing opportunities. Partnerships can involve co-
branding initiatives, where two brands join forces to create limited edition or special
product offerings. For example, a milk brand may collaborate with a cereal brand to
promote milk consumption with breakfast cereals.

13. Consumer Engagement and Loyalty Programs: Creating a loyal customer base is
essential for long-term success in the milk industry. Companies utilize customer
engagement strategies, such as loyalty programs, contests, and rewards, to encourage
repeat purchases and foster brand loyalty. These programs often offer discounts, exclusive
content, and personalized offers to incentivize consumers to choose their brand
consistently.

14. Market Research and Consumer Insights: Successful marketing strategies are based on
a deep understanding of consumer preferences and trends. Milk companies invest in
market research to gather insights about changing consumer behaviors, demands, and
attitudes toward dairy products. This data-driven approach helps companies make
informed decisions about product development, packaging, and promotional activities.

15. Participate in industry events: Attend industry events and conferences to network, learn
about new trends, and showcase your milk products to potential customers.

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16. Leverage customer reviews: Encourage your customers to leave reviews and testimonials
about your milk products, which can help build trust and credibility.

17. Public Relations and Crisis Management: The milk industry occasionally faces
challenges related to safety concerns, animal welfare, or environmental issues. Effective
public relations and crisis management are crucial to addressing these challenges and
maintaining brand reputation. Timely and transparent communication is essential in
reassuring consumers and rebuilding trust during difficult times.

18. International Market Expansion: The global milk market offers significant growth
opportunities for milk companies. Expanding into international markets requires a tailored
marketing approach that considers cultural nuances, local preferences, and regulatory
requirements. Companies may adapt product formulations, branding, and packaging to
resonate with diverse consumer bases.

19. Product Variety and Segmentation: Milk companies diversify their product portfolios to
cater to different consumer segments. They offer various milk options, such as whole
milk, skim milk, lactose-free milk, and flavored milk, to accommodate diverse
preferences. Moreover, they may create separate product lines for adults, children, and
athletes, each highlighting specific benefits relevant to the target audience.

20. Influencer Marketing: Influencer marketing has become a powerful tool for reaching
target audiences. Milk companies collaborate with influencers, such as fitness enthusiasts,
nutritionists, and mommy bloggers, to promote their products and engage with their
followers. These influencers provide authentic and relatable content, which can
significantly impact consumer perception and purchasing decisions.

21. Sustainability and Ethical Marketing: As consumer awareness about environmental

issues grows, milk companies are increasingly focusing on sustainability and ethical
practices. Brands may highlight their commitment to eco-friendly farming methods,
animal welfare, and reduced carbon footprints in their marketing messages. Sustainability
initiatives resonate with conscious consumers, creating a positive brand image.

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In order for your dairy products to be seen at a grocery outlet, you will need the following:

1. Packaging
2. Advertising
3. Accounting / Financial management
4. Customer Service
5. Consumer marketing
6. Sales management
7. Food Safety
8. Law
9. Human Resource
10. Operations Management
11. Store design (Food centre/ Convenience store)
12. Marketing methods
13. Retails Systems & Operation
14. Labour
15. Marketing Retailing
16. Business
17. Company Analysis
The future of the dairy industry is D2R (Direct to Retailers), for example the largest dairy
companies in the world like Dairy Farmers of America, Fonterra, Nestlé, Amul (GCMMF),
and Danone all actively adopt these models and D2C (Direct to Consumers), the dairy co-
operatives and milk federations of respective states (like Mother Dairy in West Bengal,
Aaarey in Maharashtra, Aavin in Tamil Nadu, Nandini in Karnataka, etc.) and private players
like Heritage Foods, Creamline Dairy Products, and Schreiber Dynamix Dairy. –This model
has gained popularity during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, as consumers have shunned
physical stores and favored direct door-delivered purchases. Prominent examples of this
model include Kiaro – a Hyderabad-based app-driven organic dairy products brand, Parag
Milk Foods’ ‘Pride of Cows’ in Mumbai and Pune and Milk Mantra’s Milky Moo in
Bhubaneswar and Cuttack.

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Conclusion:

The milk industry's marketing strategies play a vital role in fostering consumer engagement
and brand loyalty. Successful companies are those that effectively communicate the health
benefits, quality, and sustainability of their milk products. By continuously evolving their
marketing strategies to align with consumer preferences and trends, milk companies can
ensure a healthy and profitable future for the industry

The milk industry's marketing strategies have evolved significantly to meet the demands of
health-conscious and environmentally aware consumers. Companies focus on product
positioning, branding, pricing, distribution, and promotion to gain a competitive edge in the
market. Digital marketing, partnerships, and consumer engagement play crucial roles in
building brand loyalty and customer retention. With continuous innovation, adaptability to
consumer preferences, and a commitment to health and sustainability, milk companies can
ensure a thriving and profitable industry in the years to come.

So, as far as the marketing and advertising is concerned, all the parameters mentioned above
play an important role as people are genuinely interested in what conditions and how the
product reaches from the farm to their house due to health, sanitation and purity being the
utmost points that could make a difference in making people buy the product. You could
communicate all your practices by way of digital marketing. Developing an app would
further ease the operations as currently the companies are doing.

Remember, marketing is an ongoing process, and you should continuously monitor and
adjust your strategies based on customer feedback and market trends.

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Basic Animal Nutrition and Importance of Minerals and Vitamins

Dr P S Oberoi, PhD (LPM), Ex-Principal Scientist
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

Dairy animals Cows and buffaloes are ruminants and have a compound four
chambered stomach. They mainly feed on roughages. Rumen is the first and largest
compartment of their stomach which harbours microbes. Some of these microbes interact
with each other in a synergistic fashion to extract energy from the ingested roughages etc.
These microbes produce highly active lignocellulolytic enzymes supporting digestion of the
host. This yields volatile fatty acids (VFAs; acetate, butyrate, propionate), formic acid,
carbon dioxide, methane etc. The microbes ultimately produce microbial protein mass and
volatile fatty acids etc which are ultimately utilized by the animal. These microbes become
fully functional when calf attain age of about 3minths, till that we must feed calf milk or milk
replacer etc,

Calf feeding:

Colostrums is the first milk produced by the cow after calving and contains special
nutrients and antibodies which are essential to protect the calf from disease. The newborn
calf can absorb antibodies from the colostrums but begins to lose this ability from about six
hours after birth. In addition, the concentration of antibodies in the colostrums diminishes
rapidly after the cow has calved and is reduced markedly after two milkings. In indigenous
cows and buffaloes, separation of calves from their mothers is not very successful, as the
dam may not let down milk without suckling or the presence of the calf, so this should only
be practised, if at all, in crossbreds.

Every calf should receive colostrums (about 10% of body weight i.e., about 2 - 3
litters in one day). The first dose should be given as soon as possible after birth, and within
the first six hours. If it is suspected that if a calf has not received this colostrum, then a
suitable substitute should be given to the calf as soon as possible and certainly within 24
hours of birth. Although antibodies present in the colostrums cannot be absorbed by the calf
beyond 36 hours after birth, colostrums, either fresh or stored, should be fed for the first 4-5

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days of the calf's life, as it can provide local immunity in the gut and is a highly digestible,
high-quality food. Use good hygiene practices when collecting, storing, and feeding
colostrums, and check the quality: it should not come from mastitis infected animals.

Where proper feeding management is possible, the young calf may be separated from
the mother (i.e., not allowed to suckle) and fed colostrums/milk by bottle. Otherwise, the calf
should be allowed to suckle from the dam, ensuring that the calf is getting the required
quantity of milk. Offer milk heated up to 35-40°C (not significantly above the calf's normal
body temperature of 39°C).

Calf starters:

For the rumen to develop, it is essential that calves consume a highly palatable source
of solid feed (calf starter grain). This is essential because rumen fermentation must occur for
the rumen to develop. Bacteria which are present from transfer via the dam and from the
environment ferment the solid feed and produce volatile fatty acids (VFA). The four carbon
VFA, butyrate, is the most important for rumen epithelial (papillae) development. Feeding
starter is necessary for this to occur. Because grain ferments at a faster rate than forage, it is
not necessary to feed hay at this stage of life. Typically, calf starter contains whole or
crimped or steam-flaked grains along with a pellet. Some starters are completely pelleted,
and good quality hay must be fed. Calf starts can be introduced around four week of age
starting with50-100 grams and gradually increasing to 750 grams at the age of 3-4 months, at
this stage milk feeding can be gradually reduced and stopped. There after roughages and
concentrate mixture can be fed as per requirements,

Dairy farmers must understand that Dairy animals Feeds are classified into three main
types: (1) roughages, (2) concentrates, and (3) mixed feeds (TMR). Roughages include
pasture forages, hays, silages, and byproduct feeds that contain a high percentage of fiber.
Concentrates are the energy-rich grains and molasses, the protein- and energy-rich
supplements and byproduct feeds, vitamin supplements, and mineral supplements.

Mixed feeds commonly called TMR (Total mixed ration) may be either high or low
in energy, protein, or fiber; or they may provide “complete” balanced rations. A balanced

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ration is the amount of feed that will supply the proper amount and proportions of nutrients
needed for an animal to perform a specific purpose such as growth, maintenance, lactation, or
gestation. When considering the amount of food and nutrients required by individual animals,
various factors need to be taken into account such as the physiological state of the animal,
nutritional composition and quality of feed, age, sex, size, body condition, future metabolic
needs relative to body condition, state of animal health, growth rate, level of production,
previous feeding levels, feeding frequency, genetic effects of breed, level of activity and
exercise, maximum periods of food deprivation (e.g. during transportation) and climatic and
seasonal factors (e.g. extreme weather).

Many countries have developed standards (NRC 2001, ARC 1980) for livestock
feeding through systematic experimentation and careful observations. The Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, has published nutrient requirements of cattle and buffalo
(ICAR 2013). However, it is not appropriate to specify the complete range of quantities and
nutrients required rather than simply following a regime of pre-determined levels of feed,
additional information to allow feeding levels to be adjusted according to need can be
obtained, by weighing or monitoring body condition score regularly.

Regular body condition scoring is an important management tool, a visual and manual
assessment to determine whether animals have been receiving adequate nutrition or more
than the nutrients required.

NUTRIENTS OF FEED:

Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are nutrients based on carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are more
oxygen molecules in carbohydrates than lipids. They are also the largest component in the
diet of dairy cattle. Comprising up to 70% of the diet of lactating dairy cattle and more in that
of growing heifers and non-lactating cows. Carbohydrates are typically described as sugars
and chains of simple sugars. The two most common carbohydrates used in feeding dairy
cattle as with other ruminants are cellulose which are β 1,4 linked glucose units, whereas
starch is comprised of α 1,4 (amylose), and α 1,4 and α 1,6 (amylopectin) glucose units.

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Cellulose is much more resistant to digestion than starches. Therefore, the primary difference
is the type of bonds between the glucose units.

Sources of carbohydrates include forages, roughages, grains, and sugars. Forages

including hay, hay-crop silage, grain-based silage (corn or small grains) are primarily
digested by cellulolytic bacteria which result in the production of acetic and butyric acid.
Forages are typically fed with adequate particle size (>3/8 inch) to provide for rumination
(the process of regurgitation of cud and the mastication of the forage). This function results
in the production of saliva which contains a buffer to help maintain rumen pH
(approximately 6.0–6.5). Maintaining H+ concentration at this amount will help maintain
greater numbers of ruminal bacteria and protozoa. An acidic environment (defined as a
prolonged time under pH 6) results in lesser numbers of bacteria and poorer feed
digestibility. If acidic conditions are prolonged in the rumen, milk fat depression can occur
along with laminitis due to histamine from dead ruminal bacteria toxins congesting in the
hoof. Therefore, providing adequate forage can optimize rumen health. Roughages can be
forages but can also include byproducts such as hulls from soybeans and cottonseeds. Some
byproducts can provide ample NDF but are of small particle size and contribute little to
saliva production from rumination.

In dairy cattle nutrition, carbohydrates are divided into two fractions: structural
carbohydrates and related compounds (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin), and non-
structural carbohydrates (starches and sugars). Lignin is not a carbohydrate but is part of
NDF. (Neutral detergent fiber). Structural carbohydrates are typically expressed as NDF.
Neutral detergent fiber is that material that remains after digesting a dried and ground sample
in boiling, neutral detergent solution for 1 h. The material will comprise of cellulose,
hemicelluloses, lignin, and any N bound to the fiber. The recommended concentration of
NDF to feed is close to 27%–28% of the diet DM (dry matter) for lactating cows. Primary
sources of NDF are hays, silage, pasture, and roughages. Acid detergent fiber (ADF) is what
remains after NDF is boiled in acidic detergent solution for 1 h. In this process,
hemicellulose is lost, and cellulose and lignin remain. Therefore hemicelluloses = % NDF- %
ADF.

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It is suggested that most cows be fed diets containing greater than 50% of the diet as
forages, however, this can vary significantly depending on the inclusion of fibrous
byproducts. However, there are instances where more forages can result in adequate
production. Heifers and dry cows are fed diets with a much greater proportion of forages than
lactating cows due to the lesser nutrient requirements of cattle in these life-phases. Producers
need to strive for the highest quality forage as it dictates the purchase of commercial grains
and supplements. Higher quality forages (lesser NDF) will result in decreasing the need for
purchased feeds and enhance the farm's profits.

Proteins:

Most Proteins are chain of amino acids hooked together. Proteins/amino acids are
essential for body tissue growth and milk synthesis (as milk has casein which is a protein).
There are essential and non-essential amino acids. Some amino acids and microbial proteins
are synthesized in the rumen of the animal. Dietary proteins in ruminants are classified as
rumen degradable proteins (RDP) and rumen undegradable protein (RUP). Both types of
proteins are required in cows ration for better production. Protein requirement increases with
increase in milk production. Proteins are required for body maintenance and milk production
etc. NRC and ICAR have mentioned detail of required amount proteins for various categories
of animals. Non protein nitrogen (NPN) is nitrogen that commons from sources other than
true protein like urea etc. this nitrogen to some extend is utilized by the rumen bacteria for
synthesis of microbial protein. Excess of NPN in ration is not desirable. Quality of protein
depends on its constituting amino acids quality. Proteins having Basic amino acids and
sulphur containing amino acids etc are considered better. Sources of protein are leguminous
fodders, oil cakes, pulses (dal chunnis) etc.

Fat:

Fat comprises the most energy dense nutrient with 2.25 times as energy than
carbohydrates or protein. Fat is not appreciably fermented in the rumen resulting in little heat
of fermentation and can help maintain caloric intake especially when cattle are experiencing
heat-stress.

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Type of fat:

Fat can be divided into two types, glycerol, and non-glycerol. Non-glycerol- type fats
have little to no nutritive value and include waxes and sterols; whereas glycerol-type fats
include triglycerides, phospholipids and glycolipids and are of nutritive value. These fats
contain the glycerol backbone, carbohydrate or phosphate moiety and have long carbon
chains. Rumen microbes can incorporate fatty acids into their cell membrane and modify the
typical even number of carbon fatty acids into odd C chain fatty acids. Unsaturated fats have
double bonds whereas saturated fats are fully hydrogenated. Most plant fats are unsaturated
whereas most terrestrial animal fats contain varying amounts of saturated fat.

Rumen inactive fats: High level of Fats that are hydrogenated in the rumen (oils etc) can
have deleterious effects on rumen microbes resulting in milk fat depression, decreased dry
matter intake and decreased milk yield. These negative effects are a function of how rapidly
these fats are available to microbes in the rumen. For instance, cottonseeds, or lightly
processed feedstuffs (such as cracked soybeans) will not have a deleterious effect due to their
slow release. Further processing (reducing particle size) of higher fat feedstuffs will result in
negative effects on rumen fermentation. The oil can coat the fiber and reduce fiber
digestibility and result in decreased numbers of microbes.

