ME 5071

Automobile Engineering

Unit 1 – Introduction to Automobile

and its Types
Contents
• An overview of different types of automobiles and their power
sources
• Specifications
• Performance parameters
• Types of power delivery
• Safety standards & Regulations
• Trends in automobile design
• Two wheeler and types
• Car body construction
• Bus body details
• General consideration relating to chassis layout
• Introduction to MV Act
• Pollution norms

2
Automobile

• An Automobile is a self propelled

vehicle which contains the power
source for its propulsion and is used
for carrying passengers and goods on
the ground, such as car, bus, trucks,
etc.,,

3
Introduction: Role of Automobile Engineering

• Design vehicle and components

• Manufacture
• Assemble
• Ensure smooth operation

4
Introduction: Vehicle Development Process

Vehicle
Development
Organization

Product Vehicle
Engineering Engineering Styling

Body Engineering Package Engineering

Exterior Styling
Chassis Engineering Weight Engineering
Interior Styling
Powertrain Engineering Safety Engineering

Climate Control Engineering Vehicle Dynamics

Vehicle Durability
Electrical Engineering
Vehicle NVH
Vehicle Thermal & Aero
Prototype Planning/Test
Introduction: Vehicle Development Process

Vehicle,
System &
Component
Spec
Concept
Evaluation
To Meet Spec

Program
Approval

Prototype
Design &
Testing
Production
Design &
Testing
Fix Problems
Before
Production
Introduction: Vehicle Systems & Attributes

Vehicle

Systems Attributes

• Cost
• Weight
• Body
• Package
• Chassis
• Safety
• Powertrain
• Dynamics
• Climate Control
• Durability
• Electrical
• NVH
• Styling
Introduction: Function of Vehicle Systems
Vehicle System Function
• Provide durable attachment for other major systems
Body • Provide safe and pleasant seating environment for all passengers
• Protect passengers from crashes
• Provide capability to steer the vehicle
Chassis • Provide capability to brake the vehicle safely
• Provide isolation between road and passengers
• Provide capability to accelerate the vehicle by transferring
torque to wheels
Powertrain
• Provide capability to control vehicle speed
• Meet regulatory exhaust requirement
• Maintain comfortable temperature distribution for passengers
Climate Control
• Provide windshield defrost capability
• Provide power supply where needed
Electrical &
• Provide desirable entertainment system
Electronics
• Provide functional censors and controls
 Types of Automobile
The automobiles are classified according to:
• Fuel used
• Body style
• Number of wheels
• Load carrying capacity
• Transmission type
• Driving position
• Driving axle
• Position of engine

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 Types of Automobile
• On the basis of fuel used
– Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter,
cars, etc.
– Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
– Electric vehicle which use battery to drive
– Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses
steam engine
– Gas vehicle, e.g. Hydrogen, LPG and CNG
vehicles

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 Types of Automobile
• On the basis of body style
– Sedan, Hatchback car
– Coupe car, Station
wagon, Convertible
– Van, Special purpose
vehicle, e.g. ambulance,
milk van, etc.
– Truck, Tanker, Delivery
van, Pick-up truck, Mini
load van.
– Motor Bike, Auto,
Passenger van, Bus etc.
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Types of Automobile
• On the basis of wheels
– Two wheeler vehicle, for
example : Scooter, motorcycle,
scooty, etc.
– Three wheeler vehicle, Ex: Auto
rickshaw
– Three wheeler scooter for
handicaps and tempo, etc.
– Four wheeler vehicle, Ex: Car,
jeep, trucks, buses, etc.
– Six wheeler vehicle, Ex: Big
trucks with two gear axles
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Types of Automobile
• On the basis of Load
– Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV)
– Light transport vehicle (LTV), Light motor vehicle (LMV)
• On the basis of Transmission
– Conventional vehicles with manual transmission
– Semi-automatic
– Automatic: In automatic transmission, gears are not required
to be changed manually
• On the basis of Drive
– Left hand drive
– Right hand drive
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Types of Automobile
• On the basis of Driving Axle
– Front wheel drive
– Rear wheel drive
– All wheel drive
• Position of Engine
– Engine in Front - Most of the vehicles have engine in the
front
– Engine in the Rear Side - Very few vehicles have engine
located in the rear. Example: Nano car

