CHAPTER 1

TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETRY

1.1 Introduction
It is a common mistake to confuse the words “temperature” and “heat”. The two
words do not have the same meaning. When we talk about the temperature of a
body, we refer to its degree of “hotness” or “coldness”. When we talk about heat, we
refer to the amount of thermal energy that flows from a hotter object to a colder
object. Thus, we deduce that Heat is a measure of the total internal energy of a
body. It is a form of energy due to a temperature difference. Temperature, on the
other hand, is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body and is related to the
energy of movement. It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules
in a body. The unit of heat is the Joule (J), while the unit of temperature is degree
Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).

1.2 Measuring Temperature

How do we measure temperature? We know from experience that our sense of touch
is not a good estimator of temperature. For example, if you touch the metal knob of
a wooden door with one hand and touch the wood of the door with the other hand,
you will feel that the metal knob is colder than the wood. This is so even though
both the metal knob and the wood of the door are at the same temperature.
We need an instrument, a thermometer, to measure temperature objectively.
The thermometer makes use of a physical property of a thermometric (temperature-
measuring) substance which changes continuously with temperature.
Examples of physical properties that change with temperature are as shown in
Table 1.1 below.

1
 Physical Property Examples of thermometer
that use this property
volume of a fixed mass of liquid Mercury-in-glass thermometer
Alcohol-in-glass thermometer
Electromotive force (e.m.f) Thermocouple thermometer
Resistance of a piece of metal Resistance thermometer
Pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume Constant-volume gas thermome-
ter

Table 1.1: Physical properties that change with temperature.

1.2.1 Scales of Temperature

Every thermometer has two reference temperatures or fixed points called the Upper
fixed point and the Lower fixed point:
Upper Fixed Point (or Steam Point): This is the temperature of steam from
pure water boiling at standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
Lower Fixed Point (or Ice Point): This is the temperature of pure melting ice
at the standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
The difference in temperature between the two temperature fixed points is called
the Fundamental Interval (or Temperature Interval) of a thermometer. The calibra-
tion of this interval depends on the temperature scale chosen. There are three types
of scales in current use:

1. The Centigrade (or Celsius) scale

2. The Fahrenheit scale and

3. The Absolute (or Thermodynamic or Kelvin) scale.

The Centigrade Scale

On the Centigrade scale, the lower and upper fixed points are 0°C and 100°C and
the fundamental interval is divided into 100 equal parts, each part of which defines
1°C in this scale.
The general equation is given by
Xθ − X0
θ/°C = × 100 (1.1)
X100 − X0

2
 upper fixed point
100°C

Fundamental
Interval
0°C lower fixed point

Figure 1.1: Celsius scale

where X is the physical property which varies uniformly with temperature.

Examples of X include the length ` of mercury thread in the thermometer,
resistance R of the platinum wire and pressure p of a fixed mass of gas at constant
volume. In the case of X being the resistance R of a platinum wire, we have,
according to Eq. (1.1),
Rθ − R0
θ/°C = × 100 (1.2)
R100 − R0
Example 1.1
In an unmarked mercury thermometer, it was found experimentally that the length
`0 was 5 cm and the length `100 was 25 cm. What is the temperature when `θ is (a)
14 cm and (b) 3 cm?
Solution:
Given: `0 = 5 cm `100 = 25 cm

(a) When `θ = 14 cm,

`θ − `0
θ= × 100
`100 − `0
14 − 5
= × 100
25 − 5
= 45°C

3
 (b) When `θ = 3 cm,
`θ − `0
θ= × 100
`100 − `0
3−5
= × 100
25 − 5
= −10°C

Example 1.2
The electrical resistance of a platinum wire at 0°C is 9.8 Ω and 11.0 Ω at 100°C.
Calculate the temperature when resistance is 10.4 Ω assuming that the change in
the electrical resistance of conductor is proportional to the change in temperature.
Solution:
Given: R0 = 9.8 Ω, R100 = 11.0 Ω, Rθ = 10.4 Ω
Rθ − R0
θ= × 100
R100 − R0
10.4 − 9.8
= × 100
11.0 − 9.8
= 50°C

Example 1.3
A constant volume gas thermometer records a pressure of 250 mm Hg at 0°C and
290 mm Hg at 100°C. Calculate the room temperature when the gas pressure is
262 mm Hg.
Solution:
Given: p0 = 250 mm Hg, p100 = 290 mm Hg, pθ = 262 mm Hg
pθ − p0
Room temperature, θ = × 100
p100 − p0
262 − 250
= × 100
290 − 250
= 30°C

Exercise I

1. A platinum resistance thermometer is used to measure the freezing point T ,

of a liquid, and the resistance at this temperature is 6.80 Ω. The resistance
at 0°C is 8.00 Ω and at 100°C is 9.60 Ω. What is the temperature T of the
freezing point of the liquid? Assume that the resistance varies linearly with
temperature.

4
 2. An uncalibrated mercury-in-glass thermometer is immersed in melting ice. The
length of the mercury thread is 25 mm. When the thermometer is immersed in
steam from pure water boiling under a pressure of one standard atmosphere,
the length of the thread is 200 mm. What is the temperature in °C when the
length of the mercury thread is 95 mm?

3. A constant-volume gas thermometer is used to measure the temperature of

water. When placed in the water, the pressure recorded is 300 mm Hg. When
placed in melting ice and above steam, the pressures recorded are 100 mm Hg
and 380 mm Hg. What is the temperature of the water?