When rumen microbes are presented with unsaturated fatty acids, they attempt to
hydrogenate the double bonds often resulting in isomers that result in milk fat
depression. Various dietary factors such as low NDF, small particle size of fiber, high diet
ferment ability (high starch), high concentration of unsaturated fat, or more likely, the
combination of the factors can result in incomplete bio hydrogenation resulting in increased
ruminal production of isomers of C18:2 and C18:1 which can decrease milk fat synthesis in
the mammary gland.31

Feeding prilled fats (solid at room temperature) will not be hydrogenated in the rumen
and will pass to the small intestine for modification and absorption. Fatty acids bound to
metal ions (Ca) form soaps and are considered partially protected and will only be
moderately broken down in the rumen.

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As fats pass through the rumen and reach the small intestine, absorption will occur
once fats are emulsified with the help of lysolecithin and absorbed as a micelle. These will be
transported to the lymph and then to the heart and partitioned to the necessary organ. In early
lactation, fats will be transported to the mammary gland and can be incorporated into milk fat
thus saving nutrients for use in other synthetic requirements of the mammary gland (lactose)
and often resulting in an increase in milk yield. Post-peak milk production, dietary fat will be
stored as adipose for use in the subsequent lactation.

It is imperative to remember that almost all feed items with the exception of water and
minerals contain fat. Many lipid-soluble vitamins have isoprene’s as their carbon backbones.
Carbohydrates typically are associated with about 3% fat with some immature grasses having
over 5% fat. Protein meals tend to also have around 3% fat depending on how they are
processed while some distillers and brewers grains can contain up to 10% fat. Oilseeds
(soybeans, cottonseed, canola, flax) typically have approximately 20% fat while some lesser-
used oilseeds (sunflower, pumpkin) can have fat content approaching 45%.
Recommendations to feed typically indicate not to feed more than 8% of fat in total dry
matter. A typical TMR (total mixed ration) with no supplemental fat will contain about 3%–
4% fat. The oilseeds should be cracked for canola, soybean, or flax, but left whole for
cottonseed since over processing will result in poor performance by the cows.

As lactation progresses and milk production begins to drop, it is common to remove

the inert fat (rumen by pass fat) and as a cow enters late lactation, the oilseeds will typically
be removed from the diet. It is recommended that calcium level be increased in the diet when
feeding fat to 1% of diet dry matter to reduce any deleterious effects on rumen fermentation.

If fat is fed correctly, early lactation cows should see higher milk yields, sometimes
enhanced milk fat content, but almost always a reduced milk protein concentration. However,
there may be an increase in milk protein yield (kg) due to the increased milk yield. Cows
post-peak should see an increase in body condition. Cows should also experience improved
fertility through either greater energy balance or improved hormone concentrations involved
in reproduction.

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Minerals:

Minerals are essential for optimum health for all living species. Mineral deficiencies
can lead to disease and excess can cause toxicity. They are essential for growth,
reproduction, production, and maintenance of health as they are involved in many digestive,
physiological, and biosynthetic processes in the body. Feeds and fodder are deficient in one
or the other minerals. The leguminous forages have been found to be rich in Ca, P, Mg, Fe,
Cu and Zn and the non-leguminous forages rich in Mn, but the availability of both macro as
well as micro elements reduce with the maturity of the plant. Grains and protein supplements
are rich in P but low in Ca.

Minerals are generally classified into two categories.

1. Macro elements (Major elements):

The minerals, which are required in relatively large amount and in most of cases they
are used in the synthesis of structural tissues. Their concentration is expressed in term of
percentage. The important major elements are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, chlorine, and sulphur. Calcium and Phosphorus: Calcium and phosphorus serve as
the major structural elements of skeletal tissue.

Deficiency of calcium may result in an increased incidence of milk fever, decreased

feed intake which results in a drop in milk production. About 80% of phosphorus in the body
is found in bones and teeth, as calcium phosphate. Phosphorus is present in every cell of the
body and almost all energy transactions involve formation or breakdown of ATP. Phosphorus
is also intimately involved in acid base buffer system of blood and other body fluids, as
component of cell walls and cell contents as phospholipids, phospho-proteins, and nucleic
acids. Its deficiency can cause reproductive issues like anestrus.

For efficient utilization of non-protein nitrogen, the dietary nitrogen sulphur ratio
should be between 10:1 and 12:1. Deficiency of either N or S hampers ruminal cellulose
digestion and reduces animal performance.

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Na and K are also important minerals. The Na-K pump is essential for enabling
active transport of nutrients (glucose, amino acids and phosphate into cells and hydrogen,
calcium, bicarbonate, potassium, and chloride ions out of cells) across the cell membrane.

If the diet is deficient in Mg, it causes hypo-magnesium tetany (also called grass
tetany or grass staggers) in young calves or in fresh cows which are shifted to grazing
pastures. The symptoms include excessive nervousness, twitching of muscles, laboured
breathing, rapid pulse rate, convulsions, and death. Potassium and chloride ions out of cells)
across the cell membrane. The deficiency signs include loss of appetite, Intense craving for
salt, licking and chewing various objects and general pica.

2. Micro elements (Minor elements or trace elements): These minerals required in trace
amounts and usually function as activators or as a component of enzyme system. The
concentration of trace elements is expressed in terms of part per million (PPM) since their
concentration is very low in the plants and body. The important trace elements include zinc,
manganese, iron, copper, iodine, cobalt, fluorine, selenium, molybdenum, chromium, nickel,
silicon, tin, and vanadium.

The efficiency of absorption and availability of inorganic elements to the animal

depend on the dietary source, interaction with other elements and nutrients, age and
physiological status of the animal.

Copper deficiency includes anemia, retarded growth rate and milk yield, diarrhea,
de-pigmentation of hair and swelling of the leg bones above the pasterns. Young animals are
more likely to be affected by a copper deficiency than mature animals. Copper deficiency
suppresses the activity of cellular defense systems, and results in an increased susceptibility
to parasitism & disease.

Cobalt: Cobalt is essential for ruminants as it is incorporated into vitamin B12 by

rumen microbes and, therefore, affects the formation of blood. The importance of Co and
B12 becomes apparent when the observation is made that the main source of energy to
ruminants is not glucose as in monogastrics, but from the metabolism of VFAs like, acetic
and propionic acids. Vitamin B12 is required for the enzymatic activity.

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Zinc plays a major role in disease resistance, immune responsiveness, and certain
reproductive hormones. Zinc is known to be essential for sexual maturity, reproductive
capacity, and more specifically, onset of estrus. Zn has a critical role in the repair and
maintenance of uterine lining following parturition, speeding return to normal reproductive
function and estrus. Mild iodine deficiency will produce less milk, have a poor hair coat and
have increased incidence of mastitis.

Fluorine, selenium, molybdenum, chromium, nickel, silicon, tin, and vanadium are other
essential trace elements essentially required for various body processes and can influence
milk production and health.

The poor-quality crop residues have enough Na, K, Fe and Mn but, deficient in Ca, P, Mg
and Cu.

Requirement and maximum tolerable limit of minerals for cattle :

Element Requirements and Maximum tolerable limit Major minerals:

Ca, % 0.43-0.77 Max 2.0

P, % 0.28-0.48 Max1.0

Mg, % 0.20-0.25 Max 0.5

K, % 0.90-1.00 Max 3.0

Na, % 0.18

Cl, % 0.25

S, % 0.20-0.25 Max 0.4

Trace elements requirements: Fe, ppm 50 Max; 1000 ; Cu, ppm 10 max100; Zn, ppm
40 max500 ;Mn, ppm 40 max 1000; Se, ppm 0.3 max2 I; Co, ppm 0.1 max10

Mineral supplement should be area specific keeping in mind status of minerals in soil and
type of feed/ forages of the region. Never over-feed the minerals especially beyond tolerance
levels.

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Practically it is very difficult to assess each and all essential minerals in ration of a
cow however one has to ensure that in high yielding animals supplementation of
commercially available standard mineral mixture should be included in the ration wherever
necessary. Mineral mixtures are available with salt and without common salt; Mineral
mixtures in combination with vitamins are also available in the market.

Amount of mineral; mixture: 1) Cow, Buffalo: 50-100 g daily, depending upon level of milk
production. 2) Adult & non-producing animals: 50 g daily 3) Calves: 25 g daily for better
weight gain (or as recommendation of the manufacturer)

Vitamins: vitamins are organic compounds needed in minute amounts that are essential for
life. A vitamin must be in the diet or be synthesized by microorganisms in the digestive
system and then absorbed by the host animal. Currently there are 14 recognized vitamins of
which four are fat-soluble and ten are water-soluble, but not all animals require all 14
vitamins when an animal absorbs an inadequate quantity of a particular vitamin, various
responses are observed depending on the vitamin and the degree and duration of deficiency.
The most severe situation is a clinical deficiency. Marginal deficiencies of vitamins usually
have more subtle and less defined signs but can include reduced growth and milk production,
poor reproduction, and increased prevalence of infectious diseases. Research in the past few
years has concentrated on water soluble vitamins. However, all cows should be fed
supplemental fat-soluble vitamins but not all cows need to be supplemented with water
soluble vitamins. Of the 14 known vitamins, only two (vitamins A and E) have absolute
dietary requirements for dairy cows. Vitamin A plays a key role in maintaining healthy
maintenance of eyes, skin, and the linings of the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive
tracts. Vitamin E for proper reproduction etc,

• Supplementing fat- and water-soluble vitamins properly can increase milk production
and/or improve animal health resulting in increased profitability but adding excess or
unneeded vitamins increases feed costs and can reduce profitability.

• All diets fed to dairy cows (dry and lactating) should be supplemented with vitamins A
(approximately 90,000 IU/day), D (15,000 to 25,000 IU/day) and E (500 to 1000
IU/day).

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• Supplementing biotin at approximately 20 mg/day can improve hoof health and reduce
lameness. Milk production often, but not always, increases.

• Supplementing niacin at approximately 6 g/day is unlikely to affect health or milk

production. Some production responses might be observed at 12 g/day.

• Rumen-protected choline fed the first few months of lactation usually increases milk
production and is often profitable but profitable responses are less likely later in
lactation.

Water Soluble Vitamins

A little is known, whether cows have an absolute dietary requirement for any of the
water-soluble vitamins. The liver and kidney of the cow can synthesize vitamin C, and
ruminal and intestinal bacteria synthesize most, if not all, of the B-vitamins. The
concentrations of many B vitamins are relatively high in many common feeds; therefore, in
the vast majority of situations cows do not need to consume any supplemental water-soluble
vitamins to prevent clinical deficiency. Based on a survey of the highest producing dairy herds
the only water-soluble vitamins fed were niacin and choline and biotin.

The predominant function of the B-vitamins is to act as co-factors for enzymes that are
involved in amino acid, energy, fatty acid, and nucleic acid metabolism Many of these
enzymes are involved directly in the production of milk and milk components The potential
imbalance between supply and need in today’s high producing cow increase the likelihood
that responses will be observed when B-vitamins are supplemented.

Example of Nutrient Requirement of a High Yielding Cow and Very High Yielding
Cow:

Milk production, kg 25 54.4

DM intake, kg/day 20.3 30.0

Energy, NElb, Mcal/kg 1.37 1.61

Metabolizable protein, g/d 1,862 3,476

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RDPc, % 9.5 9.8

RUPd, % 4.6 6.9

NDFe, % min 25–33 25–33

NFCf, % max 36–44 36–44

a
DM intake = dry matter intake
b
NEl = net energy of lactation
c
RDP = rumen degradable protein
d
RUP = rumen undegradable protein
e
NDF = neutral detergent fiber
f
NFC = non-fiber carbohydrate

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Computer Simulated Modeling in Dairy Farming

Dr P S Oberoi, PhD (LPM), Ex-Principal Scientist
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

Dairy farming has development an important role in rural development activities of the
country, especially in poverty alleviation programs through livestock development, and can
boost the rural economy of the country. To understand the technical and economic viability
of the project before its execution, one can prepare a simulated computer model, using a
computer spread sheet. The preparation of techno economic feasibility model is helpful in
making a dairy project report for getting finance from financial institutes and for successful
implementation of the project.

Steps for dairy project report preparation using the computer simulated models:

Step 1:

Visit existing dairy farms in the area where proposed activity is to be undertaken and around;
collect relevant information.

Step 2: work out relevant technologies for the dairy projects:

Production and management:

• Artificial insemination with superior germ plasma, Embryo transfer technology,

synchronization of heat,

• Machine milking system

• Heat stress management systems (shed design, use of cool air, forgers, misters,
wallowing tanks)

• Manure Handling System

• Silage based complete mixed ration feeding i.e., TMR (Total mixed ration/Partial
mixed ration)

• Precision feeding, least cost feed formulation using computer-based software.

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• Feeding management to reduce heat stress (use of yeast, niacin, enzymes, chelated
minerals, energy rich ingredients etc)

• Calf feeding management (Use of milk replacers, calf starters etc)

Step 3:

Use computer simulated modeling techniques for projects -economic feasibility analysis.

Make Executable Project plans (including housing and fodder growing arrangements etc.)
with the help of competent consultant and experienced project managers.

KEY PRINCIPLES TO KEEP IN MIND FOR DAIRY PROJECT PLANNING

• Work out financial feasibility

• Having a skilled project manager or taking his guidance will reduce stress on the
owner.

• Location of sheds and Alignment of building, shading and air flow

• Proper effluent management (Regulations &space)

• Store (size type)

• Comfort of cow and milking staff/staff

• Vehicle access, turning place, parking place.

• Good cow flow/replacement, Efficient breeding system

• Feeding system (Cost, required nutrient supply)

Planning different types of simulated Dairy farming modules, premeditated with different
objectives and targets demands sound knowledge of dairy production and other related
aspects formulating a project plan requires various steps. A techno-economic feasibility study
for the proposed Dairy-farming project considering available resources and markets is an
essential and crucial step. The feasibility study under varied conditions, especially under
diverse market price structures and other conditions must be undertaken before a project is
started. “Computer simulating modeling,” using realistic basic technical and cost related

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input data, is a very handy and versatile tool to visualize, analyze and compare the different
projects, virtually in no time. Not only this, but the modeling can also facilitate managers in
planning and directing their future work with respect to livestock farming.

PREPARATION OF VIABLE PROJECT FOR FINANCE:

To obtain financial assistance for dairy projects a techno-economic feasibility report is

written and presented to the financial institute. The scheme or project report normally
includes all the relevant facts and figures together with economic analysis required to assure
the project of its technical feasibility and economic viability before it is financed. Financial
institutions study the technical feasibility considering various technical parameters
considered for preparing the reports and bank ability considering return on investment,
repayment schedule and security aspects.

In India loan from banks with refinance facility from national bank for agricultural
and rural development (NABARD) is available. For obtaining loan the farmer/ entrepreneurs
should apply to the nearest branch of commercial, co-operative, or regional rural bank in the
prescribed application forms, which is available in the above, mentioned banks. Guidance of
agriculture field officer/ technical officer or the manager of the bank can also be taken in
preparation of the project report. For projects with vary large outlays detail project reports
should be prepared as per the requirements of the bank.

Under lending terms, the bank normally defines the rate of interest security, repayment
period of loan, maximum possible cost of purchase of animals / equipments and margin
money i.e., contribution of entrepreneurs in the total cost of the project. The margin money
for small farmers is normally less as compared to medium and larger farmers (normally 5%,
10%, and 15% for small, medium, and large farmers respectively). Bank rates are charged as
per the overall guidelines of RBI (normally 11-12% p.a.). Security is as per NABARD /RBI
guidelines issued. The repayment period depends upon gross surplus in the financial analysis
and preferably within 5-6 years with a grace period of one year. The repayment of the loan is
made quarterly/half yearly or annually. The Financial institute as per its landing terms
expects insurance of all the Once the bank official ensures the techno-economic viability of
the scheme, the bank normally sanctions the loan.

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TECHNO-ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY REPORT PREPARATION:

Techno-economic feasibility report of a dairy project should be prepared as per the topics
mentioned below.