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Vehicle Construction
• Part or Component refers to the smallest units on a vehicle
• An assembly is several parts that fit together
• Panel refers to a large removable body part
• Pan refers to a floor-related component
• Chassis includes everything under the body, consisting of the
mechanical systems that support and power the car
 Main Components of an Automobile
• Frame
• Chassis
• Body
• Power unit
• Transmission
system

Chassis = Frame +
Base components

Vehicle = Chassis +
Body 16
Important Structural Parts of an Automobile
Chassis
• If the frame contains the base components its called as chassis
• The components are like Engine, radiator, clutch, gearbox,
silencer, road wheels, fuel tank, wirings, differential units, etc..,
Frame
• The frame is the skeleton of the vehicle. It servers as a main
foundation and base for alignment for the chassis
• Types
– Body-over-frame or full frame
– Semi integral frame
– Integral or unibody frame
Body
• Body is the superstructure of the vehicle and it is bolted to the
chassis
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Chassis
• Chassis is derived from French term which means frame or
main structure of a vehicle
• In automobile, chassis is the external structure of the vehicle
which houses all the components of the vehicle and mounted
on the wheels of vehicle with help of frame

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Chassis - Construction

Chassis Construction
 Components of Chassis
• Frame
• Front suspension
• Steering mechanism
• Silencer
• Storage battery
• Rear springs
• Road wheels
• Shock absorbers
• Brakes and braking
system
• Propeller shaft
• Engine, clutch, gearbox
• Radiator
• Fuel tank
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Chassis Layout of Vehicles
Based on Engine Location
• Front engine
• Mid-engine
• Rear engine
Based on Driving Axle
• Front wheel drive
• Rear wheel drive
• Four/all wheel drive
Front Engine
• Better protection to passengers
• Better natural air cooling for engine
• Shorter clutch and gear box controls
Rear Engine
• Clutch, gearbox and final drive placed in rear side
• Heavy rear side
• Independent rear suspension system required
• Handling will be difficult at high speeds
• Large amount of space for passengers
• Increased load will provide better road grip
 Central or Mid-Engine
• Good handling and maximum traction
• Location of engine provide excellent weight distribution
• Disadvantage in traditional cars as it only has two seats
• Mostly used in sports cars
Front-Engine and Front-Wheel Drive
Advantages
• Road holding is improved in wet and slippery conditions
• Passenger and cargo spaces are more due to the absence of
transmission shaft
• Good road grip
• Lower flat floor line can be provided
• Provides more comfort to passenger as it has less noise and
vibration
Front-Engine and Front-Wheel Drive
Disadvantages
• Acceleration is reduced because of the load transfer to rear
wheels
• Complicated drive shafts are needed
• Special universal joints and more complicated assembly required
due to short distance of transmission
• Possibility of skidding under heavy braking
 Front-Engine and Rear-Wheel Drive
Advantages
• Reasonably balanced weight
distribution between front and rear
• A large luggage space is available
• Control linkages such as choke, clutch and
gear box are short and simple
• Cooling by wind
Disadvantages
• Noise and vibration by universal joint and
propeller shaft
• Propeller shaft operation need floor tunnel
clearance
• When stuck in mud, tends to plough into
ground
Rear-Engine and Rear-Wheel Drive
Advantages
• Short line drive
• Improved traction in rear wheels
• Effective rear wheel braking
• Absence of drive shaft give more floor space
• Front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility
• This drive arrangement results a compact car
Disadvantages
• Vehicle affected by side winds at high speed
• Difficult to accommodate the liquid cooling
• Difficult to fix fuel tank in a safe zone
• Space for luggage is reduced
• Natural air cooling is not possible
• Steering is difficult in slippery conditions
 Four-Wheel Drive
Advantages
• Increased traction
• Wear of tyres and other
components are evenly
shared
• Easily recover when it struck
in mud
Disadvantages
• Increase weight, cost, fuel
consumption, maintenance
• Difficult to accommodate ABS
Frames

A vehicle frame, is the main

supporting structure to which all
other components are attached,
makes the skeleton of vehicle