The Fahrenheit Scale

The lower and upper fixed points on the Fahrenheit scale are 32°F and 212°F re-
spectively. The fundamental interval is divided into 180 units or degrees (°F).

upper fixed point

212°F
Fundamental
Interval

32°F lower fixed point

Figure 1.2: Fahrenheit scale

To convert between Celsius and Fahrenheit we use Eq. (1.3) below

5
(1.3)


TC = TF − 32
9
Example 1.4
9TC
The formula TF = + 32 shows the relationship between temperature in degrees
5
Fahrenheit (F) and degrees Celsius (C). Find (a) TF when TC = 40, (b) TC when
TF = 100, (c) the temperature when TF = TC
Solution:
9TC
TF = + 32
5

5
 (a) When TC = 40,
9 × 40
TF = + 32
5
= 9 × 8 + 32
= 72 + 32
= 104

The temperature is 104°F

(b) When TF = 100,

9TC
100 = + 32
5
500 = 9TC + 160
340 = 9TC
340
TC =
9
= 37 97

The temperature is 37 79 °C

(c) When TF = TC ,

9TC
TC = + 32
5
5TC = 9TC + 160
−4TC = 160
TF = TC = −40

The temperature is −40°F (or −40°C)

Exercise II

1. The freezing point of alcohol is −115°C. What is this temperature in Fahren-

heit?

2. What is the equivalence of a temperature of 122°F in degree Celsius?

3. What is the equivalence of a temperature of 20°C in degree Fahrenheit?

6
The Kelvin or Absolute Scale

This scale, which is based on the behaviour of ideal gases, is named after the En-
glishman, Lord Kelvin. For an ideal gas at constant volume, the pressure varies
linearly with temperature. The unit of this scale is the kelvin (K), which is also
the SI unit of temperature. The fundamental interval for the Kelvin scale goes from
a lower fixed point of 273 K to an upper fixed point of 373 K, i.e., a difference of
100 K. This interval is divided into 100 equal parts each of which is equal to 1 K.
Temperatures on this scale are not measured in degrees but in unit called kelvin
(K). Hence, the unit symbol K is written without the degree sign.

upper fixed point

373 K
Fundamental
Interval

273 K lower fixed point

Figure 1.3: Kelvin scale

On the Kelvin scale, the triple point of water occurs at a temperature of 273.15 K
and the absolute zero occurs at 0 K. The triple point of water is the temperature
at which saturated water vapour, pure water and ice coexist in equilibrium. The
absolute zero is the temperature at which all possible thermal energy has been
transferred away from the body. Hence, the Kelvin scale is also called the Absolute
scale.
If TK is the temperature on the Kelvin scale and TC is the temperature on the
Celsius scale, then for approximations in calculations, we have

TC = TK − 273 (1.4)

The intervals on both the Kelvin and Celsius scales are the same by this definition.
It follows that changes in temperature will be equal for both scales. That is, a
temperature change of 1°C is equal to a temperature change of 1 K.

7
Example 1.5

a. The temperature of a baby having a high fever is found to be 40°C. What is

this temperature in kelvin?

b. The temperature in the Antarctic during mid-winter is found to be 186 K.

What is this temperature in °C?

Solution:
Using TC = TK − 273, we have,

a. on adding 273 to both sides,

TK = TC + 273

= 40 + 273

= 313 K

b. on substituting 186 K for TK ,

TC = 186 − 273

= −87°C

Example 1.6
A kettle containing water at 30°C is heated to 100°C. Determine the change in
temperature in (a) °C and (b) K
Solution:

(a) Change in temperature, ∆T = 100 − 30 = 70°C

(b) 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303 K

100°C = 100 + 273 = 373 K
Change in temperature, ∆T = 373 − 303 = 70 K

Note: The answers in (a) and (b) are equal in magnitude. Thus, the intervals on
both scales of temperatures are equal.
Exercise III

1. On a hot Tuesday afternoon in Jabi, the temperature reads 39°C. What is this
temperature on the Kelvin scale?

8
 2. The temperature of a body increases from 36°C to 82°C, what is the temper-
ature change of the body in Kelvin?

3. The melting point of naphthalene is 351 K. What is the Celsius equivalence of

this temperature.

1.3 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if C is initially in thermal
equilibrium with both A and B, then A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.

Figure 1.4: The Zeroth Law

Condition for Thermal Equilibrium: two systems are in thermal equilibrium

if and only if they have the same temperature.
This is what makes a thermometer useful; a thermometer actually measures its
own temperature, but when a thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with another
object, the temperatures must be equal. When the temperatures of two systems are
different, they cannot be in thermal equilibrium.

1.4 Thermal Expansion

Most materials expand when their temperatures increase. Rising temperatures make
the liquid expand in a liquid-in-tube thermometer and bend bimetallic strips. A
completely filled and tightly capped bottle of water cracks when it is heated, but
you can loosen a metal jar lid by running hot water over it. These are all examples
of thermal expansion.

9
Linear Expansion

For a solid rod of length L0 at some initial temperature T0 , the length changes by
∆L when the temperature changes by ∆T (usually less than 100°C) according to
the equation:
∆L = αL0 ∆T (1.5)

Where α is the coefficient of linear expansion measured in K−1 or (°C)−1 . If

an object has length L0 at temperature T0 , then its length L at a temperature
T = T0 + ∆T is

L = L0 + ∆L = L0 + αL0 ∆T = L0 (1 + α∆T ) (1.6)

For many materials, every linear dimension changes according to Eq. (1.5) or
(1.6). Thus L could be the thickness of a rod, the side length of a square sheet, or
the diameter of a hole.

Area and Volume Expansion

Increasing temperature usually causes increases in volume for both solids and liquids.
The increase in volume ∆V is approximately proportional to both the temperature
change ∆T and the initial volume V0 :

∆V = γV0 ∆T (1.7)

The constant γ is called the coefficient of volume expansion.