Sr. N. Topic
1 Introduction of the project (give current scenario of dairy farming, scope etc. in
the proposed area)
2 A) Location and address of the proposed project
B) Objective of the project (specify, self employment/ additional income
generation etc.
3 Personal details of the entrepreneurs (give following details:
A) Status of the entrepreneurs (individual/partnership/co-operative society.
B) Category: large/ medium / small/ land less
C) Experience of entrepreneurs: agriculture/ dairy farming etc.
D) Financial status (give existing loan liabilities and assets etc.)
E) Education and technical qualification
F) Availability of family labor
G) Management capabilities (mentioned self management or hired management)
4. Investment plan (give item wise and year wise investment plan on housing,
equipment, and livestock etc. and giving total outlay)
5 Economic analysis for economic viability (give detail of livestock strength,
technical parameters, and rates (purchasing and selling rates) considered for
economic analysis, expenditure and income statement, gross profits, cash after
disbursing loan installment and loan interest, repayment schedule, return on
investment etc. (Detail for this is given on subsequent text under the heading
“Computer Simulating Modeling techniques for Techno-Economic Feasibility
Analysis”
6 Summary & conclusion (based on economic analysis parameters indicates the
techno-economic viability of the project etc.)
The report can be submitted to the financial institution for securing a loan. Even if a
loan is not required an entrepreneur must prepare a techno-economic feasibility report. This
will help him in studying the feasibility of the project in a specific situation. Further, while
executing the project the report will help in it’s monitoring by comparing technical and

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economical parameters achieved and targeted in the project. He must receive practical
training from competent training imparting organization/progressive farmer. Local Krishi
Vigyan Kendras / stare agriculture universities ATIC NDRI may also be contacted.

It is highly desirable that before starting a dairy unit an entrepreneur should collect relevant
facts and figures about the new enterprise for techno–economic feasibility analysis.

COMPUTER SIMULATING MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR TECHNO-

ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS:

The computer models are indispensable tools for farm managers, in monitoring, future
planning and appropriate decision-making for running an enterprise efficiently and
economically. The computer models assist a planner or entrepreneur to take up or discard
the proposed scheme the modeling tool also help in monitoring and modifying the existing
plan with changing environment specially with changing market scenarios.

Realistic basic information on various technical aspects of dairy farming, existing and
expected costs and prices of raw and finished products as well as other on other economic
parameters are the basis of the simulating modeling technique. The success of the models’
results largely depends on the truthfulness of the above-required information. The utmost
care should be used while collecting and compiling the information. There is always a need
to cross verification of the information collected for the modeling from different sources
before incorporating in the structure of the model.

Computer based spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel program can be used for
structuring the model, through interlinking logistically the various steps required to prepare a
techno-economic feasibility plan. Using the available technical information on dairy
production, available costs and prices various models using Microsoft Excel programs
models for dairy farming has been developed for small-scale to medium-scale farmers. One
such model is illustrated below. (The model can be obtained through e-mail, by sending
request to the author ([email protected]).

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Following is a simulated dairy project prepared on excel sheet on computer:

30 COWS DAIRY UNIT MODEL

TECHNO-ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY REPORT OF PROPOSED DAIRY FARMING UNIT

RESULTS AT GLANCE:

Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5 AV.

1) CAPITAL REQUIRED (Rs) 4331250

a) Owners Capital (Rs) 1429313

b) Loan Amount (Rs) 2901938

2) RETURN ON CAPITAL
INVESTMENT (%) 17.97 18.56 18.90 32.16 35.76 24.67

3) BC RATIO 1.21 1.20 1.20 1.33 1.36 1.26

4) ANNUAL CASH BALANCE AFTER DEBT

SERVICE (Rs) 35276 112116 179732 808538 1020744 431281

5) INCOME IF FAMILY LABOUR

USED/YEAR (Rs) 384176 380997 416934 429442 442325 410775

6) AVERAGE INCOME/MONTH IF HIRED 2940 9343 14978 67378 85062 35940

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LABOUR (RS)

7) AVERAGE INCOME/MONTH IF FAMILY

LABOUR (RS) 32015 31750 34744 35787 36860 34231

8) TOTAL GAINS (paid loan + F. Income + gain in

Cow Unit) 1187313 1208885 1269571 1009829 1022712 1139662

9) COST OF MILK PRODUCTION

(Rs) 34.39 35.64 37.04 37.02 37.03 36.23

A) PRODUCTION PARAMETERS CONSIDERED AND LIVESTOCK STRENGTH

Size of the Dairy Unit (Cows) 30 Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5 AV.

Total Estimated animal units (Including

calves) 33 36 39 39 39 37.08

Total lactating cows units 30 30 30 30 30 30

Average daily milk yield of cow

purchased 15.00

Increase in Milk Production Over

Previous Year in % 2 2 2 2 2.00

Inter-calving period (Months) 14

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Culling Rate% 20

B) MILK PRODUCTION
PROJECTIONS Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5 AV.

Total number of expected lactations/year* 25.7 25.7 25.7 25.7 25.7 25.7

Expected Milk yield/Lactation 4500 4590 4682 4775 4871 4684

Total milk production (lit) 115714 118029 120389 122797 125253 120436

Minus milk for feeding calves

(lit)(300Lt/calf) 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714 7714

Milk available for sale (lit) 108000 110314 112675 115083 117539 112722

Daily availability of milk for sale 296 302 309 315 322 309

C) TECHNICAL PARAMETERS AND COST OF PURCHASED MATERIAL&SALE PRICES CONSIDERED:

Market price of cow considered on per liter average daily yield (Rs) 5500

Estimated cost/cow (Rs) 82500

Estimated Housing +Equipments cost @3/4 of cost /cow unit (Rs) 61875

Estimated capital Investment /cow unit

(Rs) 144375

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Estimated investment on cows 2475000

Machinery &Equipment (Milking machine, cans, Milko tester etc) 426938

Estimated total capital (Rs) 4331250

Rate Of Interest 12

Margin money (%) 33

Owners Capital 1429313

Loan (Rs) = 2901938

Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5 AV.

Annual Increase in Feed Cost, Milk Selling prices & wages % 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00

Milk Selling Price (Rs)/Lit. : 38.00 39.14 40.31 41.52 42.77 40.35

Purchase price of Green Fodder

(Rs)/KG: 1.75 1.80 1.86 1.91 1.97 1.86

Purchase price of Straw (Rs)/KG: 7.00 7.21 7.43 7.65 7.88 7.43

Purchase price of Concentrate

(Rs)/KG: 32.00 32.96 33.95 34.97 36.02 33.98

Contractual labor Wages /cow 7000 7210 7426 7649 7879 8115

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unit/year

Number of manager/supervisors hired 1 1 1 1 1 1

Supervisors (If required) salary /

annum 120000 123600 127308 131127 135061 139113

Unit Cost
D) EXECTED SALE PROCEEDS (Rs.) Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5

I) Milk 38.00 4104000 4317701 4542397 4778649 5027047

ii) Misc. Sales

Animal unit sold (culled) 20% of total

animal unit 41250 269775 294525 321750 321750 321750

Value of Surplus Heifers/cows (after3

yr.) sold 82,500 0 0 0 424286 424286

Male calf (disposed of within 2 months) 50 643 643 643 643 643

Female Calf 50%disposed (disposed of

within 4-6 months) 5000 32143 32143 32143 32143 32143

Insurance Claim cows (75% cost, of

2%mortality) 61,875 37125 37125 37125 37125 37125

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Cow dung/animal unit 1500 49050 53550 58500 58500 58500

iii) Total Sales 4492736 4735687 4992557 5653095 5901493

E) EXPECTED OPERATIONAL EXPENDITURE

Ist year Unit Cost (Rs.)

Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5

G. Fodder cost @ 20kg/animal unit 1.75 417743 456068 498225 498225 498225

Straw @ 4Kg/animal unit 7 334194 375800 422854 435539 448605

Concentrate for milk production @

3Kg/Lit 32 1234286 1296741 1362356 1431291 1503714

Concentrate maintenance @0.5Kg/ani.

unit 32 190968 214743 241631 248880 256346

Medicines & AI etc. 5000 163500 178500 195000 195000 195000

Rent/leasing cost for land for Shed etc

/A.unit. 2500 81750 89250 97500 97500 97500

Contractual labor Wages /cow

unit/year 7000 228900 257397 289626 298314 307264

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Salary of supervisor/annum 120000 120000 123600 127308 131127 135061

Insurance premium cows only 4 99000 99000 99000 99000 99000

Electricity charges@ 2500 /animal

unit/year 2500 81750 89250 97500 97500 97500

Other misc. charges@2500/animal unit 2500 81750 89250 97500 97500 97500

Replacement cost of animal unit culled 82500 495000 495000 495000 495000 495000

(a) Total operating cost 3528840 3764597 4023498 4124876 4230715

Operating surplus (Total sale - Operational cost) 963896 971090 969059 1528219 1670778

(b) Dep. On shed machinery &

Equipments 10 185625 167063 150356 135321 121789

Total Exp. (a+b) 3714465 3931660 4173855 4260197 4352504

F) NET PROFIT 778271 804027 818703 1392898 1548989

G) RETURN ON CAPITAL INVEST.

(%) 17.97 18.56 18.90 32.16 35.76

H) BC RATIO 1.21 1.20 1.20 1.33 1.36

I) COST OF MILK PRODUCTION (Rs) 34.39 35.64 37.04 37.02 37.03

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J) LOAN DISBURSEMENT AND PAYMENT SCHEDULE

YEAR Loan Interest Installment Total

1 2901938 348233 580388 928620

2 2321550 278586 580388 858974

3 1741163 208940 580388 789327

4 1160775 139293 580388 719681

5 580388 69647 580388 650034

6 0 0 0

K) CASH BALANCE AFTER DEBT SERVICE

YEAR

Open.
Surplus Payments Cash balance

1 963896 928620 35276

2 971090 858974 112116

3 969059 789327 179732

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4 1528219 719681 808538

5 1670778 650034 1020744

L) CASH BALANCE IF FAMILY LABOUR

EMPLOYED (Rs) Year-1 Year-2 Year-3 Year-4 Year-5

384176 380997 416934 429442 442325

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Innovative Ration and Feed Formulation

Dr P S Oberoi, PhD (LPM), Ex-Principal Scientist
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

DAIRY ANIMALS RATION FORMULATION USING AVAILABLE SCIENTIFIC

KNOWLEDGE:

Balancing dairy animals’ diets is necessary to optimize growth, reproduction, and

milk production, thereby exploiting the available genetic potentials of the dairy animals.
Other important aspect of the ration balancing is, “economic feeding”; this can be achieved
by selecting cost effective ingredients having required nutrients with desired digestibility
and flow rate in the digestive track of the dairy animals.

Ration formulation needs information on nutrients requirement (as per ARC or

NRC etc.) in terms of Energy, Protein, Vitamins, Minerals etc., for various production
functions and their availability from feeding stuffs as well as their efficiency of
utilization. In ration formulation meeting correct energy requirement is most important
and difficult task in ruminants

Steps for ration formulation:

1. Collect the following information of the group of animals (individual animal for
precision feeding): Average body weight, milk production, stage of lactation, milk
production level. Size of breed (large or small), daily weight change etc.

2. Collect Nutrient requirements for the above group of animals from reliable standard
information sources (NRC 2001; Nutrient requirements of cattle and buffalo ICAR
publication).

3. Collect information on the feed ingredients nutrient contents (NRC 2001 publication,
Nutrient composition of Indian feed and fodder ICAR New Delhi publication) and their
availability or use actual true value preferably through various analysis techniques
(detergent method or CNCPS recommended). Generally true values after analysis are
not available, use best available tabulated values for the ingredients of the ration.

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4. Keep net protein requirement and required amount of RDP and RUP as it is highly
important, especially for lactating animals.

5. Ensure the recommended level of Fat % including rumen bypass fat.

6 Among minerals, most important major minerals are calcium and phosphorus one
must periodically evaluate their status and ensure the required level in the ration.
Since assessing essential trace minerals status in the animal as well feeding stuff is
complex, consuming, and expensive and is difficult to analyze on routine basis.
Practically one has to ensure that at least 50%-70% of these requirements must be
supplemented through trace mineral mix, rest may be expected to come through
forages and other concentrates ingredients included in the ration/TMR.

7 The use of various feed supplements like buffers, yeast, toxin binders, chelated
minerals, bypass fat and bypass proteins etc. should be included as per specific
requirements of the animals and must be cost effective.

a. use appropriate excel sheet/ software etc. (FAO link

https://www.feedipedia.org/content/fao-ration-formulation-tool-dairy-
cows, NRC link https://www.nap.edu/catalog/dairymodel/ ) and insert the
required input for the animal whose ration is being prepared and
analytical values of the ingredient used.

(One can use various software/excel based sheets for ration formulation
programs available like the FAO Ration Formulation Tool for dairy
cows calculates least-cost rations for dairy cows using locally available
resources. It has been specifically designed for technicians looking for a simple
and easy to use formulation tool. Considering the requirements and available
feeding material and their nutritive value an excel-based computer excel sheet
can be developed and utilized for ration formulation. A computer-based
software has also been developed by NDDB for advising milk producers in
local language to balance the ration of their animals with the locally available
feed resources and area specific mineral mixture at their doorstep.)

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8 Output (ration formulation) must have required characteristics.

Characteristics of formulated Ration:

1. It must meet the requirements of DMI, Energy, Protein (both rumen degradable
as well undegradable protein), Fiber (NDF, ADF minimum values and NFC
max values), Dietary calcium percentage, absorbable phosphorus, Mg %,Cl%
,K%, Na% ,S%, Co mg/kg, Cu mg/kg ,I mg/kg, Fe mg/kg, Mn mg/kg. Se
mg/Kg, Zn mg/kg. Vitamin A, D, E, IU/day

2. Ensuring consumption of required DMI by the animal and providing required

amount of net energy (NE) for various production function through the DMI.

3. The basis of a cow’s ration should be high-quality forage.

4. The Ration must be palatable and DMI of the ration should be as per the
expected requirement. While formulating ration focus should be on finding
ways (palatable, quality ingredients etc.) to make cows eat more ration. This
is a strategy to increase milk flow with a minimum increase in feed costs to
increase feed intakes.

5. While ration formulation considers DMI during the first month as 2.2%
BW at calving and2.8% BW at 14 days and 3.3% at 30 days.

6. Acid neutral detergent fiber should be at least 18 percent and neutral

detergent fiber at least 28 percent of ration dry matter.

7. According to bunk management score DMI can be further adjusted for the
ration.

8. Added fat shouldn’t go above 7 percent of ration dry matter. Fat at over 5%
should be furnished by rumen-inert or by-pass fats. Some minerals are used
at higher level indicated when fat content exceeds 4.0%. Inclusion of
choline as feed supplement can improve utilization of the added fat.

9. The ration differences between groups should be minimal, otherwise cows

will decrease milk yield significantly when they are moved to a different

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group. Limit differences in concentrate dry matter proportions to not over

10 to 15% between groups

10. Balance rations to meet the nutrient requirements for each stage of
lactation.

11. In heat stress conditions, ingredients used for energy sources fibre levels (CHO
fractions in ration) should be considered. Further in such ration bypass fat
level, Mg level and buffer levels may be readjusted.

12. Cation /anion ratio in transition period and heat stress in TMR may be adjusted.

13. Considering rumination time/frequency, fecal constancy, particles in the feed

adjust levels of ingredients especially with high soluble carbohydrates.

14. Feed supplements like live yeast and buffer supplements level may be adjusted
as per DMI level, summer stress and fibre contents of the ration.

15. Toxin binder’s quality and dose is important and must not bind other essential
constituents of ration,

16. In high yielding cow the importance of fiber levels (CHO fractions in ration),
should be recognized and appropriately adjusted.

17. Feed additives and supplements of established nutritive value and cost effective
should only be included in the ration/TMR. While some feed additives bring a
tremendous value and are worth the cost, there are many feed additives not
backed by good research

18. If Inclusion of ionophores in ration is necessary as feed additives, use it

with caution using proper mixing as higher levels in ration may be highly
toxic.