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Various Loads acting on the Frame
• Short duration Load - While crossing a broken patch
• Momentary duration Load - While taking a curve
• Impact Loads - Due to the collision of the vehicle
• Inertia Load - While applying brakes
• Static Loads - Loads due to chassis parts
• Over Loads - Beyond Design capacity
Types of Frames
There are three types of frames :
(a) Conventional frames – Ladder frame, Perimeter
frames
(b) Semi-integral frame
(c) Integral frame (or Unit frame)
(d) Backbone tube frame
(e) Superleggera frame
Conventional Frame
• This suspension in the main skeleton
of the vehicle which is supported on
the axles through springs.
• The loads of the vehicle are
transferred to the suspensions by the
frame.
• The body is made of flexible material
like wood and isolated frame by
inserting rubber mountings in
between.
• The frame is made of channel section
or tubular section or box section.
Conventional Frame
Ladder Frame
• So named for its resemblance to a ladder, the ladder frame is
the simplest and oldest of all designs
• It consists merely of two symmetrical rails, or beams, and cross
member connecting them
• Originally seen on almost all vehicles, the ladder frame was
gradually phased out on cars around the 1940s in favour of
perimeter frames and is now seen mainly on trucks
• This design offers good beam resistance because of its
continuous rails from front to rear, but poor resistance to torsion
or warping if simple, perpendicular cross members are used
• The vehicle's overall height will be higher due to the floor pan
sitting above the frame instead of inside it.
Ladder Frame
• Channel Section - Good
resistance to bending
• Tabular Section - Good
resistance to Torsion
• Box Section - Good
resistance to both bending
and Torsion
Perimeter Frame
• Similar to a ladder frame, but the middle sections of the
frame rails sit outboard of the front and rear rails just behind
the rocker panels/sill panels
• This was done to allow for a lower floor pan, and therefore
lower overall vehicle in passenger cars
• This was the prevalent design for cars in the United States, but
not in the rest of the world, until the uni-body gained
popularity and is still used on US full frame cars
Perimeter Frame
• Perimeter frame allowed the annual model changes introduced in the
1950s to increase sales, but without costly structural changes.
• In addition to a lowered roof, the perimeter frame allows for more
comfortable lower seating positions and offers better safety in the event
of a side impact
• However, the reason this design isn't used on all vehicles is that it lacks
stiffness, because the transition areas from front to centre and centre to
rear reduce beam and torsional resistance, hence the use of torque boxes,
and soft suspension settings.
Semi-Integral Frame
• Half frame is fixed in the front end on which the engine,
gearbox and front suspension are mounted so that the
complete front portion can be repaired and replaced easily in
case of accidents
• The rubber mountings used in conventional frame between
frame and suspension are replaced by more stiff mountings
• Popular in Fiat cars and other European and American cars
Semi-Integral Frame
• The semi-integral frame or sub frame, is a boxed frame section
that attaches to a unibody. Seen primarily on the front end of
cars, it's also sometimes used in the rear
• Both the front and rear are used to attach the suspension to
the vehicle and either may contain the engine
and transmission
• The most prolific example is the 1967-1981 Chevrolet Camaro
Semi-Integral Frame: Construction
Integral Frame or Frame-less Construction

• In this type of construction, there is no frame. It is also called

unitized frame-body construction
• In this case, the body shell and underbody are welded into
single unit. The underbody is made of floor plates and
channel and box sections welded into single unit
• This assembly replaces the frame. This decreases the overall
weight compared to conventional separate frame and body
construction
Backbone Tube Frame
• Backbone chassis is a type of an
automobile construction
chassis that is similar to the
body-on-frame design
• Instead of a two-dimensional
ladder type structure, it
consists of a strong tubular
backbone (usually rectangular
in cross section) that connects
the front and rear suspension
attachment areas. A body is
then placed on this structure
Superleggera Frame
• An Italian term (meaning "super-
light") for sports-car construction
using a three -dimensional frame that
consists of a cage of narrow tubes
that, besides being under the body,
run up the fenders and over the
radiator, cowl, and roof, and under
the rear window
• It resembles a geodesic structure
• The body, which is not stress-bearing,
is attached to the outside of the
frame and is often made of
aluminium
Vehicle Body
Vehicle Body Types
Requirements of Vehicle Body
The body should be
• light
• have minimum number of
components
• provide sufficient space for
passengers and luggage
• withstand vibrations while in motion
• offer minimum resistance to air
• be cheap and easy in manufacturing
• be attractive in shape and color
• have uniformly distributed load
• have long fatigue life
• provide good vision and ventilation
Types of Vehicle Body
According to Chassis design the body can
divided into
a) Full Frame or Body over Frame
b) Integral Type
c) Semi- Integral Type
d) Space frame construction
 Full Frame or Body-over-frame
• Vehicles have separate body and
chassis parts bolted to the frame
• Full frame vehicle is heavier - high
amounts of energy are absorbed by
the frame in a collision
• Torque boxes allow some twisting to
absorb road shock and collision
impact
• Cross members extend sideways
across frame rails to support the
engine, suspension, chassis
• Used on most full-size and some
small trucks
Semi-Integral Frame
• Offer weight savings
compared to traditional
separate ladder frames
• Semi-integral frames
provide more usable
interior space compared to
fully separate ladder
frames. There’s less
intrusion from frame
members, allowing for
better cabin layouts.