For solid materials we can find a simple relationship between the volume expan-
sion coefficient γ and the linear expansion coefficient α. Consider a cube of material
with side length L and volume V = L3 . At the initial temperature the values are
L0 and V0 . When the temperature increases by dT , the side length increases by dL
and the volume increases by an amount dV :
dV
dV = dL = 3L2 dL
dL
Now we replace L and V by the initial values L0 and V0 . From Eq. (1.5), dL is

dL = αL0 dT

Since V0 = L30 , this means that dV can also be expressed as

dV = 3L20 αL0 dT = 3αV0 dT

10
This is consistent with the infinitesimal form of Eq. (1.7), dV = γV0 dT , only if

γ = 3α (1.8)

Example 1.7
A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is exactly 50.000 m long at a temperature
of 20°C. The markings on the tape are calibrated for this temperature. (a) What
is the length of the tape when the temperature is 35°C? (b) When it is 35°C, the
surveyor uses the tape to measure a distance. The value that she reads off the tape
is 35.794 m. What is the actual distance?
(α for steel = 1.2 × 10−5 K−1 )
Solution:
(a) The temperature change is ∆T = T − T0 = 15°C= 15 K; from Eqs. (1.5) and
(1.6),

∆L = αL0 ∆T = (1.2 × 10−5 K−1 )(50 m)(15K)

= 9.0 × 10−3 m = 9.0 mm
L = L0 + ∆L = 50.000 m + 0.009 m = 50.009 m

(b) At 35°C, any true distance will be greater than the reading by the factor
50.009/50.000 = 1 + α∆T = 1 + 1.8 × 10−4 . The true distance is therefore

(1 + 1.8 × 10−4 )(35.794 m) = 35.800 m

Example 1.8
A 200 cm3 glass flask is filled to the brim with mercury at 20°C. How much mercury
overflows when the temperature of the system is raised to 100°C?
(Take γHg = 18 × 10−5 K−1 and αglass = 0.40 × 10−5 K−1 )
Solution:
We have γHg = 18 × 10−5 K−1 which is indeed greater than γglass = 3αglass =
1.2 × 10−5 K−1 . The volume overflow is then

∆VHg − ∆Vglass = γHg V0 ∆T − γglass V0 ∆T

= V0 ∆T (γHg − γglass )
= (200 cm3 )(80 K)(18 × 10−5 − 1.2 × 10−5 )K−1 = 2.7 cm3

Thermal Expansion of Liquids

Due to complications arising from the expansion of the containers which hold the
liquids, it is necessary to determine the real and apparent expansion of liquids. The

11
apparent apparent expansion of the liquid is smaller than its real expansion because
of the expansion of the container. Assuming that the wall of the container is of
negligible thickness, the real and apparent cubic (or volume) expansivity of a liquid
are related by the following equation:

γreal = γapparent + γcontainer (1.9)

Real (or absolute) cubic expansivity of liquids is defined as the increase in vol-
ume per unit volume, per unit temperature rise. It is similar to the cubic expansivity
of solids.
Mathematically,
V − V0
γr = (1.10)
V0 ∆T
where V0 and V are the initial and final volume of the liquid and ∆T is the increase
in temperature of the liquid.
Apparent cubic expansivity of a liquid is defined as the increase in volume per
unit volume, per unit temperature rise when the liquid is heated in an expandable
container.
The calculation of the apparent cubic expansivity of liquids is mathematically
different from that of real cubic expansivity because the container also expands,
albeit less than the liquid.
Volume of liquid expelled ∆V
γa = = (1.11)
Volume of liquid remaining × temperature change Vrem ∆T
Recall that density of a substance is ρ = m/V , where m is the mass of the substance
and V is its volume. Assuming that the density of the liquid remains relatively
unchanged, the equation can also be written as:
Mass of liquid expelled ∆m
γa = = (1.12)
Mass of liquid remaining × temperature change mrem ∆T

Example 1.9
A density bottle weighs 0.500 N when empty and 1.631 N when full of glycerine at
0°C. When full of glycerine at 100°C, its weight is 1.577 N. Determine the cubic
expansivity for glycerine if the linear expansivity for glass is 8.0 × 10−6 K−1
Solution:
Weight of empty bottle, W1 = 0.500 N
Weight of empty bottle + cold glycerine, W2 = 1.631 N

12
Weight of empty bottle + hot glycerine, W3 = 1.577 N
Weight of glycerine expelled, W2 − W3 = 0.054 N
Weight of glycerine remaining, W3 − W1 = 1.077 N
Temperature change, ∆T = 100°C = 100 K
Apparent cubic expansivity of glycerine,
mass of glycerine expelled
γa =
mass remaining × temperature rise
weight of glycerine expelled
=
weight remaining × temperature rise
0.054 N
= = 5.01 × 10−4 K−1
1.077 N × 100 K
Cubic expansivity of glass,

γg = 3αg = 24.0 × 10−6 K−1

Real cubic expansivity of glycerine

γr = γa + γg
= 5.01 × 10−4 K−1 + 24.0 × 10−6 K−1
= 5.25 × 10−4 K−1

Example 1.10
A mercury thermometer has its fixed-point markings separated by a distance of
25 cm. The volume of the bulb up to the 0°C mark is 1.5 cm3 . What is the mean di-
ameter of the bore of the thermometer? The apparent cubic expansivity of mercury-
in-glass is 1.5 × 10−4 (°C)−1 .