THUMB RULE METHOD FOR RATION FORMULATION

In this method animals tentative body weight, required DMI (dry matter intake) and
concentrate roughage ratio of feed for the total dry matter to be fed are used for ration

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formulation. For this type of ration formulation necessary change may be done considering
body condition of the dairy animals, quality of feed and actual intake of dry matter.

Steps for this type of ration formulation;

I. Calculate the total nutrient requirements (DMI requirement) by adding maintenance

requirement as per body weight and lactation requirement as per milk yield.

II. Add 20% of maintenance requirement for 1st lactation and 10% for second lactation.

III. The practical dry matter intake is calculated by adding 2% of body weight and one
third of milk yield.

IV. The concentrate and roughage ration is decided based on production level as
mentioned below:

Milk Yield (kg) Roughage: Concentrate ratio

Cattle Buffalo Roughage Concentrate

Up to 6 kg Up to 5 kg 100 0#

7-14 6-10 70 30

15-20 11-15 60 40

21-30 16-20 50 50*

30 + 20+ 40 60*

# Such animals should be provided with an appropriate amount of mineral mixture with
vitamins. Preferably green roughages.

#Although the low milk production may be supported by supplementing only quality green
fodder it is better to provide 1kg concentrate mixture to support animal for higher level of
production

* At this level of production appropriate supplements and additives like yeast, buffers,
bypass fat etc should be added in ration (in concentrate mixture).

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SIMPLE METHOD OF FORMULATING CONCENTRATES:

This simple method is used for formulation of compounded concentrate mixture for
cattle and buffaloes having low to medium yields

The following are the proportions of various ingredients for making concentrate, of
ingredients.

a. Cereal Grains: Maize, Bajra, barley any other locally available cereal :
32-40%

Cereal grains are rich in starch and have moderate amount of proteins. These
are considered as energy supplying ingredients in the ration the level should be
decided based on the production level and body condition score of animals. Mixture of
these grains can be taken, bitter grains can be kept on lower side about 10-15%, maize
exclusively can be taken up to 40 %, but buffers must be added in the concentrate
ration,

b. Agriculture byproducts: Wheat bran, Rice bran, Deoiled rice bran,

byproducts of pulses processing industry : 28-32 %

These byproducts generally have more protein than cereal grains but less than
protein supplements, rich in phosphorous and fiber and varying amount of fat.
Molasses should be5-7%.

Protein supplements (Cottonseed cakes, Mustard oil and deoiled cake, Soyabean
meal, Groundnut cake, sunflower meal, guar korma, Guar churl, Maize gluten
meal etc.: 30-34% (Mustard cake being bitter should be used about 10-15%) . Protein
rich ingredients should be added carefully according to the palatability issues of local
area. It is better if we use more than two protein supplements in the ration. Protein is
the costliest nutrient and hence ingredients need to be selected carefully. Depending
on the availability of roughage and production level of animal these may be reduced
or increased.

c. Mineral mixture: 1.5-2%

d. Common salt :1%

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e. Buffer:0.5%.
f. Toxin binder:0.1% (if feed is to be stored for longer time and ingredients
are of poor quality this should be added
g. Other Feed additives: for high yielding cows bypass fat 1-2%, yeast 0.1 %
may be included

CALF STARTER FORMULATION:

For a calf to grow efficiently, it must have a successful transition from liquid
to solid feed. A proper solid feed is required to stimulate rumen development. Solid
feeds produce VFA which also stimulate rumen microbes to proliferate. For making
calf starter palatable grains like maize and palatable protein supplement like soyabean
meal, ground nut cake and byproduct like wheat bran are preferred.

Adequate amount of vitamins, major and trace minerals along with use of probiotics
and prebiotics supplements is suggested.

Specifications of calf starter: DCP- 18-20%; CP- 24- 26%; Fat- 5-7%; Crude fibre-
<5; TDN- 75-78%.
(Important: For commercial production of concentrate mixtures for different categories of
animals, especially for heavy yielding dairy cows/buffaloes, where quantity and quality of
concentrate significantly affects milk production and cost of milk production a computer
based least cost ration/concentrate formulation techniques should be used with the help of
an animal nutritionist.)

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Common Diseases of Dairy Animals: Their Symptoms, Control and

Preventive Measures
Dr. Satya Pal, Ex CTO, NDRI

Any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional state of an organism,
generally associated with certain signs and symptoms and differing in nature from physical
injury. A diseased organism commonly exhibits signs or symptoms indicative of its abnormal
state. Thus, the normal condition of an organism must be understood in order to recognize the
hallmarks of disease. Nevertheless, a sharp demarcation between disease and health is not
always apparent.

The study of disease is called pathology

Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (HS)

This is an acute bacterial disease of cattle and buffaloes which usually occurs during
monsoon.

• Mortality rate may be as high as 80 %.

• Germs of this disease survive longer in humid and waterlogged conditions.

SYMPTOMS

• High temperature, sudden decrease in milk yield.

• Salivation and serous nasal discharge.

• Severe oedema of the throat region.

• Difficulty in breathing, animal produces a grunting sound.

• Animal usually dies within 1-2 days of showing symptoms.

• Buffaloes are generally more susceptible than cattle.

• Animals with clinical signs, particularly buffalo, rarely recover.

• In endemic areas, most deaths seen in older calves and young adults.

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PREVENTION

• Segregate the sick animal from healthy ones and avoid contamination of feed, fodder and
water.

• Avoid crowding especially during wet seasons.

• Vaccinate all animals which are 6 months and above of age annually before the onset of
monsoon in endemic areas.

TREATMENT

• Treatment is usually ineffective unless treated very early , that is during the stage when
fever sets in.

• Few animals survive once clinical signs develop.

• Case fatality approaches 100% if treatment is not followed at the initial stage of infection.

Get your animals vaccinated anainst H

Black Quarter (BQ) Disease in Cattle

Black Quarter Disease or Black Leg is an acute, infectious disease of cattle and sheep,
occasionally recorded in buffaloes, characterised by emphysematous swelling in the skeletal
muscles and death due to severe toxaemia and muscle necrosis.

Causal Factors: Usually young muscular and healthy animals are more prone to the
infection. The definite causative agent is Clostridium chauvoei, a toxin-producing gram-
positive anaerobic bacteria.

Animals affected: Cattle, buffaloes, sheep are generally prone to the disease, very rare in goat
and other animals.

Spread of the disease: It is soil borne infection transmitted through wound, injection needle
or by ingestion (especially when there are oral abrasions). The organisms are usually deep in
soil but outbreaks could occur post-earth moving operations.

Clinical signs: Initially high fever, lameness, with severe depression are classical signs of
black quarter disease. Animal stops eating and rumination. Crepitating and gaseous swelling

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of the affected muscles of hind quarters and shoulders leading to hot and painful swelling
is very characteristic. If not treated immediately, death may occur within 12-36 hours due to
severe toxaemia.

Diagnosis of Balck Quarte Disease

• Usually easy to diagnose because of typical symptoms

• Bacteriological examination of exudate smears made from affected portions reveals

cigar shaped rods.

Treatment of Balck Quarte Disease

1. Dressing of affected lesions with local injection of penicillin.

2. Inj. Penicillin in large dose and Oxytetracyclin are the antibiotic of choice. Third
generation cephalosporin can also be injected.

3. Treatment is usually ineffective in an advanced septicaemic stage.

4. Antibiotic therapy was found to be effective when administered within 12 hours of the
appearance of clinical symptoms.

Prevention and control

• In endemic area, vaccinate all the animals above 6 months of age before the onset of
monsoon.

• The vaccine should be administered as per the instructions of manufacturers. Burning of

the upper layer of soil with straw to eliminate the spores in endemic areas.

• Sprinkle lime or disinfectant over the carcass at the time of the burial.

Brucellosis in Cattle

(Contagious Abortion, Bang's disease)

Infection with Brucella abortus can cause abortion, birth of stillborn or weak calves, retained
placenta, and reduced milk production. Infected cattle usually abort only once but can still
shed the organism in amniotic fluid and milk at subsequent calvings. This is important
because the organism is highly infectious to humans. No practical treatment is available;

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therefore, efforts are directed at detection of infected herds and preventing infection from
infiltrating uninfected herds. Young cattle within a herd often abort within a relatively short
timeframe, referred to as an "abortion storm."

Clinical Findings for Brucellosis in Cattle

Abortion is the most obvious sign. Infections may also cause stillborn or weak calves,
retained placentas, and decreased milk production. Usually, overall health is not impaired in
uncomplicated abortions.

Seminal vesicles, ampullae, testicles, and epididymides may be infected in bulls.

Consequently, organisms are present in the semen, and agglutinins may be seen in seminal
plasma samples from infected bulls. Testicular abscesses may occur. Chronic infections may
result in arthritic joints in some cattle.

Prevention

Vaccination of calves with B abortus Strain 19 or RB51 increases resistance to infection.

Resistance may not be complete, and some vaccinated calves may become infected,
depending on severity of exposure. A small percentage of vaccinated calves develop
antibodies against Strain 19 that may persist for years and can cause misleading diagnostic
test results.

Bovine Mastitis

Bovine Mastitis is a condition charactarised by the persisitant and inflammatory reaction of

the udder tissue due to either physical trauma or infection caused by microorganisms. It is a
potentially fatyal mammary gland infection, that is most common in dairy animals. It is a
disease that is known to cause the greatest loss to the dairy industry.

Causes

There is a large cohort of microorganism species that are known to cause mastitis. These
range from virus, mycoplasma, fungus and bacteria.

Bacterial organisms known to cause mastitis are Pasteurella multocida, Staphylococcus

aureus; Str. Zooepidemicus; Str. agalactiae; Str. pyogenes; Str. faecalis; Mycobacterium

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bovis; Klebsiella spp; Brucella abortus; Pseudomonas pyocyaneus; E.coli; Leptospira

Pomona, etc.

Fungal entities responsible for mastitis are Aspergillus fumigatus; A.midulus; Candida spp;
Trichosporon spp, etc.

Physical injury to the mammary region, poor hygiene and/or trauma, also cause this
condition.

Symptoms

The clear sign of mastitis is inflammation of the udder that turns into a red and hard mass.
The swollen mammary gland is hot and the mere touching causes pain and discomfort to the
animal. Animals do not allow touching of the udder even kicking to prevent milking. If
milked the milk is usually tainted with blood clots, foul smelling brown discharge and milk
clots.

The milk yield totally stops or is severely restricted. Body temperature of the animal
increases. Other symptoms are lack of appetite, hindrance in mobility due to swollen udder
and pain. The dairy animal develops sunken eyes, suffers from digestive disorders and
diarrhoea.

Infected cattle are severely dehydrated and suffer from weight loss. In cases of severe
infection there is formation of pus in the infected udder. Mastitis can degenerate to Toxaemia
or Bacteraemia and even cause death as a result of acute infection.

Mastitis can be detected at an early stage (sub clinical) before the symptoms appear, through
California Mastitis Test (CMT). It is a quick test that can be performed on small milk
samples. Early detection helps in preventing the progress of the disease into clinical stages
and causing heavy losses to dairy farmers.

Prevention

It is better to prevent mastitis before it becomes a problem. The below measures can go a
long way in prevention:

· Provide clean, dry and adequate bedding for cows to lie

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· Cows should be clean while entering the milking area

· Use different cloth or paper towel for cleaning the teats on each cow

· Teats should be completely dry and clean before milking

· Use germicidal teat dips after milking

· Feed the cows after milking so that they don’t lie down immediately. This prevents the
entry of microorganisms into teat canals that are still open from milking.

Treatment

First aid once mastitis has been detected involves applying ice cubes on the udder surface.
The infected milk from infested teat should be drained out thrice a day and safely disposed. A
composition of 5% phenol can be included to the infected milk to ensure hygienic disposal.

While milking the herd, strict attention must be paid to first milking healthy, non-infected
cows and subsequently those infected.

The infected and non-responsive quarter should be dried up, permanently. Calves should be
prevented from suckling on the infected teat. A certified veterinary doctor must be consulted,
and a course of antibiotic treatment must commence immediately.

Bloat in Ruminants

(Ruminal Tympany)

Bloat is an overdistention of the rumenoreticulum with the gases of fermentation, either in

the form of a persistent foam mixed with the ruminal contents, called primary or frothy bloat,
or in the form of free gas separated from the ingesta, called secondary or free-gas bloat. It is
predominantly a disorder of cattle but may also be seen in sheep. The susceptibility of
individual cattle to bloat varies and is genetically determined. Treatment may involve
antifoaming agents, emergency rumenotomy, or removal of an esophageal obstruction.

Bloat can be a major cause of sudden death in feedlot cattle. Control measures focused on the
administration of antifoaming agents need to be implemented.

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Clinical Findings for Bloat in Ruminants

Bloat is a common cause of sudden death in feedlot cattle. Cattle not observed closely, such
as pastured and feedlot cattle and dry dairy cattle, usually are found dead. In lactating dairy
cattle, which are observed regularly, bloat commonly begins within 1 hour after being turned
onto a bloat-producing pasture. Bloat may develop on the first day after being placed on the
pasture but more commonly develops on the second or third day.

In primary pasture bloat, the rumen becomes obviously distended suddenly, and the left flank
may be so distended that the contour of the paralumbar fossa protrudes above the vertebral
column; the entire abdomen is enlarged. As the bloat progresses, the skin over the left flank
becomes progressively more taut and, in severe cases, cannot be tented. Dyspnea and
grunting are marked and are accompanied by mouth breathing, protrusion of the tongue,
extension of the head, and frequent urination. Rumen motility does not decrease until bloat is
severe. If the tympany continues to worsen, the animal will collapse and die. Death may
occur within 1 hour after grazing began but is more common ~3–4 hours after onset of
clinical signs. In a group of affected cattle, there are usually several with clinical bloat and
some with mild to moderate abdominal distention.

In secondary bloat, the excess gas is usually free on top of the solid and fluid ruminal
contents, although frothy bloat may be seen in vagal indigestion when there is increased
ruminal activity. Secondary bloat is seen sporadically. There is tympanic resonance over the
dorsal abdomen left of the midline. Free gas produces a higher pitched ping on percussion
than frothy bloat. The distention of the rumen can be detected on rectal examination. In free-
gas bloat, the passage of a stomach tube or trocarization releases large quantities of gas and
alleviates distention.

Treatment of Bloat in Ruminants

• Frothy bloat: antifoaming agents, administered ororuminally

• Free-gas bloat: placement of a rumen fistula or removal of an esophageal obstruction

IA trocar and cannula may be used for emergency relief of free-gas bloat, hour to determine
whether the treatment has subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), primarily affects ruminants

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like cattle, sheep, and goats. It is a chronic wasting disease that leads to weight loss, diarrhea,
and reduced milk production. The control of Johne's disease involves early detection through
testing, culling of infected animals, and improving sanitation and hygiene in calf-rearing
practices.

Calf Diarrhea

Calf diarrhea is a common problem in young calves, often caused by bacterial or viral
infections, improper feeding practices, or poor hygiene. Adequate colostrum intake, hygienic
calf rearing practices, and vaccination against common pathogens can help prevent this
disease and improve calf health.

Lameness in Dairy Animals

Lameness in dairy animals is a multifactorial condition caused by various factors such as

hoof injuries, laminitis, and infectious agents like digital dermatitis. Regular hoof trimming,
improving flooring conditions, and timely treatment of lameness are crucial for preventing
and managing this issue.

Conclusion

Dairy animals are vital for the sustenance of the dairy industry, and their health and well-
being are paramount for maintaining optimal productivity. By recognizing the common
diseases affecting dairy animals and implementing effective preventive measures, farmers
and veterinarians can safeguard the health of their herds, ensure sustainable dairy farming
practices, and contribute to a safe and healthy supply of dairy products for consumers.
Regular veterinary care, hygiene maintenance, and vaccination are key elements in the
successful management of common diseases in dairy animals.