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 Unibody Construction
• Unibody construction uses body
parts welded and bolted together
• Uses lighter, thinner, high-strength
steel alloys
• Body shell is formed by welding Unibody with reinforcement

sheet metal into a box- or egg-like

configuration
• Strength is achieved through
shape and design instead of mass
and weight
• Stressed hull structure disperses
force over the entire body shell Unibody construction
 Space Frame Construction
• Space frame vehicle has a
metal body structure covered
with an outer skin of plastic
or composite panels
• Roof and quarter panels may
be attached with mechanical
fasteners or adhesives
• After a collision a space frame
is more likely to have hidden
damage, or hidden corrosion
• Support members are bolted
to unibody bottom
Joining Vehicle Parts Together
• Fastened parts are held
together with fasteners
• Welded parts are
permanently joined by
welding
• Press-fit or snap-fit parts
use clips or an interface
to fit parts together
• Adhesive-bonded parts
use high-strength epoxy
or special glue to hold
parts together
Vehicle Power Sources
• Vehicle power source propel the vehicle by utilizing a stored
energy usually in the form of fuels, electric power
• The requirement of power source is to produce the required
propelling torque with high energy conversion efficiency, high
range capability, less pollutant emissions and light weight

54
 Types of Power Sources

Electric Vehicle Motor Fuel Cell Conventional/ICE vehicles

Internal Combustion Engine

55
Comparison of Vehicles

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Comparison of Vehicles

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Vehicle Specifications
• A snapshot of a vehicle's important details
• Provided by vehicle manufacturer
• Usually a published information about a vehicle
• Gives information on vehicle construction, operation,
performance and features
• Easy to compare different vehicles while purchasing
• Mostly includes:
– Dimensional specifications
– Engine specifications
– Capacity specifications
– Performance specifications
– Safety specifications
– Drivetrain, brakes, and suspension specifications
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Vehicle Specifications

59
Vehicle Specifications

Mahindra XUV700 Specifications

[Link]
Vehicle Performance Parameters
• Fuel Economy
• Acceleration
• Top Speed
• Ride Comfort
• Handling Characteristics
• Maximal Climbing Angle
• Fuel/Battery storage
capacity/Range
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Vehicle Fuel Economy
• Fuel economy or mileage is critical parameter that
determines how far a vehicle can travel on a specific
amount of fuel
• High mileage is desirable for cost savings and environmental
reasons
• For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given
as mpg or kmpl
• In engine testing, the fuel consumption is measured in
terms of specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how
efficiently the fuel supplied to the engine is used to produce
power (g/kWh)
Vehicle Fuel Consumption

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 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Size
• BSFC decreases with engine size due to reduced heat losses from gas
to cylinder wall.

Note: cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

cylinder surface area 2rL 1
 2 
cylinder volume r L r
 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Speed
• There is a minimum in the BSFC versus engine speed curve

• At high speeds the BSFC increases due to increased friction

• At lower speeds the BSFC increases due to increased time for heat
losses from the gas to the cylinder and piston wall
• BSFC increases with compression ratio due to higher thermal
efficiency
 Top Speed and Acceleration
• Engine torque is measured using a dynamometer
• The torque exerted by the engine is: T = F b Joule
• The power P delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:
P =  T = (2 N) T Watt
– w is the shaft angular velocity with units: rad/s
• Engine torque, power, overall vehicle mass and aerodynamics
are responsible for the vehicle’s top speed and maximum
acceleration
 Power and Torque versus Engine Speed
• There is a maximum in the brake Rated brake power
power versus engine speed called
the rated brake power
1 kW = 1.341 hp
• At higher speeds brake power
decreases as friction power
becomes significant compared to
the indicated power
• There is a maximum in the torque Max brake torque

versus speed called maximum

brake torque (MBT)
• Brake torque drops off at:
– Lower speeds do to heat losses
– Higher speeds it becomes more
difficult to ingest a full charge of air
Vehicle Power Requirements