Solution:
Volume of mercury at 0°C, V0 = 1.5 cm3
Apparent cubic expansivity mercury, γa = 1.5 × 10−4 (°C)−1
Rise in temperature to upper fixed point, ∆T = 100°C
Apparent increase in volume,

∆Va = γa V0 ∆T
= 1.5 cm3 × 1.5 × 10−4 (°C)−1 × 100°C
= 2.25 × 10−2 cm3

13
Distance between fixed points, ` = 25 cm
Mean cross-sectional area of bore,

∆V 2.25 × 10−2 cm3

A= = = 9.0 × 10−4 cm2
` 25 cm
πd2
= 9.0 × 10−4 cm2
4
where d is the mean diameter of bore (in cm).
r
36 × 10−4
Hence, d = cm = 3.39 × 10−2 cm
π
The mean diameter of the bore of the thermometer is 3.4 × 10−2 cm

Relationship Between Density and Real Cubic Expansivity of a Liquid

When a given mass of liquid is heated, its volume increases and hence its density
decreases since its mass is constant at all temperatures if evaporation does not take
place.
Let m be the mass of the liquid, V0 and V be the volumes at temperature T0
and T respectively. Then the corresponding densities at T0 and T will be ρ0 and ρ.
Since mass = volume × density, we have:

m = ρ0 V0 = ρV

Now,
V = V0 (1 + γr ∆T )

where γr is the real cubic expansivity of the liquid. Hence,

ρ0 V
= = (1 + γr ∆T ) (1.13)
ρ V0

Anomalous Expansion of Water

Water between 0°C and 4°C provides an exceptional example of a substance which
contracts instead of expanding when heated. This behaviour is anomalous, and as
a result, the density of water has its maximum value at 4°C.
This anomalous behaviour of water has an important effect on plant and animal
life in lakes. A lake cools from the surface down; above 4°C, the cooled water
at the surface flows to the bottom because of its greater density. But when the
surface temperature drops below 4°C, the water near the surface is less dense than
the warmer water below. Hence the downward flow ceases, and the water near

14
the surface remains colder than that at the bottom. As the surface freezes, the
ice floats because it is less dense than water. The water at the bottom remains
at 4°C until nearly the entire lake is frozen. If water behaved like most substances,
contracting continuously on cooling and freezing, lakes would freeze from the bottom
up. Circulation due to density differences would continuously carry warmer water to
the surface for efficient cooling, and lakes would freeze solid much more easily. This
would destroy all plant and animal life that cannot withstand freezing. If water did
not have its special properties, the evolution of life would have taken a very different
course.
Exercise IV

1. Steel bars, each of length 3 m at 29°C, are to be used to construct a rail line.
If the linear expansivity of steel is 1.0 × 10−5 K−1 , calculate the safety gap
that must be introduced between successive bars if the highest temperature
expected is 41°C.

2. A solid metal cube of side 10 cm is heated from 0°C to 50°C. If the coefficient
of linear expansion of the metal is 1.2 × 10−5 K−1 , calculate the increase in its
volume and its fractional change.

3. A glass bottle full of mercury at 0°C has mass 500 g. On being heated to 35°C,
2.43 g of mercury is expelled. Calculate the cubic expansivity of mercury. You
may take the linear expansivity of glass to be 8.0 × 10−6 K−1 .

4. The density of water at 4°C is 1000 kgm−3 . Determine its density at 50°C. The
cubic expansivity of water is given as 210 × 10−5 K−1

1.5 Thermal Stress

If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent expansion or contraction and then
change the temperature, thermal stresses develop. The rod would like to expand
or contract, but the clamps won’t let it. The resulting stresses may become large
enough to strain the rod irreversibly or even break it.
To calculate the thermal stress in a clamped rod, we compute the amount the rod
would expand (or contract) if not held and then find the stress needed to compress
(or stretch) it back to its original length. Suppose that a rod with length L0 and
cross-sectional area A is held at constant length while the temperature is reduced,

15
causing a tensile stress. From Eq. (1.5), the fractional change in length of the rod
were free to contract would be
 
∆L
= α∆T (1.14)
L0 thermal

Since the temperature decreases, both ∆L and ∆T are negative. The tension
must increase by an amount F that is just enough to produce an equal and opposite
fractional change in length (∆L/L0 )tension . From the definition of Young’s modulus,
 
F/A ∆L F
Y = so = (1.15)
∆L/L0 L0 tension AY
If the length is to be constant, the total fractional change in length must be zero.
From Eqs. (1.14) and (1.15), this means that
   
∆L ∆L F
+ = α∆T + =0
L0 thermal L0 tension AY
Solve for the tensile stress F/A required to keep the rod’s length constant:
F
= −Y α∆T (1.16)
A
For a decrease in temperature, ∆T is negative, so F and F/A are positive; this
means that a tensile force and stress are needed to maintain the length. If ∆T is
positive, F and F/A are negative, and the required force and stress are compressive.
If there are temperature differences within an object, nonuniform expansion or
contraction will result and thermal stresses can be induced. You can break a glass
bowl by pouring very hot water into it; the thermal stress between the hot and cold
parts of the bowl exceeds the breaking stress of the glass, causing cracks. The same
phenomenon makes ice cubes crack when dropped into warm water.

Example 1.11
An aluminium cylinder 10 cm long, with a cross-sectional area of 20 cm2 , is used as a
spacer between two steel walls. At 17.2°C it just slips between the walls. Calculate
the stress in the cylinder and the total force it exerts on each wall when it warms up
to 22.3°C, assuming that the walls are perfectly rigid and a constant distance apart.
(Take the Young’s modulus of aluminium, YAl = 7.0 × 1010 Pa and its linear expan-
sivity, αAl = 2.4 × 10−5 K−1 )

Solution:

16
 Figure 1.5: Our sketch for this problem

We have YAl = 7.0 × 1010 Pa, αAl = 2.4 × 10−5 K−1 , and ∆T = 22.3°C − 17.2°C =
5.1°C = 5.1 K. From Eq. (1.16), the stress is

F
= −YAl αAl ∆T
A
= −(7.0 × 1010 Pa)(2.4 × 10−5 K−1 )(5.1 K)
= −8.6 × 106 Pa

The total force is the cross-sectional area times the stress:

 
F
F =A = (20 × 10−4 m2 )(−8.6 × 106 Pa)
A
= −1.7 × 104 N

The stress on the cylinder and the force it exerts on each wall are immense. Such
thermal stresses must be accounted for in engineering.

17
 CHAPTER 2

HEAT AND ENERGY

2.1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body
by 1°C or 1 K.
The symbol for heat capacity is C and its units are joules per degree Celsius
(J/°C) or joules per kelvin (J/K).
Mathematically, we can express the heat capacity C as
Q
C= (2.1)
∆T
where Q is the quantity of heat absorbed (in J) and ∆T is the change in temperature
(in °C or K).