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Management of Dairy Animals (Birth to Calving)

Dr. Brij Kishore, Ex TO, NDRI

Introduction

Calving is a critical period for both the cow and calf especially the first calves as they are in
experienced. Care of the calved animal and new born is essential in order to protect the calf
from inclement weather to reduce mortality and to maintain the milk production of the calved
animal. The expected date of calving record should be maintained in order to separate the
animal 2 weeks before the enert of parturition and kept parturition in calving pens. A separate
bedding and comfortable space with feeding and water arrangement is a must. The calved
animal is to be washed properly and offered water and udder cleaned for suckling of calf
within half an hour after birth. The calf should be taken care by providing colostrum, milk,
calf starter, legume fodder etc for good growth.

Care of the Animal Calving

The animal in the advanced stage of pregnancy should be separated from the rest of the
animals and placed in the maternity or calving room separately two weeks before the
expected date of calving. Check the flooring of the calving pens, which should not be
slippery. The floor should be well bedded. Care should be taken to provide water at all times.
Two weeks before calving administer calcium intravenously to prevent milk fever in case of
high yielder. An attendant should be kept watching the animal. Just before calving, there will
be sinking of the croup region. Once the animal starts calving it will show the symptoms like
frequent standing and lying down positions. There will be swelling of the udder, vulva region
and discharges are noticed. The animal will make peculiar sounds to deliver the calf. Normal
birth process takes place around two hours. As a first sign the two front feet of the calf
should appear followed by the head of calf. Any abnormal presentation should require
assistance by a veterinarian immediately and also in cases which requires more than two
hours for calving. Immediately after calving the external genitalia, flank region, tail region
should be washed with clean water. The cow should be given adequate amount of water
immediately after calving. Once the calf is delivered, the cow will lick its body to make the

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body of calf warm. If it does not lick, mucous discharges around nostrils should be removed
and the body of calf cleaned with clean cloth or with the paddy straw. Normally the placental
membranes will fall off within 2 to 4 hours after birth and disposed of properly. Care should
be taken to avoid ingestion of placenta by the cow.

Management of Neonate

Care of calf or Neonate starts when the calf is in the womb of mother. Cows that have been
properly fed during the dry period produce up to 25 percent more milk and fat than cows not
conditioned. A 0.5 kg gain in body weight per day during the dry period seems to be
optimum for satisfactory milk production in ensuring lactation. Immediately after calving the
cow licks the body of the calf. If it doesn’t happen, remove the mucous discharges from the
nostrils. Clean the body of the calf with clean cloth or handful of paddy straw and make the
calf dry. If the umbilical cord is not cut, put a ligature 2-3 cm away from body. Cut the navel
1 cm away from ligature with clean scissors. Apply tincture of iodine to the navel cord to
prevent infection. Provide clean and warm environment for the calf.

Colostrum should be fed at rate of 8 to 10% of body weight for first 2 to 3 days. Gamma
globulins are transferred from mother to calf through colostrums. It works as resistance
system for the calf against diseases in the early stages. Colostrums is highly nutritious. It is
slightly laxative and prevents constipation. If the calf is weak to drink milk on its own, it is
assisted by holding it up to its mother and pour milk into its mouth. The calf is fed with
whole milk for a period of 10 to 14 days.

After this, the whole milk may be substituted with skimmed milk, partially in the beginning
and completely after two months. The calf should be fed according to its weight, at the rate
of 1 kg milk for every 10 to 12 kg body weight per day. Milk replacer is given after 2 weeks
of calf age to replace milk. Milk replacer which is, highly digestible should contain minimum
of 22% total protein or 20% digestible protein and 10% fat. When calf are raised on limited
milk, balanced high energy protein concentrate mixture called as calf starter can be fed from
2nd week onwards till 90 days of age.

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A calf starter with 20% protein would be give better growth but it must not contain less than
16% DCP and 70% TDN. A 100 kg Calf starter can be prepared with the following
ingredients.

Maize – 50, Ground nut cake – 30, Wheat bran / Rice bran – 8, Fish meal – 10, Mineral
Mixture – 2

Besides these, Calves should be fed with good legume grasses or early cut green fodder from
second week onwards. This will stimulate rumen development and establishment of rumen
microbes. The ideal feeding schedule of calves in general for obtaining optimal growth is as
follows.

Colostrum - 3 to 5 days

Whole milk -6th to 40th day

Milk replacer -41st day to 90 days

Calf starter -2nd week to 90 days

Care and Management of Heifers

Well grown and developed heifers are the best foundation stock of a Dairy herd. The female
calves after six months of age should be raised separately. Rate of growth is maximum until
puberty and then decreases until maturity . Raising of heifers is aimed at

1. Maximum growth and development of heifer

2. Earliest maturity
3. Raising heifer at minimum cost and getting early returns
4. Obtaining good milk yield in first lactation.

Management of heifers can be done in two ways

1. Outdoor system.
2. Indoor system.

Outdoor system: The heifers are raised mainly on grazing conditions rotationally on pasture
plots containing legume grass. They are to be shifted from one grazing field to another.

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Concentrate feeding can be provided through feed troughs centrally located in the grazing
field.

Indoor system: Heifers are kept in the sheds with adequate shade. They should be provide
with good quality hays along with the concentrates. The green forages should be fed free of
choice and of good quality. Under good conditions of feeding and management a crossbred
has to attain minimum of 250 kg to be considered for breeding.

Management of Dry Cows

The pregnant dry cows should be housed in a comfortable paddock and least disturbed. The
management of the dry cow is aimed at

1. To give rest to cows udder and recoup its condition lost in previous lactation.

2. Repair and regeneration of secretary cells of udder.

Cows should be properly fed during dry period in order to produce 25 % more milk than
which are not conditioned. A 0.5 kg gain in body weight during dry period is optimum for
satisfactory milk production in ensuing lactation.

Management of Milch Animals

Management should be aimed such that there is high proportion of milch cows in herd at any
given stage. The manage mental practices for higher milk production for longer periods
include

1. Feeding balanced ration especially making available good quality green fodders round the
year
2. The herd can be divided into high yielders, medium yielders and low yielders and feed
them accordingly

3. Providing clean and comfortable houses

4. Prevention of possible management stresses by

A) careful handling and movement of stock,

B) avoiding over stocking,

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C) grouping of cows according to age or production,

D) protection of high yielders against thermal stress conditions of summer,

5. Maintenance of high reproduction efficiency in herd.

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Applied Aspects of Dairy Animal Physiology and Stress Management

Dr. Mahendra Singh, FAO Fellow, ICAR-Emeritus Professor
& Ex. Head of Animal Physiology Division

ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001 ([email protected])

__________________________________________________________________________

Hot and hot-humid weather conditions cause heat stress in dairy cows resulting in decline in
feed intake, milk production and fertility. Animal welfare can be negatively affected when
dairy cattle experience extreme weather conditions like heat stress or cold stress. Nowadays
managing the heat stress has become more challengeable due to ever-increasing global
temperatures and increased number of elite animals having greater metabolic activity. IPPC
has predicted rise in environmental temperatures to 1.0°C by 2100 since 1800s. The global
temperature is expected to rise further by 1.5°C between 2030 -2052. In hot weather
conditions an imbalance between metabolic heat production inside the animal body and its
dissipation to surroundings results in development of heat load or heat stress (HS). During
thermal stress the foremost reaction in animal responses is to increase respiration rate, rectal
temperature, and heart rate or pulse rate, and to decrease the metabolic heat production in
body. Stress adversely affects feed intake and thereby reduce growth rate, milk production
and reproductive performance. Extreme weather (heat load) can even cause death of animal,
if suitable management interventions are not undertaken. Higher ambient temperature also
impairs immunity, lowers the quantity and quality of fodder and feeds. However such
adverse effects on animals could be reduced to a great extent or eliminated by adopting
appropriate stress amelioration practices like availability of good shades, quality feeds and
flesh water access, in-house-ventilation, proper hygiene and use of sprinklers or ceiling fan
facilities in a dairy farm. High producing animals are typically more sensitive to HS than
low producer or meat breeds due to higher metabolic heat production. Hence sustainable
dairy farming remains a vast challenge in the changing climatic scenario globally. In this
chapter the applied aspects of animal physiology to monitor the heat stress induced changes
in milk yield, quality, metabolism and heat stress amelioration measures effects have been
discussed.

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Thermo-neutral zone

Thermoneutral zone (TNZ) ranges 16-25°C within which an animal maintain normal
physiological body temperature (38.4-39.1°C). However ambient temperatures greater than
25°C in a temperate climate and 30-37°C in a tropical climate like India enhance heat gain
beyond in comparison to heat lost from body and thus induce HS (heat stress). As a result
body temperature, respiration rate (RR), heart rate and rectal temperature (RT) increases
beyond physiological limits which in turn affects feed intake, milk production and
reproductive efficiency in animals. It has been found that RT of 39°C and RR >60/min
indicates that cows are undergoing HS sufficient to affect production traits like milk yield
and fertility. However animal being homeotherms can resist heat stress up to some extent
depending on species, breed and milk production level. Among dairy animals, goats are the
most adapted species to heat stress in terms of milk production, reproduction and disease
resistance. Native cattle breed like Sahiwal, Gir, Kankraj and Red Sindhi resist rigor of high
temperature, survive and perform better as compared to exotic breeds or crossbred’s under
tropical environment conditions due to inability of exotic genes to express/adapt under
tropical conditions. Night cooling in summer season is must for the animals. When
temperature and
humidity do not
decrease enough at
night and their
difference is narrow
down compared with
day temperature, the
animals are unable to
lose the heat gained
during day time,
causing these animals
to be in a constant
state of heat stress.

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Effects of HS on Health of Dairy Animals

In tropical and subtropical climate zones, little or no alleviation of heat stress occurs at night
due to narrow difference between the high and low temperatures in night also. Cattle with
dark coats absorb more solar radiation compared with cows that have lighter-colored coats.
Increase in environmental temperature has a direct negative effect on appetite center of
hypothalamus to decreases feed intake (DMI). Feed intake begins to decline at air
temperatures 25-26°C in lactating cows and the decline is more when temperature rise above
30°C in summer season. At 40°C it may decline by as much as 40% in exotic cows, 22-35%
in dairy goats or 8-10% in buffalo heifers. The lower feed intake is a way to decrease heat
production in warm environments as heat increment of feeding is an important source of heat
production in ruminants. As result, animal experience a stage of negative energy balance
(NEB) and consequently body weight and body condition score goes down.

Effect on milk production: Hot and humid season is more deleterious than the hot dry
season as humidity increases heat load and significantly decrease milk yield in a cow or
buffalo. The milk yield in hot dry season decline by 1-2 kg in cattle and buffalo but it decline
more in hot humid season (1.5-3kg/ml) in elite cows. Heat stress during dry period can
adversely affect mammary gland development ultimately lead to subsequent milk yield. It
has been found that during the hot dry season (temperature, 40-42 ͦC) milk production and
DMI is not influenced if water and feeds are provided ad libitum in of crossbred cows.

Effect on milk composition: Heat stress reduce milk protein, milk fat, solids-not-fat (SNF)
in dairy cow, and the effects are more pronounced in high yielding breeds of cattle and
buffaloes. HS reduces fat, protein and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and increases long
chin fatty acids (LCFAs) in milk. The effects of elevated temperature or heat stress on bulk
milk quality in buffalo are less evident than in cattle.

Applied aspects of Animal Physiology

Animal physiology identifies the alteration in the physiological process in organs of animals
at various stages of lactation, reproduction and management due to heat stress. A brief
highlight of important applied aspects is mentioned below.

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1. Temperature humidity index (THI): THI is a scale to measure the stress level in dairy
animals. It is also known as discomfort index and is determined by measuring wet bulb and
dry bulb temperatures reading on day-to-today basis. When temperature and humidity are
high, it causes stress and discomfort to the animals resulting in decline in feed intake and
milk yield. High humidity in air impairs the heat-loss from the body surface due to
inadequate evaporation which results in accumulation of heat in the body. The ambient
temperature can be classified into three categories

1. Heat temperature (>30˚C)

2. Warm temperature (20-29˚C)

3. Cold temperature (> 2˚C)

1. Importance of THI

Johnson and Co-workers in 1963 developed an equation for calculating THI which indicate
comfort or discomfort of animals in summer or winter seasons. To calculate THI score, dry
bulb and wet bulb temperatures needs to be recorded by thermometers which are easily
available in the market. Farmers can hang both the thermometers in animal shed at a height
beyond the reach of animals and away from direct solar radiation. The recording of
temperature is done at 8am and 3pm daily and THI score is calculated by following formula.

THI = 0.72 (dry bulb temperature, ˚C + wet bulb temperature, ˚C) + 40.6

Example 1 Example 2

Dry bulb temperature = 25˚C Dry bulb temperature = 40˚C

Wet bulb temperature = 15˚C Wet bulb temperature = 30˚C

THI1= 0.72 (25+15) + 40.6 = 69.40 THI2= 0.72 (40+30) + 40.6 = 91.0

Based on above THI climatic condition ‘1’ is comfortable but condition ‘2’ is highly
stressful.

Thom THI: Thom in 1948 used dew point and dry bulb temperature readings for calculating
temperature humidly index by following formula.

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THI = 0.55 (dry bulb temperature ˚C) + 0.2 (dew point) + 17.5

As per Thom THI, if calculated value is< 70 it indicates that 10 % of population is under
stress.

However if THI value is >79 or higher, it indicates that all the animals are under stress.

2. Physiological responses. First and foremost important point is to measure the

physiological responses to environment like rectal temperature (RT), Pulse rate (PR),
Respiration rate (RR) and skin temperature (ST). These parameters are used as heat stress
markers under field conditions. Due to proximity to the hypothalamic thermo-sensitive site
the tympanic temperature is considered as a reliable method of body temperature. It also has
a reduced lag time compared with rectal temperature. An increase in skin temperature and
image analysis by UV camera indicates heat stress in cows and buffaloes. Rectal temperature
can be recorded by use of clinical thermometer. Heat stress can be determined by following
symptoms.

a. Panting

b. Animal Seek shelter/ tree shadow

c. Seek watering and stands in isolation

d. Lack of sleep (REM) due to increased time spent on standing alter the endocrine system,
increase energy expenditure and weaken the immune system.

3. Low milk fat syndrome (high propionate than acetate production): During summer
season, farmers offer more concentrate mixture due to decrease in DMI and milk yield. As a
result more propionate is formed than acetate in the rumen. The propionate is converted to
glucose in the liver by gluconeogenesis process and is used for lactose synthesis by the
mammary gland resulting to more milk yield. Thus fall in fat percentages in hot or hot-humid
season is often observed due to less dietary crude fibre content (CF< 18%) and less acetate
production results in low milk fat.

4. Feed and water intakes: Heat stress causes more water intake and decrease in feed intake
by stimulating the water and feed intake centers in hypothalamus. High water intake and a

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decline in DMI (dry matter intake) by an animal reflect heat stress induced poor feed quality
effects on milk yield in summer season.

The feed efficiency of cows is directly influenced by the ambient temperature and
significantly affects milk production through reduction in feed intake in tropical climate. The
decrease in dry matter intake is more (1-3 kg/d) in hot-humid season (rainy) as compared to
hot dry condition. The increase in water intake helps to maintain the homeothermy by
effective cooling of body through evaporation.

5. Rumen Microbes: High ambient temperature alters basic physiological mechanisms of

rumen microbes due to low fiber intake (DMI), which makes animal more vulnerable to
metabolic acidosis and health problems. The ratio of amylolytic: cellulolytic bacteria increase
due to high starch diet then the fibrous diet. The dietary change in HS cows reduce acetate
production, increase propionate and butyrate production due to altered rumen microbes
number and their functioning. Low fibre diet reduce rumen pH (5.80-6.03), decrease reticulo-
rumen motility and rumination time. The low fibre intake also results in less chewing, less
saliva release and its production. High temperature also decreases metabolic hormone
(thyroid hormones) and thereby reduces metabolic heat production (adaptation to high
temperature).