68
Vehicle Aerodynamics

Drag coefficient of different vehicles 69

Energy Density of Battery Types

Vehicle battery type and total storage capacity affects

overall mass of electric vehicles
70
Vehicle Battery Capacity

Fig: Battery capacity of different types of vehicles

71
 Electric Vehicle Performance

Electric vehicle performance comparison:

• Vehicle battery effectiveness ranges 4.1-5.6 km/kWh depending upon

overall vehicle size and design
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Introduction to MV Act
The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
Act Number: 59
Enactment Date: 14-10-1988
Act Year: 1988
Short Title: The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
Long Title: An Act to consolidate and amend the
law relating to motor vehicles.
Ministry: Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways (MoRT&H)
Enforcement Date: 01-07-1989, replacing MVA 1939
Notification: 1st July, 1989, vide notification No. S.O.
368(E), dated 22nd May, 1989, see
Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II,
sec. 3 (ii).
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Introduction to MV Act, 1988
The following chapters are included in the Act
Chapter I: Preliminary
Chapter II: Licensing of Drivers of Motor Vehicles
Chapter III: Licensing of Conductors of Stage Carriages
Chapter IV: Registration of Motor Vehicles
Chapter V: Control of Transport Vehicles
Chapter VI: Special Provisions Relating to State Transport Undertakings
Chapter VII: Construction, Equipment and Maintenance of Motor Vehicles
Chapter VIII: Control of Traffic
Chapter IX: Motor Vehicles Temporarily Leaving or Visiting India
Chapter X: Liability without Fault in Certain Cases
Chapter XI: Insurance of Motor Vehicles Against Third Party Risks
Chapter XII: Claims Tribunals
Chapter XIII: Offences, Penalties and Procedure
Chapter XIV: Miscellaneous
For exercising the legislative provisions of the Act, the Government of India made the
Central Motor Vehicles Rules (CMVR 1989)

74
Automobile Safety Standards
• The automotive and vehicle regulations, CMVR are periodically developed,
revised and implemented by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
(MoRT&H)
• The CMVR - Technical Standing Committee (CMVR-TSC) advises MoRT&H on
various technical aspects related to CMVR
• CMVR-TSC has representatives from various organisations namely;
– Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises (MoHI&PE), MoRT&H,
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
– Testing Agencies such as International Centre for Automotive Technology
(ICAT), Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI), Vehicle
Research and Development Establishment (VRDE), Central Institute of
Road Transport (CIRT)
– Industry representatives from Society of Indian Automobile
Manufacturers (SIAM), Automotive Component Manufacturers
Association (ACMA) and Tractor Manufacturers Association (TMA)
– and representatives from State Transport Departments 75
 Automobile Safety Standards
• CMVR-TSC is assisted by another Committee called the Automobile Industry
Standards Committee (AISC) having members from various stakeholders in
drafting the technical standards related to Safety
• The major functions of the committee are as follows:
– Preparation of new standards for automotive items related to safety
– To review and recommend amendments to the existing standards
– Recommend adoption of such standards to CMVR Technical Standing Committee
– Recommend commissioning of testing facilities at appropriate stages
– Recommend the necessary funding of such facilities to the CMVR-TSC
– Advise CMVR-TSC on any other issues referred to it
• The draft safety standards submitted by AISC are reviewed by CMVR-TSC and
finalized by MoRT&H before incorporating into CMVR (CMV Rule)
• The Automotive Industry Standards (AIS) are published by the Automotive
Research Association of India on behalf of the Automotive Industry Standards
Committee (AISC)
76
 Automobile Industry Standards (AIS)
Following is a list of some of the AIS standards:
• AIS–017: Procedure for Conformity of Production of Agricultural Tractors
• AIS–024: Safety and Procedural Requirements for Gaseous Fuel Vehicles
• AIS-038: Specific requirements for Electric Power Train of motor vehicles
• AIS-049: Approval for Battery Operated Vehicles
• AIS-052: Code of Practice for Bus Body Design and Approval
• AIS-098: Offset frontal crash
• AIS-099: Side mobile deformable offset
• AIS-100: Pedestrian protection
• AIS-129: End of Life of Vehicles
• AIS-156: Requirements for electric powertrain components
• AIS-157: Safety and procedural requirements for approval of fuel-cell vehicles
• AIS-197: Procedures for Bharat New Car Assessment Program