Specific Heat Capacity

The Specific Heat Capacity is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg (unit mass) of a substance by 1 K or 1°C.
The symbol for specific heat capacity is c.
Mathematically, the specific heat capacity is given by
C 1 Q
c= = (2.2)
m m ∆T
We can also express the equation as

Q = mc∆T (2.3)

where m is the mass of the material. The specific heat capacity has different values
for different materials and its units are joules per kilogram per kelvin (J/kg · K) or
joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg · °C).
For an infinitesimal temperature change dT and corresponding quantity of heat
dQ,
1 dQ
dQ = mc dT or c= (2.4)
m dT

18
 In Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4), when Q (or dQ) and ∆T (or dT ) are positive, heat enters
the object and its temperature increases. When they are negative, heat leaves the
object and its temperature decreases. The specific heat capacity of water is approx-
imately 4190 J/kg · K or 1 cal/g · °C

Example 2.1
During a bout with flu an 80 kg man ran a fever of 39.0°C instead of the normal
body temperature of 37.0°C. Assuming that the human body is mostly water, how
much heat is required to raise his temperature by that amount?

Solution:
From Eq. (2.3)

Q = mc∆T = (80 kg)(4190 J/kg · K)(2.0 K) = 6.7 × 105 J

This corresponds to 160 kcal. In fact, the specific heat of the human body is
about 3480 J/kg · K, 83% that of water, because protein, fat, and minerals have
lower specific heats. Hence a more accurate answer is 5.6 × 105 J = 133 kcal.

Example 2.2
You are designing an electronic circuit element made of 23mg of silicon. The electric
current through it adds energy at the rate of 7.4 mW = 7.4 × 10−3 J/s. If your design
doesn’t allow any heat transfer out of the element, at what rate does it temperature
increase? The specific heat of silicon is 705 J/kg · K.

Solution:
We divide both sides of Eq. (2.4) and rearrange:
dT dQ/dt 7.4 × 10−3 J/s
= = = 0.46 K/s
dt mc (23 × 10−6 kg)(705 J/kg · K)
At this rate of temperature rise (27 K/min), the circuit element would soon self-
destruct. Heat transfer is an important design consideration in electronic circuit
elements.
Example 2.3
An electric heating coil supplies 50 W of power to a metal block of mass 0.60 kg, and
raises the temperature of the block from 20°C to 45°C in 90 s. Calculate the specific
heat capacity of the metal. What assumption did you make to arrive at your answer?

19
Solution:
Heat supplied by heater, Q = P × t = P t
Heat absorbed by block = mc∆T

Heat supplied by heater = Heat absorbed by block

P t = mc∆T
Pt
or c=
m∆T
50 W × 90 s
∴ c= = 300 J/kg · K
0.60 kg × 25 K
Assumptions:

• No heat loss to the surroundings i.e., all the heat supplied by the heater is
absorbed by the metal.

• No phase change.

2.2 Latent Heat and Specific Latent Heat

We define the Latent heat of fusion of a substance as the heat required to change
the substance from solid to liquid state or vice versa without any change in temper-
ature.
For example, to change 1 kg of ice at 0°C to 1 kg of liquid water at 0°C and
normal atmospheric pressures requires 3.34 × 105 J of heat. The heat required per
unit mass is called the specific latent heat of fusion, denoted by Lf . For water
at normal atmospheric pressure the heat of fusion is

Lf = 3.34 × 105 J/kg

More generally, to melt a mass m of material that has a specific latent heat of
fusion Lf requires a quantity of heat Q given by

Q = mLf (2.5)

This process is reversible. To freeze liquid water to ice at 0°C, we have to remove
heat; the magnitude is the same, but in this case, Q is negative because heat is
removed rather than added. To cover both possibilities and to include other kinds
of phase changes, we write
Q = ±mL (2.6)

20
The plus sign (heat entering) is used when the material melts; the minus sign (heat
leaving) is used when it freezes.
For any given material at any given pressure, the freezing temperature is the
same as the melting temperature. At this unique temperature the liquid and solid
phases can coexist in a condition called phase equilibrium.
We can go through this whole story again for boiling or evaporation, a phase
transition between liquid and gaseous phases. The corresponding heat (per unit
mass) is called the heat of vaporization Lv . At normal atmospheric pressure the
heat of vaporization Lv for water is

Lv = 2.256 × 106 J/kg

That is, it takes 2.256 × 106 J to change 1 kg of liquid water at 100°C to 1 kg of water
vapour at 100°C.
Like melting, boiling is a reversible transition. When heat is removed from a gas
at the boiling temperature, the gas returns to the liquid phase, or condenses, giving
up to its surroundings the same quantity of heat (heat of vaporization) that was
needed to vaporize it. At a given pressure the boiling and condensation temperatures
are always the same; at this temperature the liquid and gaseous phases can coexist
in phase equilibrium.
A substance can sometimes change directly from the solid to the gaseous phase.
This process is called sublimation, and the solid is said to sublime. The corresponding
heat is called the heat of sublimation, Ls . Liquid carbon dioxide cannot exist at
a pressure lower than about 5 × 105 Pa (about 5 atm), and “dry ice” (solid carbon
dioxide) sublimes at atmospheric pressure. Sublimation of water from frozen food
causes freezer burn. The reverse process, a phase change from gas to solid (called
deposition), occurs when frost forms on cold objects such as refrigerator cooling
coils.
Example 2.4
A camper pours 0.300 kg of coffee, initially in a pot at 70.0°C, into a 0.120 kg alu-
minium cup initially at 20.0°C. What is the equilibrium temperature? Assume that
coffee has the same specific heat as water and that no heat is exchanged with the
surroundings.