6. Detection of mastitis: Detection of mastitis in subclinical stage prevents the losses in milk
yield. Subclinical mastitis could be detected by appearance of flakes in milk, watery milk or
yellowish milk and low milk yield at the time of milking by visual examination. It can also
be measured by performing CMT Calfornia Mastitis Test) by taking 2-4ml foremilk of each

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teat in teat-cups before start of milking. Increase in THI can result in an increased risk for
mastitis due to high temperatures facilitating the multiplication of pathogens. Escherichia
coli thrives in temperatures ranging 19.3-44.5°C, and Klebsiella pneumonia thrives from 22.7
to 41°C, but these bacteria can’t survive at low temperature. The incidence of mastitis in
cows increase with increase in THI score (>72) and it initiates decline in milk production in
crossbred cows. Dairy herds on pasture had an increased risk of mastitis infections caused
by Streptococcus uberis environmental organisms which is commonly found in organic
matter. Incidence of lamness increases with rise in ambient temperature. The animals spent
more time in standing condition in an attempt to increase body surface area for more heat
dissipation. Factors like incomplete milking, less frequent milking and mastitis disrupt
mammary epithelial cell integrity (junctions) and decrease milk yield. Intact mammary
epithelial cell barrier is a prerequisite to maintain maximal milk production. It is an ideal
indicator of optimal mammary functions.

7. Milk SCC as index of udder health and CMP

Somatic cells are the epithelial cells and immune cells of mammary gland which are
sloughed off during the routine milking operations in milk of cows and buffaloes. These cell
increases during subclinical and clinical stages of mastitis. Due to this reason milk SCC is
used as an index for estimating mammary health and milk quality worldwide. Heat stress

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negatively influences the integrity of epithelial tight junctions as stated above. In addition to
this heat stress renders mammary gland more prone to mastitis. Cows dried off in summer
months are more prone to mastitis than cows died off in cool months.

8. Subacute-ruminal acidosis: Cows housed in confinement experience subacute ruminal

acidosis in early lactation, and mid-lactation. Heat stress affects feeding behavior of dairy
cattle by causing reduced DMI and high intake of high-energy feeds. The minimal intake
of forage predispose the cows to ruminal acidosis

9. Behavioral patterns to identify health and welfare: Measures of lying behavior (11 to
14 h/d lying down) in thermo-neutral zone is an important indicator of cow comfort and
provide valuable information on how the cows interact with their environment. Increase in
temperature reduces lying down time and increase animal standing time to dissipate more
heat.

10. Oxidative stress. Oxidative stress leads to increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in
different cells and tissues of thermal stressed cows and buffaloes. ROS have negative impacts
on normal physiology and body metabolism. The oxidative stress in animal’s body can be
measured in blood samples by analysis of antioxidants enzymes like superoxide dismutase
[SOD], glutathione (GSH) peroxidase, catalase and non-enzymatic antioxidants ascorbic
acid, GSH, uric acid, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, pyruvate and retinol. Thus blood levels of
these antioxidants can be measured to find out immunity status of animals.

11. Metritis (infection of uterus). It is a major cause of economic losses to dairy farmers.
The condition is characterized by an abnormal uterine discharge. Incidence of metritis often

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increases during heat stress in late gestation cows and buffaloes due to suppressed uterine
defense mechanisms. High ambient temperature in conjunction with high humidity increase
pathogen load in the environment that may reduce immunity and induce metritis disease.
Such animals have reduced fertilization rate, impaired early embryonic development and
increased risk of abortions.

12. Hormonal requirement of lactation. Hormone supplementation or depletion studies in

different species help to understand role of hormones (GH, prolactin, cortisol, IGF-I,
estrogen and progesterone in mammary gland development, lactation and to enhance milk
production.

13. Persistency of lactation: Persistency of lactation is defined as rate of decline in milk

production after peak lactation. More is the persistency; higher will be the total lactation milk
yield in 305days period of a cow. Persistency could be determined by measuring DNA, RNA
and proline contents in mammary tissue.

a. RNA- a measure of synthetic activity

b. DNA-a measure of cell number

c. Proline and Hydroxy proline- Adipose tissue (collagen synthesis/associated tissues)

14. Heat Detection symptoms: Onset of heat in dairy animals is exhibited by the symptoms
due to physiological alteration in hormones and size of follicles. Common heat symptoms in
cattle and buffalo are mounting behavior, mucus discharge from genitalia, restlessness, rise
in body temperature, swelling of vulva, loss of appetite, bellowing, frequent urination,
aggressive behavior and decline in milk yield. Based on these symptoms any farmer can
identify estrus occurrence in animals and insemination could be done post 12hr of onset of
heat.

15. Use of antioxidants: Antioxidants like Zn, vitamin E and herbs like Shatavari or
Moringa leaf can be used to ameliorate the heat stress in summer season.

16. Milk Biomarkers of Stress: Milk parameters like plasmin and plasminogen level can be
estimated in summer season. Heat stresses induces conversion of plasminogen (PG) to

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plasmin (PL) and lower their ratio. Therefore, estimation the milk plasminogen-plasmin ratio
is used as marker heat stress impaired milk secretion.

Amelioration of heat stress (Cooling methods)

1. Heat stress reduces milk yield upto 2-4 kg/d in high yielding dairy cows (15-20kg/d) and
buffaloes (10kg/d) during hot and humid season. In medium producers the milk yield
declines by 1-2kg/d in rainy season. Since heat stress causes decrease feed intake and milk
yield and also influence composition, certain heat stress amelioration measures needs to be
undertaken by the farmers to prevent loss in milk. Several tools are available to reduce heat
stress effectsin animals which subsequently improve the overall productivity of cattle and
buffaloes. However indigenous cows like Sahiwal, Tharparkar, Red Sindhi and Rathi and
Hayrana does not need cooling facilities due to adaptation to high temperatures (heat
tolerance). Following are the methods that can be used to ameliorate the adverse effects of
environmental stress.

2. Use of Sprinklers: Sprinkler and fan cooling appears to be a viable and cost-effective
method to stimulate evaporative cooling. Sprinkler and fan cooling system are very effective
in improving the cows comfort as measured by rectal temperature and respiration rate as it
normalize the physiological values. Due to this reason the milk production of cattle and
buffaloes increases (10-15%) concomitant to more feed intake in cooled animals.

3. Water showers/ Mist- fan cooling. Use of mist and fan have been found to be economical
as water use and its wastage is less in mister system as compared to water showers in hot dry
conditions. It has also been found that farmers can use mist-fan cooling system without any
health risks to animals like mastitis incidence. However in exotic breeds, cooling by air
conditioning has been used on an experimental basis and was found to be uneconomical.

4. Fan cooling: Ceiling fan can be used in hot and humid (rainy) seasons for effective heat
dissipation from the body surface area. For every six animals one ceiling fan is required. The
application of fan cooling in summer season sustained milk production in both cows and
buffaloes. In India the use of fan has become a common practice in dairy farms while use of

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coolers is negligible. Fan cooling thus offers promising mean to reduce heat stress in dairy
animals under field condition.

5. Pond Facility for buffalo wallowing: Buffaloes prefer wallowing in pond water which is
a very efficient tool to cool the body and disseminate heat. Such buffaloes consume more
feed (DMI) and milk production increases by 10-15% by wallowing in ponds. This practice
is a traditional one and still used by farmers. Wallowing in ponds thus improve heat
symptoms and overall reproductive efficiency, by exhibiting heat regularly and conceive.

6. Availability of Tree shadow as an effective mean of cooling. The tree shadow cooling is a
natural way of providing comfort to animals under field conditions and does not involve any
extra cost. Evaporation of moisture from the tree leaves reduce temperature by about 4-6oC.
Sand bedding or use of mud or katcha floor with fan during hot and humid season provides
effective comfort to the animals, increase milk yield, feed intake and lying time.

7. Ventilation: In-house maintained animals should be provided with ceiling or exhaust fans
facilities if proper ventilation is not there in a animal house. Studies in an organized dairy
farm revealed that it reduce heat stress in animals by removing respiratory gases which
increases temperature of in-house environment. However in-house keeping of livestock
needs more light and ventilations to maintain hygiene and to minimize the incidence of
mastitis.

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Conclusion:

Thermal stress has profound effects on the physiology of feed intake and digestion, alters
endocrine profile (decrease galactopoietics hormone levels- prolactin, GH, thyroid
hormones) and increases stress hormone-cortisol level. At mammary gland level it enhances
conversion of plasminogen:plasmin and decrease milk production by down regulation of
milk secretion through activation of the endogenous PG-PL system. Cooling facilities like
misters/foggers and fan have been proved to be highly effective in heat stress amelioration
and to improve feed intake and milk production. Thus cooling strategy during hot and humid
period should be used to prevent alterations in physio-biochemical and endocrine responses.
However knowledge of animal physiological responses to heat stress during hot months
should be regularly monitored and measured along with milk quality and quantity to make
dairy farm sustainable and profitable. Farmers should focus on adoption of comprehensive
preventive measures to combat heat stress in domestic animals for clean milk production.

References

1. Anjali Aggarwal and Mahenra Singh. (2007) Ind. J. Agricultural Eco. 62(2):272-279

2. Anjali -Aggarwal and Mahenra Singh.2009. Ind. J. Anim. Nutr.26 ( 4) 337-340

3. M Singh, J.P. Sehgal, -J.R. Khan, H.D. Sharma.2014. Livestock Res. Rural Develop. 26
(8):1-4

4. Haque,N., Mahendra Singh and S.A. Hossain. 2016. Int J. Biometeorol. 60(12):1819-
1828. doi: 10.1007/s00484-016-1169-0. Epub 2016 May 12

5. Haque,N., S. A. Hossain and Mahendra Singh. 2017. Bull. Env. Pharmacol. Life Sci., 6
Special issue [3]: 447-450

6.Nilufar Haque , Mahendra Singh, and Sheikh A. Hossain.2018. Veterinarski Arhiv 88 (2)
201-213. DOI: 10.24099/vet.arhiv.170113

7. Haque,N., M Singh, SA Hossain.2018. The influence of a modified micro-environment on

stress and milk production through the plasminogen-plasmin system in Murrah buffaloes
during the hot-humid season. Veterinarski Arhiv 88 (2) 201-213

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8. Devi, P., M. Singh, Somagond,Y.M., A. Aggarwal.2021.Alleviation of heat stress by

Chlorophytum borivilianum: impact on stress markers, antioxidant, and immune status in
crossbred cows. Tropical Animal and Health and Production. 53 (3): 351.

9. Devi,P., M. Singh, R Mehla, 2021. Effect of Chlorophytum borivilianum supplementation

on milk production, composition and fatty acid profile in crossbred cows during hot-humid
season, Tropical Animal H

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Clean Milk Production: Ensuring Quality & Safety from Farm to Table

Mr. Ashok Kumar Rao, Dairy Consultant

Introduction: Clean milk production is a crucial aspect of the dairy industry that focuses on
maintaining the highest standards of hygiene and quality throughout the entire milk
production process. The term "clean milk" refers to milk that is free from harmful
contaminants, pathogens, and impurities, ensuring its safety for consumption. The Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) defines clean milk as mammary secretion
obtained from healthy milch animals, without any extraneous matter, flavor additives, or
colostrum. This write-up delves into the importance of clean milk production, its key
components, and the measures involved in achieving and maintaining it

Importance of Clean Milk Production: Clean milk production plays a pivotal role in
safeguarding public health and promoting consumer confidence in dairy products.
Contaminated milk can carry various harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and
parasites, which can lead to foodborne illnesses. By implementing clean milk production
practices, the dairy industry can significantly reduce the risk of disease transmission and
enhance the quality of dairy products

Key Components of Clean Milk Production

Hygienic Farm Environment:

Maintaining a clean and sanitized farm environment is essential to prevent the introduction
and spread of pathogens. This includes proper waste management, regular cleaning of
milking equipment, and providing clean and comfortable housing for dairy animals

1. Waste Management: Proper waste management practices ensure that manure and other
waste materials do not contaminate the milk production area or water sources. Waste
should be regularly collected, properly stored, and, if possible, turned into compost for
later use as fertilizer

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2. Milking Parlor Hygiene: Milking parlors, where cows are milked, should be cleaned and
sanitized before each milking session. This prevents the introduction of dirt, bacteria, and
pathogens into the milk
3. Animal Housing: Providing clean and comfortable housing for dairy animals reduces
stress and minimizes the risk of disease transmission. Regular cleaning and disinfection of
animal living areas are essential

Animal Health Management

Healthy cows yield high-quality milk. Regular veterinary care, vaccination programs, and
proper nutrition are essential to keep dairy animals in optimal health. Diseases such as
mastitis and tuberculosis can lead to milk contamination and reduced milk quality Sick
animals should be isolated and treated promptly to prevent the contamination of milk

1. Vaccination: Vaccination schedules and preventive measures help maintain the overall
health of the herd
2. Nutrition: A balanced diet tailored to the specific needs of dairy animals ensures good
health and high-quality milk production
3. Disease Control: Isolation of sick animals prevents the spread of diseases to the rest of
the herd. Treating sick animals promptly is vital to avoid milk contamination
4. Stripping of foremilk: The initial streams of milk (foremilk) often contain higher levels
of microorganisms. Stripping or discarding the first few streams helps minimize the
microbial load in the collected milk

Milking Practices:

Proper milking techniques are crucial to prevent the contamination of milk during the
collection process. This involves cleaning udders, using sanitized milking equipment, and
ensuring the hygiene of milkers themselves

1. Udder Preparation: Properly cleaning and sanitizing the udder before milking reduces
the likelihood of contaminants entering the milk

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2. Milking Equipment: Regular cleaning, maintenance, and sanitization of milking

equipment such as teat cups, hoses, and milk storage tanks prevent bacterial growth and
cross-contamination
3. Milker Hygiene: Milkers should practice good personal hygiene, including hand washing
and wearing clean clothing, to prevent introducing contaminants during the milking
process
4. Feed and Water: Providing clean and uncontaminated feed and water to dairy animals
ensures their health and the quality of milk produced
5. Housing Environment: Clean and well-maintained housing for dairy animals reduces
stress, prevents disease transmission, and contributes to clean milk production

Milk Collection and Transportation:

Once milk is collected, it should be immediately chilled to inhibit bacterial growth. Properly
designed and maintained transportation containers are necessary to keep the milk at a safe
temperature during transit to processing facilities

1. Chilling: Cooling milk immediately after collection inhibits bacterial growth. Rapid
cooling helps preserve the quality and safety of the milk
2. Transportation: Milk transportation containers should be designed to maintain proper
temperatures during transit. Regular cleaning and sanitation of these containers are
essential to prevent bacterial contamination

Testing and Quality Control:

Regular testing of milk for quality parameters such as fat content, protein content, and
microbial load helps identify any deviations from acceptable standards. Milk that does not
meet these standards should be appropriately handled or rejected

1. Microbial Testing: Regular microbial testing of milk samples identifies the presence of
harmful bacteria. If contamination is detected, appropriate measures can be taken to
prevent the tainted milk from entering the market

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2. Chemical Testing: Analyzing milk for chemical parameters like fat content, protein
content, and antibiotic residues ensures the milk's quality and adherence to regulatory
standards

Measures to achieve Clean Milk Production

1. Training & Education: Farmers and workers involved in milk production should receive
proper training on hygienic practices, animal health management, and milk handling
techniques. Farmers, farm workers, and milkers should receive training on best practices
for cleanliness, hygiene, and milk handling. Workshops and training sessions can help
disseminate knowledge effectively
2. Regular Inspections: Regulatory authorities should conduct routine inspections of dairy
farms, processing units, and transportation facilities to ensure compliance with hygiene
and quality standards. Regulatory authorities, health agencies, and quality control bodies
should conduct regular inspections to verify that farms and processing units adhere to
hygiene and safety standards
3. Farm Management Plans: Establishing and following comprehensive farm management
plans that cover animal health, waste management, milking protocols, and record-keeping
can help maintain clean milk production. Farms should create comprehensive management
plans that encompass all aspects of milk production, including animal health, waste
management, feed practices, and more. These plans act as guidelines to ensure consistent
cleanliness and safety
4. Investment in Infrastructure: Dairy farms and processing units should invest in modern
and efficient equipment to facilitate proper milk collection, storage, and transportation.
Modern milking equipment, cooling tanks, and transportation containers equipped with the
latest technologies contribute to maintaining milk quality from farm to processing
facilities
5. Traceability Systems: Implementing traceability systems can help track the journey of
milk from the farm to the consumer, making it easier to identify the source of any
contamination issues. Implementing advanced traceability systems that utilize
technologies like RFID tags or QR codes allows for the tracking of milk batches from

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individual cows to final dairy products. This enhances accountability and enables swift
action in case of contamination

Benefits of Clean Milk Production:

1. Safe for consumption: Clean milk production ensures that milk is free from harmful
microorganisms and contaminants, making it safe for human consumption
2. Enhanced Keeping Quality: Clean milk has better keeping qualities, minimizing the risk
of spoilage and extending its shelf life
3. Higher Commercial Value: Clean milk fetches a higher market price due to its quality
and safety assurances
4. Protection against Zoonotic Diseases: Zoonotic diseases that can be transmitted from
animals to humans are minimized through clean milk production
5. Quality Value Added Products: High-quality milk serves as the foundation for
producing value-added dairy products like cheese, yogurt, and butter
6. Safe Transportation: Clean milk is less prone to bacterial growth during transportation,
allowing for longer distances to be covered without compromising quality
7. Financial Gains: Farmers can earn better returns by selling quality milk, leading to
improved livelihoods and sustainable dairy operations

Role of International Competitiveness:

1. The liberalization of the Indian economy has spurred the need for quality milk production
to compete with international brands
2. To succeed in global markets, Indian dairy must prioritize clean milk production to ensure
high-quality milk products that meet international standards
3. While various government schemes focus on clean milk infrastructure, there's an
increasing need to incentivize milk quality through pricing mechanisms

Conclusion: Clean milk production is not just about providing consumers with safe and
nutritious dairy products; it's also about upholding public health and maintaining the
reputation of the dairy industry. Clean milk production is a multifaceted endeavor that
requires a holistic approach, incorporating proper hygiene practices, animal health

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management, and stringent quality control measures. By prioritizing cleanliness, investing in

infrastructure, and promoting education, the dairy industry can provide consumers with safe,
nutritious, and high-quality dairy products while upholding the reputation of the sector by
prioritizing hygiene, animal health, and stringent quality control measures, stakeholders in
the dairy sector can contribute to a healthier society and a thriving dairy market.