77
Safety Standards and Regulations for Cars

• Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989

78
Safety Standards and Regulations for Buses

79
Traffic Violation & Fine Amounts in India
New Fine Amount (Sep
Violation Previous Fine Amount
1, 2019)
Rs. 2000; License scrapping
Overloading Two-wheelers Rs. 100
for three months
Drunken Driving Rs. 10,000 Rs. 2,000
Rs. 1,000 for LMV; Rs. 2,000
Over speeding Rs. 400
for MMV
Dangerous Driving Rs. 5,000 Rs. 1,000

Driving Without Car or Two

Rs. 2,000 Rs. 100
Wheeler Insurance

Rs. 1000; License scrapping

Signal Jumping Rs. 100
for three months
Rs. 1000; License scrapping
Riding Without Helmet Rs. 100
for three months
Driving Without Permit Up to Rs. 10,000 Up to Rs. 5,000

80
Trends in Automobile Design
Design Trends:
• Broad, lightweight and low
• Panoramic Roof
• Double doors
• High Efficiency, Aggressive Headlights
• Interior Technology

81
Trends in Automobile Design
Technology Trends:
• Plug-in Electric / Diesel Hybrid
• Regenerative Braking
• Exterior Camera / Sensor Array
• Heads-Up Display Windshield
• Voice-Activated Car OS
• Fully Driverless Automation Technology
• Virtual, augmented, and mixed reality (VR, AR, and
MR) - collectively referred to as extended reality (XR)
• Connectivity
• Integrated Factory Planning
• Artificial Intelligence 82
Types of Two Wheelers
• Mopeds
• Scooters
• Street bikes
• Sport bikes
• Cruisers
• Adventure tourers
• Dirt bikes

83
Two Wheeler Regulations
1. Carry original driving license and important vehicle documents
2. MUST NOT carry more than one pillion rider and should keep both feet on the footrests
3. Rider should be visible as possible from the sides as well as the front and rear
4. Should be aware of what is behind and on the sides before maneuvering
5. Wear bright coloured clothing to improve your chances of being seen in the dark
6. Riding after alcoholic consumption is prohibited
7. Follow the traffic signals, lights and signs, and always stop before the STOP LINE
8. Avoid using the cell phone while riding. If urgent move to left, stop and then take the call
9. Do not ride at high speeds
10. MUST wear a protective helmet that complies Regulations and it MUST be fastened securely
11. Do not ride or wheel your vehicle on to the footpath
12. Use headlights when riding at night
13. Understand the signals given by other road users and use the same when riding.
14. Never stop abruptly in traffic. Move to the left and slow down.
[Link] not try and weave your way through stationery or slow moving traffic. It may cause accidents.
16. Always ride with both hands on the handlebar except when signaling.
17. Don't sit children on fuel tanks or stand them in front of the rider.
18. Avoid using brakes at turns. If needed, ensure both brakes are applied gently.
84
Classification of Buses
1. Based on the distance traveled by the vehicle:
• Mini bus
• Town bus
• Suburban bus
• Long Distance Coaches
• Touring Coaches
• Midi bus

85
Classification of Buses
2. Based on the capacity of the vehicle

86
Classification of Buses
3. Based on the shape and style of the vehicle:
• Classic type
• Single Decker
• Double Decker
• Split‐level bus
• Two‐level single Decker
• Articulated bus

87
Bus Body Details

88
Bus Body Details
• ‘Cant rails’ are structural members that connect two body sections above
the window section
• ‘Waist Rails’ are structural members that connect two body sections
below the window section
• ‘Seat Rails’ are structural members running along the lateral walls and
provide support for seat mounting