Solution:
The (negative) heat gained by the coffee is QC = mC cW ∆TC . The (positive) heat
gained by the cup is QAl = mAl cAl ∆TAl . We set QC + QAl = 0 and substitute

21
∆TC = T − T0C and ∆TAl = T − T0Al :

QC + QAl = mC cW ∆TC + mAl cAl ∆TAl = 0

mC cW (T − T0C ) + mAl cAl (T − T0Al ) = 0

Then we solve this expression for the final temperature T . A little algebra gives
mC cW T0C + mAl cAl T0Al
T = = 66.0°C
mC cW + mAl cAl

Example 2.5
A glass contains 0.25 kg of Coca-Cola (mostly water) initially at 25°C. How much
ice, initially at −20°C, must you add to obtain a final temperature of 0°C with all
the ice melted? Ignore the heat capacity of the glass.
(Specific heat capacity of water, cW = 4190 J/kg · K, Specific heat capacity of ice,
cI = 2100 J/kg · K)

Solution:
From Eq. (2.3), the (negative) heat gained by the Coca-Cola is QC = mC cW ∆TC .
The (positive) heat gained by the ice in warming is QI = mI cI ∆TI . The (positive)
heat required to melt the ice is Q2 = mI Lf . We set QC + QI + Q2 = 0, insert
∆TC = T − T0C and ∆TI = T − T0I , and solve for mI :

mC cW ∆TC + mI cI ∆TI + mI Lf = 0
mC cW (T − T0C ) + mI cI (T − T0I ) + mI Lf = 0
mI [cI (T − T0I ) + Lf ] = −mC cW (T − T0C )
cW (T0C − T )
mI = mC
cI (T − T0I ) + Lf

Substituting numerical values, we find that mI = 0.070 kg = 70 g.

Example 2.6
A hot copper pot of mass 2.0 kg (including its copper lid) is at a temperature of
150°C. You pour 0.10 kg of cool water at 25°C into the pot, then quickly replace the
lid so no steam can escape. Find the final temperature of the pot and its contents,
and determine the phase of the water (liquid, gas, or a mixture). Assume that no
heat is lost to the surroundings.

22
(Specific heat capacity of water, cW = 4190J/kg·K, Specific heat capacity of copper,
cCu = 390 J/kg · K, Latent heat of vaporization of water, Lv = 2.256 × 106 J)

Solution:
The water and the pot exchange heat. Three outcomes are possible:

I. No water boils, and the final temperature T is less than 100°C;

II. Some water boils, giving a mixture of water and steam at 100°C; or

III. All the water boils, giving 0.10 kg of steam at 100°C or greater.

Consider Case (I), the equation that states that the heat flow into the water
equals the heat flow out of the pot is

QW + QCu = mW cW (T − T0W ) + mCu cCu (T − T0Cu ) = 0

Here we use subscripts W for water and Cu for copper, with mW = 0.10 kg, mCu =
2.0 kg, T0W = 25°C, and T0Cu = 150°C. Solving for the final temperature T and
substituting these values, we get
mW cW T0W + mCu cCu T0Cu
T = = 106°C
mW cW + mCu cCu
But this is above the boiling point of water, which contradicts our assumption that
no water boils! So at least some of the water boils.
So consider case (II), in which the final temperature is T = 100°C and some
unknown fraction x of the water boils, where (if this case is correct) x is greater
than zero and less than or equal to 1. The (positive) amount of heat needed to
vaporize this water is xmW Lv . The energy-conservation condition QW + QCu = 0 is
then

mW cW (100°C − T0W ) + xmW Lv + mCu cCu (100°C − T0Cu ) = 0

We solve for the target variable x:

−mW cW (100°C − T0W ) − mCu cCu (100°C − T0Cu )
x=
mW Lv
Substituting the numerical values yields x = 0.034. We conclude that the final
temperature of the water and copper is 100°C and that 0.034(0.10 kg) = 0.0034 kg =
3.4 g of water is converted to steam at 100°C.
Had x turned out to be greater than 1, case (III) would have held; all the water
would have vaporized, and the final temperature would have been greater than
100°C.

23
2.3 Phase Changes Diagrams
A phase diagram is a type of chart used to show conditions (pressure, temperature,
etc.) at which thermodynamically distinct phases (such as solid, liquid or gaseous
states) occur and coexist at equilibrium.

Figure 2.1: Simple Phase Diagram

Fig 2.1 is technically a graph of temperature versus time for a specimen initially in
the solid phase. Heat is added to the specimen at a constant rate. The temperature
remains constant during each change of phase, provided that the pressure remains
constant.
Fig. 2.2 shows a typical phase diagram. The solid green line shows the behaviour
of the melting point for most substances; the dotted green line shows the anomalous
behaviour of water. The red lines show the sublimation temperature and the blue
line the boiling point, showing how they vary with pressure.
Common components of a phase diagram are lines of equilibrium or phase bound-
aries, which refer to lines that mark conditions under which multiple phases can
coexist at equilibrium. Phase transitions occur along lines of equilibrium.

• Triple Point – the point on a phase diagram at which the three states of
matter: gas, liquid, and solid coexist.

• Critical Point – the point on a phase diagram at which the substance is

indistinguishable between liquid and gaseous states.

24
 Figure 2.2: General Phase Diagram

• Fusion (Melting or Freezing) Curve – the curve on a phase diagram which

represents the transition between liquid and solid states.

• Vaporization (or Condensation) Curve – the curve on a phase diagram

which represents the transition between gaseous and liquid states.

• Sublimation (or Deposition) Curve – the curve on a phase diagram which

represents the transition between gaseous and solid states.

Tutorial Exercises
1. A piece of copper of mass 40 g at 200°C is transferred into a copper calorimeter
of mass 60 g containing 50 g of water at 25°C. Neglecting heat losses, what will
be the final temperature of the mixture?
(Specific heat capacities of copper and water are cCu = 0.4 J/g · K and cW =
4.2 J/g · K respectively).