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Dairy Farm Management (Shelter, Animal herd Management

& Waste Management)
Dr. S.S. Lathwal, Principal Scientist & I/c LRC, NDRI Karnal

HOUSING MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Living place or house of cattle is simply known as cattle housing. Good housing is required
for raising dairy animals. Because suitable housing is needed for keeping the cattle safe from
storm, rain, sun, hot temperature, excessive cold climate and other adverse weather
conditions. The principal functions of housing for livestock are: a) health sustaining and
comfortable environment to the animals; b) desirable working conditions for labour and
supervisory staff; c) Integration of housing with feeding, watering, cleaning, handling and
restraining including milking and manure removal system.

The housing systems and other farm structures should be designed, constructed, maintained
and managed to assist in the achievement of the Five Freedoms of the animals. The Five
Freedoms which form a basis for assessing animal welfare (FAWC, 1993; DEFRA, 2003;
Webster, 2005) within a husbandry system are: freedom from hunger and thirst, freedom
from discomfort, freedom from pain, injury and disease, freedom to express normal

MINIMUM STANDARDS

1. The housing system selected must ensure adequate climatic protection and comfort to the
housed animals for promoting optimum production, health and expression of innate
behaviour.
2. The floor space, feeding and watering space available for each animal must meet the
standing, resting, loafing, and exercise, feeding and watering requirements of the animal.
3. The number of animals in each group of animals in loose house must not be more than the
ability of the animal to recognise their hierarchy for ensuring social stability in the group
4. The floors in dairy animal houses must allow for comfortable sitting, standing up, traction
and insulation from ground.
5. Heat and cold stress amelioration strategies in animal houses must be in place to ensure
protection of animals against these stresses
6. The animal passages, roads, alleys and walkways must allow for easy movement with good
traction.

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behaviour, and freedom from fear and distress. In order to maximize their performance and to
ensure satisfactory standards of welfare, the animal houses must provide the most basic
needs. As an absolute minimum, the housing must provide a comfortable, clean, well drained
and dry lying area together with shelter for protection from inclement weather conditions. It
must allow the animal to move freely around without risk of injury and certain diseases.

SECTION 2

HOUSING SYSTEMS

There are two types of housing systems which are commonly in use for dairy animals. inim

Mainly there are two systems of housing for cattle; loose housing system and the
conventional closed housing system.

Loose housing

In loose housing, animals are usually kept loose in a open paddock in groups of 40-50
throughout the day and night except during milking and some other specific purposes like
treatment, breeding etc., when the animals are required to be tied. This housing system
generally provides continuous manger along with covered standing space, open paddock
which is enclosed by brick wall or railing and common water trough. Separate housing
structures of calf pens, milking byres, calving pens, bull pens etc., are required for this
system. This system is ideal for areas of low rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana Rajasthan,
Western U.P. and parts of Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Even at other places
this system can be used after making small modifications so as to protect animals from
excessive rains. Such houses are cheaper to construct, easier to expand at short notice, more
congenial to efficient management, less prone to fire hazards to animals and helps cleaner
milk production.

Close (tie) housing

In this system the animals are tied at one place throughout and milking and other routine
operations connected with dairy animals are carried out at this very place. This conventional
closed system provides greater protection during winter season but the construction cost is

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high. There are two types of designs in the system viz. tail-to tail and face-to-face. In tail-to-
tail system, which is mostly favoured, the animals do not face each other and their feeding
managers are different. On the other hand in face-to-face design, the manger is common. In
tail-to-tail system, the dairy farmer can feed the animals on individual basis.

The dairy animals accommodation should give them shelter and enough space to move
around and interact with each other. The accommodation should provide enough space for a
subordinate animal to move away from a dominant one. It is important to provide as
comfortable an area as possible, so that the animals can lie down for as long as they want and
have enough space to stand up again. The lying area should be big enough to help keep the
cows clean and comfortable and to avoid them damaging their joints. The space allowance
for cattle and buffaloes housed in groups should be worked out in terms of the whole animal
environment keeping in view the age, sex, live weight and behavioural needs of the stock and
the size of the group. The minimum floor space allowances for different categories of dairy
animals in loose system of housing and for an average farmer in tie stalls (as per BIS
recommendations) are presented in table 1 and table 2 respectively.

Table 1Floor space requirements of dairy animals under loose housing system (BIS:
1223 -1987)

Floor space per animal (m2)

Sr. No Type of animal
Covered area Open Area
1 Young calves (< 8 weeks) 1.0 2.0
2 Older calves (> 8 wks) 2.0 4.0
3 Heifers 2.0 4.0-5.0
4 Adult cows 3.5 7.0
5 Adult buffaloes 4.0 8.0
6 Down calvers 12.0 20-25
7 Bulls 12.0 120.0
8 Bullocks 3.5 7.0
* Based on ISI Standards for housing in India.

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Table 2 Floor space norms for cattle shed for average farmers keeping small number of
animals in tie stalls (BIS 11786 – 1986)
No. of cattle Cow shed Buffalo shed

Length (m) Width (m) Length (m) Width (m)

1 2.5 3.0 2.7 3.4

2 4.2 3.0 5.2 3.4

3 5.7 3.0 7.3 3.4

4 5.6 3.0 6.8 3.4

Calves 2.0 1.5 2.4 1.9

In view of the variability of cattle and buffalo size and live weight belonging to different
indigenous breeds and different grades of crossbred cattle, it would be more appropriate to
allocate floor space to different categories of cattle as per FAO recommendation under loose
houses (table 3) and in tie stalls (table 4) which take into account the live body weight of the
animal as well as age. The minimum floor space requirement based on the Royal Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) standards are also presented in table 5.

Table 3 Floor space requirements of cattle based body weights as per FAO

Animal category Age Weight Shaded area per animal (m²)

(months) (kg) Fully covered Shed with exercise
bedded shed yard

Young stock 1.5 - 3 70 - 100 1.5 1.4

Young stock 3-6 100- 175 2.0 1.8

Young stock 6 - 12 175 - 250 2.5 2.1

Young stock 12 - 18 250 - 350 3.0 2.3

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Bred heifers and 400 - 500 3.5 2.5

small milking cows

Milking cows 500 - 600 4.0 3.0

Large milking cows > 600 5.0 3.5

Table 4 Tie-stall system dimensions (metres) as per FAO

Stall Section Cow live weight

450 kg 550 kg 650 kg

Stall width 1.1 1.2 1.3

Stall length 1.6 1.7 1.8

Manger width 0.5 0.6 0.65

Table 5 Minimum floor space requirement based on the Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) recommendations

Animal weight (kg) Minimum bedded Minimum non- Minimum total

2
lying area (m ) bedded/loafing area area per animal
(m2) (m2)

< 100 1.5 1.8 3.3

101 to 199 2.5 2.5 5.0

200 to 299 3.5 2.5 6.0

300 to 399 4.5 2.5 7.0

400 to 499 5.5 2.5 8.0

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500 to 599 6.0 2.5 8.5

600 to 699 6.5 2.5 9.0

700 to 799 7.0 3.0 10.0

> 800 8.0 3.0 11.0

* Space allowances for weights in the range of 200 kg to 800 kg comply with British
Standard BS 5502:2005

In loose cattle houses the length of feeding space should enable all the animals in the shed to
eat at the same time to avoid aggression during feeding. Feed and water troughs should be
designed and located where the animals cannot get into them so that the troughs are kept
clean. Where feed and water troughs are provided in the loafing area, the access areas should
be sufficiently wide to permit free movement of animals and prevent routes becoming wet
and slippery. The feeding and watering space requirement as per BIS are given in table 6 and
their dimensions are presented in table 7. The minimum linear perimeter of water trough for a
given number of animals in the herd as recommended by the Royal Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), 2011 is given at Table 8.

Table 6 Feeding manger and watering space requirements of dairy animals

Feeding Water trough
Sr.
Type of animal (manger) space space/ animal
No
per animal (cm) (cm)
1 Young calves (< 8 weeks) 40- 50 10-15
2 Older calves (> 8 wks) 40-50 10-15
3 Heifers 45-60 30-45
4 Adult cows 60-75 45-60
5 Adult Buffaloes 60-75 60-75
6 Down calvers 60-75 60-75
7 Bulls 60-75 60-75
8 Bullocks 60-75 60-75
* The actual length and width of water through may be decided as per the strength of group

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Table 7 Dimensions of the mangers and water troughs

Type of animal Dimensions of manger/ water trough (cm)

Width Depth Height of inner
wall
Adult cows and 60 40 50
buffaloes
Calves 40 15 20

Table 8 Minimum linear perimeter of water trough (As per RSPCA 2011)

Sr. No Herd size Minimum effective drinking perimeter

(m)
1 50 2.25
2 100 4.50
3 125 5.65
4 150 6.75
5 200 9.00
With the commercialization of dairy farming and setting up of large dairy farms maintaining
high yielding crossbred cows and buffaloes becoming reality is recent years in India, the
farmers at these farms have started constructing individual cow cubicles inside the sheds.
Where cubicles are desirable to the constructed these shall conform to the minimum floor
space for ensuring cow comfort. The dimensions for free stalls (cubicles) as recommended by
Farm Welfare Approved standards for dairy cattle and calves (USA) are presented in table 9
for reference.

Table 9 Dimensions for free stalls (cubicles)

Weight of animal Cubicle length Cubicle clear width between

(kg) partitions
350-500 6.56 ft (2.00 m) 3.61ft (1.1m)
500-600 kg 7.05 ft (2.15m) 3.77 ft (1.15m)
600-700 kg 7.55 ft (2.30 m) 3.94 ft (1.2m)
700-800 kg 8.2 ft (2.5m) 4.27 ft (1.3m)
* Farm Welfare Approved Standards for Dairy Cattle and Calves, USA)

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Table 10 Dimensions of fence-line feed barriers

Sr. No Age/category of Throat height (in Height of neck rail (in

animal inches) Inches)
1 6 - 8 months 14 28
2 9 - 12 months 15.5 30
3 13 - 15 months 17 34

4 16 - 24 months 19 42
5 Adult cows 21 48

The cattle houses should get adequate ventilation and should not allow accumulation of
excessive carbon dioxide and other gases. The minimum air space required for cattle of
different ages as per RSPCA is given in table 11.

Table 11 Minimum air space requirement of dairy cattle (RSPCA, 2011)

Live weight of cattle (kg) Minimum unit building volume

Up to 60 7 m³

61 to 100 10 m³

101 to 200 15 m³

> 201 20 m³

Cattle and buffaloes are highly social herd animals and engage in complex interactions to
communicate dominance, subordination and peer bonding within the group. These herds
have a strict linear hierarchical structure with the most dominant animal at the top and the
most subordinate animal at the bottom. Social rank is largely based on by age and body

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weight / size. Older animals have more experience and are thus better placed to compete and
larger animals are more capable of physically dominating their smaller herd mates.

When different individuals meet for the first time they fight to establish rank. Once
hierarchical structure within a group is established, negative interactions become less
common except when animals compete for a limited resource e.g. access to feed, preferred
lying areas, access to the milking parlour etc. or when closely ranked animals seek to re-
establish or alter the dominance order. Near stable social hierarchy gets established in the
group when the members of the group are able to recognize each other and remember their
rank. An adult cattle and buffalo can effectively recognize 40-50 another cows/buffaloes.
Therefore in order to ensure social stability in the group and minimize the level of aggression
the group size should be about 50 and should not exceed 60 animals. Mixing of animals and
housing animals in very large groups may disrupt the hierarchy and increase aggression.
From a health perspective, frequent regrouping of livestock may increase exposure to
pathogens and prolong disease outbreaks. Fraser and Broom (1990) suggest that cattle may
recognize a maximum of 50-70 other individuals.

When individuals enter or re-enter an established group they must establish their social rank
within the herd. This can only be achieved by interacting with all the animals they meet.
Hence it often takes a number of days or even weeks for animals to establish themselves
following introduction to the herd. Even in herds with a stable hierarchy, social rank remains
important when limited resources such as feed or access to feed are considered (e.g. cows of
lower social rank were displaced from the feed bunk more often, particularly at high stocking
rates (Huzzey et al., 2006) and high ranking cows spend more time at the feeder following
the provision of fresh food (Val-Laillet et al, 2008). This is particularly true for low ranking,
high yielding animals.

In any situation, animals of higher social rank are better able to cope and perform because
they are able to compete better with their more subordinate group mates. Small changes
which are of limited consequence to a low yielding animal can be of huge significance to
genetically high producing animals. In order to maximize herd performance as a whole, and

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not just the performance of higher ranking individuals it is important to manage the herd, the
diet and the environment so that lower ranking individuals are able to fulfill their yield
potential without compromising their health and welfare. The approximate number of
animals to be housed together in a group in loose houses is given in table 10.

Table 10 Number of animals in a group under loose housing of dairy animals

Sr.
Type of animal Number of animals
No
1 Young calves (< 8 weeks) Individual or in groups of below 5
2 Older calves (> 8 wks) Groups of below 15
3 Heifers Groups of below 25
4 Adult cows Groups of 40-50
5 Adult Buffaloes Groups of 40-50
6 Down calvers Individual
7 Bulls Individual
8 Bullocks Pairs

The flooring system of dairy cows housing influences the overall environment experienced
by the cows. The flooring material used for resting areas is very important for cow comfort.
Cows need a soft, dry, comfortable surface to rest on in order to be healthy and productive.
Bedding is an important factor influencing cow comfort and lying time, and consequently
milk production and dairy farm profitability. Cows housed in loose houses spend 10 to 12
hours per day standing and the rest of 12-14 hours resting. In order to maximize milk
production, a cow should spend over 12 hours or more than 50% of her day lying time in a
stall or at pasture (Ryan A., 2010). Cows have a strong behavioral need to rest. Jensen et al.
(2004) reported that cows have a very strong motivation to rest, and that this motivation to
rest increases as the length of rest deprivation becomes greater. The lying behavior has a high
priority for cattle after relatively short periods of lying deprivation. Cows have a definite
requirement for resting (lying down) that they attempt to achieve, even if it means giving up
some feeding time. Studies show that management factors that interfere with resting

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inevitably reduce feeding behavior as well. Cows attempt to maintain a rather fixed amount
of lying time, and their well-being is impaired when lying time is restricted for several hours
(Metz, 1985).