89
 Bus Body Approval Testing
1. Vehicle Weighment 95 IS : 11825
2. External projection test 124(11) IS : 13942
3. Interior noise test 124 (1) AIS : 020
4. Physical test / verification for Bus Code AIS 052 125C AIS 052
5. Horn Installation 119(1) IS:15796
6. Rear View Mirror Installation 125(2) AIS:002
7. Lighting & Signaling installation test 124(20) AIS:008 (Rev.1)
8. Head lamp leveling test( HLLD) 124(20) AIS:008 (Rev.1)
9. Hand hold test 124 (1) (42) AIS 046
10. Reflective tape installation test 104(1) AIS:090
11. Interior fittings test 124 (1) (38) AIS:047
12. Seat dimension as per AIS 023 G.S.R.287(E) AIS 023
13. Rear Under Protective Device (RUPD) - ARAI Procedure
14. Lateral Protective Device Test (SUPD) 124 (1A) IS:14682
15. Application Processing and certification for M2/M3 - ARAI Procedure
16. Variant documentation VEL& HMR - ARAI Procedure
17. Document verification and CMVR clearance for 4 wheelers - ARAI Procedure
18. Windscreen wiping area test 101(2) (3) IS:15802-2008
19. Bus window retention 124(1) (12) IS : 13944
20. Stability test - ARAI Procedure
21. CAE Analysis - ARAI Procedure
22. Performance Requirements for Seat anchorages G.S.R.287(E) AIS:023
23. Requirements for Windows frames fitted on Buses AIS068 AIS 052
90
Bus Rollover Test
ECE R66 Physical Test Procedure
• The body strength test is one of the key tests
concerning the protection of passengers in the event of
a rollover
• The principle of this test is the inclination of the bus to
an unstable position and the subsequent rollover of
the sample from a height of 80 cm above the ground
• If the bus is equipped with passenger restraint systems,
its operating mass will be supplemented by a fixed
weight for the passenger (34 kg per passenger) and 75
kg for the driver during the test. A bus without
restraint systems is supplemented by the driver’s
weight only
• Before the test, the impact side of the bus in the worst-
case scenario, the less rigid side, is carefully selected
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Pollution Norms
• Pollution norms are the standards set up by the Indian
government which specify the amount of air pollutants
from internal combustion engines in a vehicle can emit
• If the vehicles emit more pollutants than the
prescribed limit, they don't get a clearance to be sold
in an open market
• The Bharat standards, based on European regulations
were first introduced in 2000 (BS-I). Progressively
stringent norms have been rolled out since then
• All new vehicles manufactured after the
implementation of the norms have to be compliant
with the regulations
• Bharat Stage Emission Standards have been instituted
by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),
instituted within the Ministry of Environment Forests
and Climate Change 92
Pollution Norms
• Upgrading the emission norms requires the manufacturing companies to
upgrade their technology, which in turn increases the cost of the vehicle
• Cost is one of the main reasons for the slow upgrade of emission
standards. However, there are also arguments that the increase in cost is
made up by savings in health costs as the pollutants causing diseases are
decreased with the upgrade in emission standards
• Fuels also play a crucial role in meeting these emission norms. Fuel
specifications have also been aligned to its corresponding European
production norms

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Pollution Norms
Table: Emission standards for gasoline passenger cars sold in India

CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM PN
Stage Year
g/km #/km
1991 14.3 2.0 - - -
1996 8.68 - 3.00 - -
1998* 4.34 - 1.50 - -
BS I 2000 2.72 - 0.97 - -
BS II 2005.04† 2.2 - 0.5 - -
BS III 2010.04† 2.3 0.20 - 0.15 -
BS IV 2017.04† 1.0 0.10 - 0.08 -
a b 11b
BS VI 2020.04 1.0 0.10 - 0.06 0.0045 6.0×10
* for catalytic converter fitted vehicles
† earlier introduc on in selected regions
a
and NMHC = 0.068 g/km
b
applicable only to vehicles using DI engines

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Pollution Norms
Table: Emission standards for diesel passenger cars sold in India

CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM PN
Stage Year
g/km #/km
1992 17.3 2.7 - - -
1996 5.0 - 2.0 - -
BS I 2000 2.72 - 0.97 - 0.14
BS II 2005.04† 1.0 - 0.7 - 0.08
BS III 2010.04† 0.64 - 0.56 0.50 0.05
BS IV 2017.04† 0.50 - 0.30 0.25 0.025
11
BS VI 2020.04 0.50 - 0.17 0.080 0.0045 6.0×10
† earlier introduction in selected regions

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Pollution Norms

96
 Test your learnings
1. Classify different types of automobiles and explain.
2. Briefly explain on construction of a vehicle with neat sketch.
3. Discuss different layouts of vehicles with their merits and demerits based on
the placement of engine and driving axle.
4. Explain different types of vehicle frames and their characteristics.
5. Explain different types of vehicle body constructions and their characteristics.
6. Briefly explain about different automobiles power sources and their
characteristics.
7. Discuss on vehicle specification and performance parameters.
8. Discuss on the automobile safety standards and regulations in India.
9. Discuss on the current trends in automobile design.
10. Classify bus body types.
11. Explain the implementation of different automobile pollution norms in India.

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