2. A copper can of mass 120 g and containing 150 g of water at 27°C is heated for
a definite time by means of a small immersion heater, the final temperature
being 37°C. When the experiment is repeated with the can containing 135 g of
liquid at the same initial temperature, the final temperature after heating for
the same length of time is 46°C. Assuming no heat losses and that the heat

25
 capacity of the immersion heater may be neglected, calculate the specific heat
capacity of the liquid. The specific heat capacities of copper and water are
cCu = 0.4 J/g · K and cW = 4.2 J/g · K respectively.

3. A block of iron of mass 150 g having a thermal capacity of 69 J/K is observed

to cool at a rate of 0.15 °C/s when placed in a refrigerator. Calculate:

(i) the rate at which the block is losing heat, and

(ii) the specific heat capacity of iron.

4. A calorimeter contains 180g of oil at 25°C into which is dropped 100g of copper
at 100°C. Calculate the final temperature of the mixture if 10% of the total
heat given out by the copper is lost to the calorimeter and the surroundings.
(The specific heat capacities of copper and the oil are cCu = 0.4 J/g · K and
cO = 2.0 J/g · K respectively).

5. A piece iron of mass 15 g is heated in a flame and quickly transferred into 100 g
of water at 25°C in a calorimeter of negligible heat capacity. The temperature
of the mixture was found to be 35°C. Calculate the temperature of the flame
and explain why such an experiment can give only an approximate value of
the temperature of the flame. (Specific heat capacities of iron and water are
cFe = 0.46 J/g · K and cW = 4.2 J/g · K respectively.)

6. The hot water tap of a bath delivers water at 80°C at a rate of 10 kg/min. The
cold water tap of the bath delivers water at 20°C at a rate of 20 kg/min. As-
suming that both taps are left on for 3 minutes, calculate the final temperature
of the bath water, ignoring heat losses.

7. In tempering springs, the heated steel has to be cooled quickly from 600°C to a
temperature of less than 200°C. This is done by plunging the hot spring into an
oil bath. If the oil is initially at a temperature of 20°C, calculate the minimum
mass of oil required if 1 tonne (1000 kg) of spring is to be tempered. (Specific
heat capacities of steel and oil are cS = 500 J/kg · K and cO = 2000 J/kg · K
respectively.)

2.4 Mechanism of Heat Transfer

The three mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction occurs within an object or between two objects in contact. Convection

26
depends on motion of mass from one region of space to another. Radiation is heat
transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as sunshine, with no need for matter to
be present in the space between objects.

2.4.1 Conduction
In conduction, the direction of heat flow is always from higher to lower temperature.
Fig.2.3a shows a rod of conducting material with cross-sectional area A and length
L. The left end of the rod is kept at a temperature TH and the right end at a lower
temperature TC , so heat flows from left to right. The sides of the rod are covered
by an ideal insulator, so no heat transfer occurs at the sides.
When a quantity of heat dQ is transferred through the rod in a time dt, the rate
of heat flow is dQ/dt. We call this rate the heat current, denoted by H. That is,
H = dQ/dt. Experiments show that the heat current is proportional to the cross-
sectional area A of the rod (Fig.2.3b) and to the temperature difference (TH − TC )
and is inversely proportional to the rod length L (Fig.2.3c):

dQ TH − TC
H= = kA (2.7)
dt L
Where k is known as the thermal conductivity and it depends on the material
of the rod. Materials with large k are good conductors of heat; materials with small
k are poor conductors or insulators. The quantity (TH − TC )/L is the temperature
difference per unit length; it is called the magnitude of the temperature gradient.
The SI unit of heat current is the watt (1 W = 1 J/s), from which we can show
that the SI unit of k is W/m · K.
If the temperature varies in a nonuniform way along the length of the conducting
rod, we introduce a coordinate x along the length and generalize the temperature
gradient to be dT /dx. The corresponding generalization of Eq. (2.7) is

dQ dT
H= = −kA (2.8)
dt dx
The negative sign indicates that heat flows in the direction of decreasing tempera-
ture. If temperature increases with increasing x, then dT /dx > 0 and H < 0; the
negative value of H in this case means that heat flows in the negative x-direction,
from high to low temperature.
For thermal insulation in buildings, engineers use the concept of thermal re-
sistance, denoted by R. The thermal resistance R of a slab of material with area

27
 (b) Doubling the cross-sectional
(a) Heat current H from the end at higher area of the conductor doubles the
temperature to the end at lower tempera- heat current (H is proportional to
ture. A).

(c) Doubling the length of the conductor

halves the heat current (H is inversely
proportional to L).

Figure 2.3: Steady-state heat flow due to conduction in a uniform rod

A is defined so that the heat current H through the slab is

A(TH − TC )
H= (2.9)
R
where TH and TC are the temperatures on the two sides of the slab. Comparing this
with Eq. (2.7), we see that R is given by
L
R= (2.10)
k
where L is the thickness of the slab. The SI unit of R is 1 m2 · K/W.

Example 2.7
A Styrofoam cooler has total wall area (including the lid) of 0.80 m2 and wall thick-
ness 2.0 cm. It is filled with ice, water, and cans of Coca-Cola, all at 0°C. What is
the rate of heat flow into the cooler if the temperature of the outside wall is 30°C?
(Take the thermal conductivity of Styrofoam as k = 0.027 W/m · K)

Solution:
We assume that the total heat flow is the same as it would be through a flat Styro-

28
foam slab of area 0.80 m2 and thickness 2.0 cm = 0.020 m. From Eq. (2.7),
 
TH − TC 30°C − 0°C
H = kA = (0.027 W/m · K)(0.80 m )2
L 0.020 m
= 32.4 W

Example 2.8
A steel bar 10.0 cm long is welded end to end to a copper bar 20.0 cm long. Each
bar has a square cross section 2.00 cm on a side. The free end of the steel bar is kept
at 100°C by placing it in contact with steam, and the free end of the copper bar is
kept at 0°C by placing it in contact with ice. Both bars are perfectly insulated on
their sides. Find the steady-state temperature at the junction of the two bars and
the total rate of heat flow through the bars.
(Take the thermal conductivities of steel and copper as 50.2W/m·K and 385W/m·K
respectively.)