The benefits of resting include: greater milk synthesis due to greater blood flow through the
udder, greater blood flow to the gravid uterus during late lactation, increased rumination
effectiveness, less stress on the hoof and less lameness, less fatigue stress, and greater feed
intake. Grant (2004) proposed that each additional one hour of resting time translates into 2
to 3.5 more pounds of milk per cow daily. The bottom line is that lying has a higher priority
than eating and social interactions for both early and late lactation dairy cows, and that cows
compensate for reduced access to resting by spending less time eating to free up time for
making up lost resting activity (Munksgaard et al., 2005).

A good amount of rest can only be ensured if the floors in animal houses are such that they
encourage the cows sit and take rest. House et al. (1994) cited research that stall surfaces had
a profound effect on resting times. They found that the resting times on concrete, insulated
concrete, rubber mat, straw on concrete (2"), and mattress were 7.2, 8.1, 9.8, 14.1 and 14.4
hours, respectively. Cows will take more rest when microclimate inside the house is
comfortable, when comfortable resting place is available, when they are not over crowded,
when surface of the floor is conducive for rest: not hot in summers, not cool in winters and
not slippery. The options available to ensure this are paddy straw or other locally available
dry crop residues, cow mattresses, rubber mats, dried slurry from biogas plant, brick kiln ash
or sand. The sand is commonly referred to as the “gold standard” for bedding dairy cattle.
The practice of housing growing crossbred dairy calves on concrete floors with brick kiln ash
as bedding was observed to be better in view of better growth and health performance and
improved comfort and welfare of calves as compared to housing of calves on concrete floors
with paddy straw bedding or on wooden slated floor.

Sand bedding has several advantages. There is increased lying time, less foot stress, lower
incidence of lameness, lower clinical mastitis, less lesions and baldness on the hocks. It
provides confident footing and good cushion, balanced growth of hoof and balanced wearing,

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reducing need for hoof trimming (Frans Vokey, 2003). Dairy farms switching to sand also
reported dramatically reduced feet and leg problems, lower SCC, and lower culling rates
(Pepin R., 2010). An earth bed also provides some cushion for cows resting and provides
good footing. However, it requires a significant amount of bedding to be used over it for
cow comfort. This requires a lot of maintenance.

The loose housing system for dairy cattle and buffaloes is quite suitable and economical for
tropical climatic conditions as prevailing in India. However some modifications are required
for different regions of country as suggest by planning commission. Primary methods for the
modification of environment include i) the provision of shade (with feed and drinking water
under the shade ii) evaporative cooling with water in the form of fog iii) mist or sprinkling
with natural or forced air movement, and possibly iv) cooling (wallowing) ponds. The
incorporation of these methods into an integrated environmental management system which
protects cows from the primary sources of heat gain from the environment and takes
advantage of opportunities to enhance evaporative heat loss have the best potential for
successful abatement of heat stress.

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Importance of Breeding Bulls and Semen Handling in Organized Dairy

Farms: An Overview
Dr. Brij Kishore, Ex TO, NDRI

Much focus is placed on the importance of proper cow nutrition, but too often the nutritional
needs of the bull are ignored. The bull stands in the unique position of being responsible for
50 percent of the reproductive success of herd. Thus, the nutrition of this one animal can
affect the conception rate of the entire herd. In order for a bull to conceive the most cows
possible, he needs to be maintained on a balanced plane of nutrition so that the nutritional
requirements in terms of protein, energy, minerals, vitamins etc. are met.

After puberty, bull produces sperm throughout his lifetime in a continuous cycle. This cycle
takes roughly 60 days from initial spermatozoa creation from germ cells up to ejaculation of
mature sperm in semen. This means that the nutritional status of a bull for the previous 60
days will affect the quality of semen ejaculated today. It also means that fertility in a bull is
ever-changing. Just because he was fertile last year doesn’t mean that he will be fertile today.
Because sperm production is a continuous process, proper nutrition is critical to maintain
peak fertility in bulls. The nutritional quality of feeds and forages can have a tremendous
influence on the reproductive performance of bull. Although reproductive failure may occur
for several reasons, nutritional management is one of the important contributing factors. If
nutritional requirement of a bull is not met, reproduction is the first body function that is
sacrificed therefore; outmost care should be given while feeding bulls for better reproductive
performance.

Effect of various nutrients on reproductive performance of bulls

1) Energy: Energy is probably the most important nutritional consideration in cattle

production. Animals require energy to grow and to keep the body functioning. Carbohydrates
and fats are the primary source of energy in the diet. Besides being a source of energy,
carbohydrates are building blocks for other nutrients. The excess energy in a diet is deposited
as fat, which provides insulation and protection to the body. Energy level in ration has its
indirect impact on testicular activities. In male calves, it has been reported that additional

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dietary energy enhanced onset of puberty primarily via enhanced testicular function, as
measured by increased level of serum testosterone, testicular testosterone, Leydig cell size
and sperm production (Nolan et al., 1990). Dietary energy up to a level accelerates pre-
pubertal development, but beyond a limit there are no positive effects (Pruitt et al.,1986).
Excessive dietary energy (Morrow et al., 1981) as well as critically low dietary energy
(Meacham et al., 1963) both can adversely affect libido of yearling and mature beef bulls
(Wodzicka-Tomaszewska et al., 1981). In Holstein bulls, low energy intake early in life can
delay puberty (VanDemark and Mauger, 1964), but if severely low, then it can permanently
impair sperm output (VanDemark et al., 1964).

Level of dietary energy had profound impact on reproductive ability of a bull and should
neither be too high nor too less. It should be balanced as per the growing stage and body
condition of the animal. High energy diet is preferable for growing bulls, but if the
growing bull is over conditioned than it need to be cycled down from that high plane of
energy, otherwise it will result in more scrotal fat deposition and hamper sperm synthesis. A
bull with thin body condition requires to be kept on higher energy level to hasten the body
weight gain. For a yearling growing bull, high energy diet is a common practice in
commercial farms to achieve the mature body weight as early as possible so that bull may be
sold at higher price in short period. But sometimes, high levels of energy have also been
shown to impair sperm output and semen quality (Coulter and Kozub, 1984). It may be due
to hampered thermoregulation at testicular level creating deteriorating condition for
sperm growth.

2) Protein: Protein is the second limiting nutrient in most rations. It is the principal building
block of most tissues. The amount of crude protein in an energy-sufficient diet ranges from 8
to 12 per cent. If dietary energy is not adequate to meet demands, it can be supplied by the
breakdown of body fat and muscles. However, there is no way for the body to compensate
for the prolonged deficiency of dietary protein. Therefore, diets deficient in protein is more
critical as it leads to loss of body condition. Inadequate amounts of protein in the diet, further
drops off the daily feed consumption, decrease feed passage rates and declines the overall
digestive efficiency. Reduced feed intake results in both a protein and energy deficiency.

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Protein is the main body building nutrient and its level in diet directly had bearing on
animal’s growth and reproduction. It has been seen that ration having high protein (14.45%
CP) level had resulted in significantly larger scrotal circumference, greater body weight,
higher average daily gains, higher body condition score, higher volume of semen, high
sperm motility, semen concentration and more total spermatozoa than the rations with low
protein (8.51% CP) levels (Rekwot et al., 1987). Reduced CP% in diet resulted in
decreased weight of testes, epididymis and seminal glands. It decreased thickness and
diameter of seminiferous epithelium and tubules, respectively (Meacham et al., 1964).

3) Minerals: Minerals play various important roles. Along with building block of skeleton
tissue, they are cofactor for various enzymatic and biochemical reactions involved in
metabolism, reproduction etc. Minerals as per their requirement in the body are divided into
macro-minerals and micro- minerals. Macro-minerals include Calcium, Phosphorus,
Magnesium, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium and Chlorine. Micro-minerals include Cobalt,
Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Selenium, Zinc etc. Copper, Selenium, and Zinc have
major role on reproduction as they are the trace minerals most commonly to be deficient in
the diet. Copper (Cu): Cu is required for connective tissue metabolism, iron
metabolism and for various enzyme activities. It also strengthens immunity. Low copper
level reduces reproductive efficiency by inhibiting enzyme activities. Cu deficiency can
result in reduced libido, infertility and central nervous system abnormalities in offspring.
High levels of iron, sulfur or molybdenum in the soil or additional feed supplements can
further exaggerate these deficiency symptoms. Newborns are very dependent on copper
acquired during the prenatal period since copper levels in milk are poor. Therefore, proper
copper nutrition in gestating females is critical to maintain body stores in newborns.
Selenium (Se): Most of the Se found in the testes is associated with phospholipid, hydro
peroxide glutathione peroxidase, which is an antioxidant that protects the cells from
oxidative stress (Boitani and Puglisi, 2008). Se deficiency results in reduced semen viability
(Slaweta et al., 1988). Se in association with thyroxin regulates metabolism and reproduction.
Se form complexes with heavy metals to render them harmless. Severe Se deficiency result
in white muscle disease, leads to stiffness and heart failure. Unfortunately, the amount of Se
required is very close to its toxicity level, thus great care must be taken while supplementing

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Se. The maximum level of selenium that can be legally fed to cattle is 0.3 PPM in the total
ration (dry matter basis). Zinc (Zn): Zn is essential for spermatogenesis (Apagar, 1985). Zn
regulates sperm motility as along with ATP, Zn helps in sperm contraction (Hidiroglou and
Knipfel, 1984). Zn affects the production and secretion of testosterone, insulin and adrenal
corticosteroids. As an integral component of over 300 enzymes, Zn is associated with
numerous biological processes (McDowell et al., 1993). Hypo-gonadism is observed in Zn-
deprived bull calves (Pitts et al., 1966). Deficiency reduces pituitary gonadotropin output and
androgen production in rats (Kellokumpu and Rajaniemi. 1981). Metabolic interactions may
occur between Zn and vitamin A metabolism (Smith, 1982.). Zinc deficient rats have reduced
vitamin A (Apagar, 1985). Zinc enhances vitamin A uptake in bovine sperm (Swamp and
Sekhon, I975).

Calcium (Ca): Help in sperm capacitation which results increased influx of Ca through
plasma membrane. This process assists fusion of the plasma membrane and the outer
acrosomal membrane and subsequent initiation of the acrosome reaction (Triana et al., 1980).
Ca is important for sperm motility. Sperm motility is correlated with cyclic AMP
concentration. Calcium, along with magnesium and manganese, is a potent stimulator of
adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cAMP
(Rojas et al., 1992). The ratio of Ca to phosphorus should be maintained between 1.5:1 and
3:1 to avoid an imbalance.

4) Vitamins

Vitamin-A: The rat has been used extensively in studies of the effects of vitamin A
deficiency upon mammalian reproduction. In the male rat, classic symptoms of vitamin A
deficiency include inhibition of spermatogenesis, reduction in testicular size, and decline in
testicular steroidogenesis (Ganguly et al., 1980). In the male, vitamin A deficiency is
associated with degeneration of testicular germinal epithelium, resulting in either reduction
or cessation of spermatogenesis, depending upon the severity of the deficiency (Maynard et
al., 1979). Bulls fed diets deficient in vitamin A have delayed puberty, reduced libido, and
reduced spermatogenesis (Hodgson et al., 1946). Vitamin-E: Vitamin E deficiency has a
deleterious effect on germ cell proliferation. Effect of vitamin E occurs directly or

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indirectly on the regulation of intra-testicular factors which regulate specific steps of germ
cell development (Cooper et al., 1987). In the male rat, vitamin E deficiency causes a
degeneration of the germinal epithelium (Scott, 1978), and Se deficiency results in an
inhibition of spermatogenesis (Wu et al., 1973.). In the latter case, supplemental vitamin E
does not alleviate the Se deficiency symptoms. Vitamin E deficiency in the male rat does not
impair LH and testosterone or FSH and inhibin feedback loops, but rather causes testicular
degeneration at the intra-testicular level (Cooper et al., 1987). Vitamin E may affect germ
cell development through some mechanism other than as a cellular antioxidant.

5) The effect of calfhood nutrition on gonadotropic hormone secretions: Calf destined to

become later maturing bulls with smaller testis had lower amount of LH secretion during the
period of the early gonadotropin rise (8- 16 wk of age). Furthermore, increasing circulating
LH concentrations at this time by treating calves GnRH hastened pubertal development. In
addition, FSH treatments in calfhood also increased scrotal circumference and hastened
spermatogenesis. In this regard, FSH has been considered a main driver of Sertoli cell
proliferation in pre-pubertal animals. Since Sertoli cell multiplication ceases at 20-25 wk of
age in bulls, final testis size in bulls is likely determined in calfhood. Experiments conducted
to investigate the effect of calfhood nutrition on pubertal development confirms that superior
calfhood nutrition augmented gonadotropin secretion (which is probably mediated by
metabolic hormones); this resulted in larger testis at 1 year of age and earlier onset of
spermatogenesis (Barth et. al., 2008).

6) Effect of feeding Bull supplement developed by the NDDB:

A bull supplement containing chelated minerals, coated vitamins and herbs was developed by
the Animal Nutrition group of NDDB after conducting series of feeding trials on breeding
bulls of different breeds. Trial results and economic analysis of feeding the bull supplement
of some of the trials are given below in brief. Feeding trials on bull supplement were
organized for one full year at ABC, Salon and SAG, Bidaj, on 50 breeding bulls at each farm.
One feeding trial was also conducted at BAIF’s Bull Station in Uruli-Kanchan, Pune for a
period of 6 months on 9 breeding bulls, before commercial launching of the supplement. On
feeding the supplement, there was average increase in semen doses by about 329 per bull per

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month at SAG, Bidaj, 476 at ABC, Salon and 800 at BAIF. In addition, there was also
improvement in sperm plasma membrane integrity and per cent intact acrosomes, as recorded
by the QC labs of respective semen stations.

The supplement is now commercially produced in 5 mm pellets by Indian Immunological Ltd.

Hyderabad at its cattle feed plant, Rajkot, under the brand name “Nandi Bull Supplement” for
improving the quality and quantity of semen in breeding bulls. The supplement is available in
packets of 250 g, each of the packets required to be fed daily per bull.

7) Anti-nutritional Factors hindering bull fertility:

i) Gossypol: Chinese researches reported gossypol as a potent male contraceptive. Feeding

cottonseed products at high levels and/or for long periods of time hindered bull fertility
(Chase et al., 1989). In routine use of 3- 5 lbs of cottonseed meal is most unlikely to expose
the breeding animals to the levels of gossypol needed to cause reproductive problems
(Martin, 1990). Add 4000 IU of vitamin E/head/day to neutralize the effects of gossypol.

ii) Molybdenum toxicity: Displayed complete lack of libido, and histological examination
showed seminiferous tubules and testicular interstitial tissue to be in various stages of
degeneration and devoid of spermatids. Damage to germinal epithelial tissue was irreversible
(Thomas and Moss, 1951)

Conclusion:

A planned and scientific approach in nutritional management can upgrade the reproductive
quality of breeding bulls. Bulls fed as per their actual requirement since calfhood achieve the
puberty in right time and have large scrotal circumference and higher gonadotropic hormone
release, which result in healthy and fertile sperms.

Recommendations and Suggestions

1. Periodically, feed and fodder offered to the bulls should be tested for their chemical
composition and mineral contents.
2. As bulls are aggressive and have competitive feeding habits, thus instead of group feeding,
individual feeding should be practiced.

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3. Periodically animal weight should be recorded to know the actual body condition of the
animal.
4. Ration should be formulated based on requirement of individual animal, considering
chemical composition and mineral contents of the existing feeds and fodders.

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