Solution:
Fig.2.4 shows the situation. The heat currents in these end-to-end bars must be the
same.

Figure 2.4: Our sketch for this problem

For the steel bar we have,

TH − T
HS = kS A
LS
and for the copper bar we have,
T − TC
HCu = kCu A
LCu
Setting HS = HCu and solving for T gives
kS kCu
T
LS H
+ T
LCu C
T = kS kCu
LS
+ LCu

29
Substituting the given values of TH , TC , kS , kCu , LS = 10.0 cm and LCu = 20.0 cm,
we find T = 20.7°C.
We can find the total heat current by substituting this value of T into either the
expression for HS or the one for HCu :
 
100°C − 20.7°C
HS = (50.2 W/m · K)(0.0200 m) 2
0.100 m
= 15.9 W
 
20.7°C
HCu = (385 W/m · K)(0.0200 m) 2
= 15.9 W
0.200 m
Even though the steel bar is shorter, the temperature drop across it is much
greater (from 100°C to 20.7°C) than across the copper bar (from 20.7°C to 0°C).
That is because steel is a much poorer conductor than copper.

2.4.2 Convection
Another process of heat transfer is convection. Liquids and gases are generally poor
conductors. Heat is however transferred in them by convection. Convection involves
the transfer of heat by the actual movement of the heated molecules from the hot
parts to the cooler parts of the fluid.
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred through a fluid by the
means of bulk movement of the heated fluid from the hotter to the colder parts.
For example, when water (or fluid) is heated in a pot or container, the water
(or fluid) at the bottom of the pot expands. The fluid is now less dense than the
surrounding fluid, and therefore starts to rise. This causes the cooler, denser regions
of the fluid in the upper part to descend. Movement of the fluid (i.e., water or air)
due to difference in density sets up convection currents. Convection currents occur
in fluids (i.e., liquids or gases), but not in solids. This is because convection involves
the bulk movement of the fluids, which carry the heat with them. In solids, the
heat is transferred from one molecule to another without any flow of the molecules
themselves.
Convective heat transfer is a very complex process, and there is no simple equa-
tion to describe it.

2.4.3 Radiation
Radiation is the third process of heat transfer. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiation does not require a medium for heat transfer – it can take place in a vacuum.

30
For example, heat from the Sun reaches the Earth by the process of radiation.
Conduction or convection is not possible because of the vacuum between the Sun
and the Earth. The Sun emits electromagnetic (EM) waves of different frequencies
and wavelengths but with the same speed in vacuum. Light is only a part of the EM
waves. The part of the spectrum that makes us feel warm is the infra-red waves (or
infra-red radiation). Heat due to the infra-red waves is called radiant heat. Besides
the Sun, hot objects like a hot iron also emit radiant heat. The hotter the object,
the greater the amount of radiant heat emitted. Infra-red radiation is absorbed by
all objects and surfaces. This absorption causes a temperature rise.
Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred from a hotter to cooler
place without heating of the intervening medium.
The rate of energy radiation from a surface is proportional to the surface area
A and to the fourth power of the absolute (Kelvin) temperature T . The rate also
depends on the nature of the surface; we describe this dependence by a quantity e
called emissivity. It is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 defined as the ratio
of the rate of radiation from a particular surface to the rate of radiation from an
equal area of an ideal radiating surface at the same temperature. The heat current
H = dQ/dt due to radiation from a surface is

H = AeσT 4 (2.11)

This relationship is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law in honour of its late 19th-
century discoverers. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ is a fundamental con-
stant; to nine significant figures, its numerical value is

σ = 5.67037442 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4

Example 2.9
A thin, square steel plate, 10cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith’s forge to 800°C.
If the emissivity is 0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of energy from the plate?
Solution:
The total surface area is 2(0.10 m)2 = 0.020 m2 , and T = 800°C = 1073 K. Then
Eq. (2.11) gives

H = AeσT 4
= (0.020 m2 )(0.60)(5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4 )(1073 K)4 = 900 W

31
Radiation and Absorption

While an object at absolute temperature T is radiating, its surroundings at tem-

perature Ts are also radiating, and the object absorbs some of this radiation. If
it is thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, T = Ts and the rates of radiation
and absorption must be equal. For this to be true, the rate of absorption must be
given in general by H = AeσTs4 . Then the net rate of radiation from an object at
temperature T with surroundings at temperature Ts is

Hnet = Aeσ(T 4 − Ts4 ) (2.12)

In Eq. (2.12) a positive value of H means a net flow out of the object. This will be
the case if T > Ts .

Example 2.10
What is the total rate of radiation of energy from a human body with surface
area 1.20 m2 and surface temperature 30°C = 303 K If the surroundings are at a
temperature of 20°C, what is the net rate of radiative heat loss from the body? The
emissivity of the human body is very close to unity, irrespective of skin pigmentation.
Solution:
Taking e = 1 in Eq. (2.12), we find that the net rate of radiative energy transfer is

Hnet = Aσ(T 4 − Ts4 )

= (1.20 m2 )(5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 · K4 ) (303 K)4 − (293 K)4
 

= 72 W

The value of Hnet is positive because the body is losing heat to its colder surround-
ings.

32
 REFERENCES

1. Principles of Physics by M. Nelkon

2. New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by M. W. Anyakoha, Ph.D

3. New System Physics for Senior Secondary Schools by Dr. Charles Chew, et al.

4. Sears & Zemansky’s University Physics by Young and Freedman

5. Fundamentals of Physics by Halliday, Resnick and Walker

33